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Humanistic Anthropology

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  1. Introduction
  2. Humanistic anthropology as a declared focus dates to the 1970s and particularly to the formation of the Society for Humanistic Anthropology (SHA) within the American Anthropological Association in 1974–1975, but its roots go back much further, and there are numerous earlier practitioners who can be recognized as working in the humanist tradition. Anthropology was not alone in marking this distinction: The Association for Humanist Sociology began in 1976, and the Association for Humanistic Psychology in 1972. Each of these in its own way was responding to feelings that the larger disciplinary organizations were sacrificing their humanist components on the altar of a scientism seen as overly narrowing. This quite explicitly was not an antiscience or anti-intellectual move but one seeking to maintain a holistic balance that included space for a wider range of research and presentation strategies. While most scholars who wrote as humanistic anthropologists specifically rejected an antiscience perspective, there were those who rejected these more humanistic trends as overly interpretive, subjective, and unscientific. This debate continues in the discipline today, along with differing emphases on genre and content (e.g., balancing creative and analytical approaches in writing and film and whether and how to include products beyond the conventional academic genres such as musical or artistic expression). Although individuals differ in their focuses and emphases, in general, humanistic anthropology focuses on values and meanings in a holistic vision of humanity and its contexts. It is willing to draw on the creative humanities not only as data but as inspiration and genres for anthropological production, but it also demands the rigor of the sciences of humanity. It values work that bridges disciplinary splinterings to bring out the various processes of living as humans in the world, explicitly including the activities of anthropologists. It recognizes that human reality is a relational and processual thing-in-flux in which we creative primates actively participate and that our work has consequences in the world. It thus includes the potential to change social and physical environments through improved understandings of the diversely multicultural and polyvalent nature of our world. Trademarks of humanistic anthropology include emphases on writing and the creative use of language, with concern for the relevance of the discipline for the broader human world.
  3. General Overviews
  4. Because the foundation of humanistic anthropology as a named focus occurred both at the same time and in dialog with similar moves in other social sciences, and because there are relatively few published reflections or overviews, it is useful to also consider some of the cognates. Wilk 1991 andAnthropology and Humanism 1994 provide two overviews specifically within humanistic anthropology from a perspective well beyond its origins; Lee 1977 offers a more prospective vision from the founding period and is particularly interesting in comparison with Johnson 1989. Glass and Staude 1972 frames the parallel development of a named “humanistic sociology,” and Znaniecki 1969collects earlier works that were influential in both disciplines.
  5. Anthropology and Humanism 19.1 (1994).
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  7. Special issue dedicated to “the place of humanism in anthropology today, liberally defined” (p. 3).
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  9. Glass, John F., and John R. Staude, eds. 1972. Humanistic society: Today’s challenge to sociology. Pacific Palisades, CA: Goodyear.
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  11. This collection highlights the sociohistorical context in which humanistic sociology, like humanistic anthropology, became a stated focus in the discipline.
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  13. Johnson, Norris Brock. 1989. Anthropology and the humanities: A reconsideration.Anthropology and Humanism Quarterly 14.3: 82–89.
  14. DOI: 10.1525/anhu.1989.14.3.82Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  15. Discusses disciplinary, expressive, and developmental aspects of the humanities and anthropology’s relationships to them. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
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  17. Lee, Alfred McClung. 1977. Humanism as demystification. Anthropology and Humanism Quarterly 2.1: 5–13.
  18. DOI: 10.1525/ahu.1977.2.1.5Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  19. Discusses five related strands of humanism and their relevance for anthropology. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
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  21. Wilk, Stan. 1991. Humanistic anthropology. Knoxville: Univ. of Tennessee Press.
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  23. One of the founders of the SHA argues for anthropology as a “scientific humanism.”
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  25. Znaniecki, Florian. 1969. On humanistic sociology: Selected papers. Edited by Robert Bierstedt. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
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  27. Collects the critical works of one of the forefathers of humanistic social science in the 20th century, developed in sociology but equally relevant to anthropology.
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  29. Foundational Works
  30. For many, Miles Richardson’s (Richardson 1975) take on the anthropologist as “myth teller” amounts to a birth-cry for the discipline, elegantly laying out much of the ground that became humanistic anthropology. The key influences for the foundation of the SHA, and humanistic anthropology as a specific focus in the discipline, were the social and political upheavals of the 1960s and early 1970s on the one hand and, on the other hand, disciplinary developments such as the work of Clifford Geertz, Dell Hymes, and Victor Turner (see Geertz 1973 and Hymes 1972, both cited underInterpretive Turn and Reinventing Anthropology, and Turner 1967 and Turner and Bruner 1986, both cited under Performance and Language) that encouraged thick, engaged, meaningful description and analysis. The first volume of Anthropology and Humanism Quarterly included a number of pieces that explored this ground and encouraged anthropologists to think about the discipline in creative ways (e.g., Fratto, et al. 1976; Grindal 1976; Johnson 1976; Richardson 1976; Rubanowice 1976; Skafte 1976). Flynn 1977 provides a comparative reflection from humanistic sociology.
  31. Flynn, Charles. 1977. Orientations of humanistic sociology. Anthropology and Humanism Quarterly 2.4: 9–11.
  32. DOI: 10.1525/ahu.1977.2.4.9Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  33. Perspectives from sociology, for comparison near the founding of the SHA, emphasizing the need for empathic understandings. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
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  35. Fratto, Toni Flores, Bruce T. Grindal, and Jon Wagner. 1976. Toward an anthropological humanism. Anthropology and Humanism Quarterly 1.1: 1–5.
  36. DOI: 10.1525/ahu.1976.1.1.1Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  37. Three founders of the SHA offer perspectives—of focus, historical context, and disciplinary orientation—for why the specific focus needed to be defined and provided with an organizational base. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
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  39. Grindal, Bruce T. 1976. The idea of synergy and its bearing on an anthropological humanism.Anthropology and Humanism Quarterly 1.3: 4–6.
  40. DOI: 10.1525/ahu.1976.1.3.4Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  41. Building on Sapir’s (1924) “Culture, Genuine and Spurious” (The American Journal of Sociology29.4) argues the importance of synergistic consideration of culture and the human organism. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
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  43. Johnson, Norris Brock. 1976. Notes toward the development of a humanistic anthropology.Anthropology and Humanism Quarterly 1.2: 4–6.
  44. DOI: 10.1525/ahu.1976.1.2.4Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  45. Argues that humanistic anthropology is necessarily “heretical” (p. 4), the product of “an ethnographic artist.” Available online for purchase or by subscription.
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  47. Richardson, Miles. 1975. Anthropologist—The myth teller. American Ethnologist 2.3: 517–533.
  48. DOI: 10.1525/ae.1975.2.3.02a00100Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  49. An early reflection on the changing role of the ethnographer and the relationships between anthropology and the peoples being studied. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
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  51. Richardson, Miles. 1976. Culture and the struggle to be human. Anthropology and Humanism Quarterly 1.3: 2–4.
  52. DOI: 10.1525/ahu.1976.1.3.2Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  53. Argues for a definition of culture as “creative rather than customary, liberating rather than coercive” (p. 2) as being at the core of humanistic anthropology. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
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  55. Rubanowice, Robert J. 1976. Are humanistic anthropologists myopic? Anthropology and Humanism Quarterly 1.3: 7–9.
  56. DOI: 10.1525/ahu.1976.1.3.7Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  57. Exploring the nature and history of “science,” Rubanowice pleads that humanistic anthropology not reject science but build on its strengths and variety. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
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  59. Skafte, Peter. 1976. Humanism in anthropology: Mapping the territory. Anthropology and Humanism Quarterly 1.2: 6–8.
  60. DOI: 10.1525/ahu.1976.1.2.6Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  61. Explores what is meant by “humanistic” in humanistic anthropology through four themes: relationship to the traditional humanities, holistic orientation, countering ethnocentrism, and reflexivity. Availableonline for purchase or by subscription.
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  63. Institutional Sources
  64. The principal organizational home for humanistic anthropology is the Society for Humanistic Anthropology, a section of the American Anthropological Association (AAA), and its journalAnthropology and Humanism (formerly Anthropology and Humanism Quarterly). The society was founded in 1974, and the journal began in 1976. In addition to publishing the journal, the society organizes events for the annual meeting of the AAA including workshops and readings, and presents awards for ethnographic poetry and fiction, student papers, and the Victor Turner Prize for Ethnographic Writing.
  65. Anthropology and Humanism. 1976–.
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  67. The web page for the journal offers links to information for readers and prospective authors. Formerly Anthropology and Humanism Quarterly.
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  69. Society for Humanistic Anthropology.
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  71. The official website of the Society for Humanistic Anthropology. Also useful is the SHA Facebook page.
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  73. Cognate Institutions
  74. Sociology and psychology developed specifically humanist institutions around the same time as anthropology, in the 1960s and 1970s. These were spurred by a variety of factors, including reactions against positivism, a desire to explicitly work toward improving the world, and efforts to recognize creativity and interpretation in human studies. These factors are variously weighted by different individuals and institutions; psychology in particular has seen this play out through debates and schisms. The Association for Humanist Sociology (AHS) sponsors an annual meeting, book prizes, and a newsletter. The Society for Humanistic Psychology is a section of the American Psychological Association and publishes a newsletter and the journal The Humanistic Psychologist. The Association for Humanistic Psychology (AHP) is an independent organization that defines itself around a set of humanist values. The International Humanistic Psychology Association (IHPA) is another separate organization, which explicitly promotes international interactions.
  75. Association for Humanist Sociology.
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  77. The official website of the AHS, with information on the society and its activities, including a journal, a newsletter, and book awards.
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  79. Association for Humanistic Psychology.
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  81. The official website of the AHP includes information on the society and its publications along with resources that include a searchable collection of articles, book recommendations, and a membership directory.
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  83. International Humanistic Psychology Association.
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  85. The official website of the IHPA has general information on the organization.
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  87. Society for Humanistic Psychology.
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  89. A division of the American Psychological Association, the SHP website includes a blog and tweets along with general information. See also the society’s blog.
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  91. Historical Development
  92. The history of humanistic anthropology has never been written; indeed, as an orientation within the discipline it would be difficult to do so as a separate study. Humanism has deep roots in Western philosophy, while the discipline of anthropology, as such, is a relatively recent phenomenon—although with precursors of much greater antiquity. Other disciplines seeking human understanding also have humanist strands, and these were woven into anthropology in important ways at several points in history. The discipline of anthropology itself has featured a variety of approaches, some more actively connected with humanist interests than others. These contexts are essential to understand humanistic anthropology as it came to be known in the later 20th century.
  93. History and Predecessors
  94. Although anthropology as a discipline only developed in the 19th and 20th centuries, humanistic concerns dating to Greek philosophy and developed in the 18th century constitute its historical core. The roots of humanistic anthropology can be traced back through Rousseau 1971, which argued for the importance of studying human diversity in order to better understand ourselves, to classical antecedents. Following Helms 1988, one might even argue for its universality through much of human history, as an odyssey of knowledge. Much of the early tradition is more descriptive than analytical, but interest in humanist themes and connections with literary traditions nevertheless can be seen. Hodgen 1964 is an excellent introduction to and survey of the early history of anthropology, including its humanist roots. Harkin 2011 presents early artistic depictions of Native Americans, as explorers sought to understand Others, and Karttunen 1994 considers how those Others responded.Frazer 1993 (originally published in 1890) sought to understand through classification the world’s religions. Helms 1988 and Lyons 2007 consider early anthropological exemplars, while Skafte 1979seeks roots in Kantian philosophy.
  95. Frazer, James G. 1993. The golden bough: The roots of religion and folklore. New York: Gramercy.
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  97. Originally published in 1890. Pioneering survey of religious and related practices around the world, primarily descriptive and classificatory.
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  99. Harkin, Michael E. 2011. John White and the invention of anthropology: Landscape, ethnography, and situating the Other in Roanoke. Histories of Anthropology Annual 7:216–245.
  100. DOI: 10.1353/haa.2011.0008Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  101. Explores the depictions of Others—North Carolina Natives and Picts—by the first English governor in the New World. Available online by subscription.
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  103. Helms, Mary W. 1988. Ulysses’ sail: An ethnographic odyssey of power, knowledge, and geographical distance. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
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  105. Surveys the roles of “culture specialists” and travelers in human history.
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  107. Hodgen, Margaret T. 1964. Early anthropology in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press.
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  109. Despite the title, begins with the classics and surveys the medieval period before covering the premodern era.
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  111. Karttunen, Frances. 1994. Between worlds: Interpreters, guides, and survivors. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers Univ. Press.
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  113. Presents the stories of sixteen indigenous people who worked with missionaries, explorers, soldiers, and anthropologists as intermediaries from the 16th through the 20th centuries.
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  115. Lyons, Andrew. 2007. Missing ancestors and missing narratives. Histories of Anthropology Annual 3:148–166.
  116. DOI: 10.1353/haa.0.0035Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  117. Explores the anthropological position of Sir Richard Burton. Available online by subscription.
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  119. Rousseau, Jean Jacques. 1971. A discourse upon the origin and the foundation of the inequality among mankind. New York: Franklin.
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  121. Originally published in 1755. A foundational text for humanistic social studies. Available online from the University of Virginia Library.
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  123. Skafte, Peter. 1979. Kant’s legacy to humanistic anthropology. Anthropology and Humanism Quarterly 4.1: 17–27.
  124. DOI: 10.1525/ahu.1979.4.1.17Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  125. Explores Kant’s relevance to humanistic anthropology, particularly through his notions of pragmatic inquiry and human freedom. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
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  127. Foundations in Early Anthropology
  128. A humanistic focus dominated as anthropology came into existence as a discipline from Jefferson’s early mound excavations in Virginia and later Americanist investigations of the “mound builders” (Silverberg 1968) through studies of religion such as Durkheim 1995, where interests in human nature and origins underlie the attempt to bring scientific principles to the study of religion. More generalized foundational works in anthropology such as Morgan 1998 and Tylor 2004 (originally published in 1881) also have a humanist focus on understanding diverse human values and practices, although perhaps more often recalled for their employment of scientific theory, particularly evolutionary frameworks. Interestingly, Morgan’s most purely humanist work may be his early book on the beaver (Morgan 1970), which seeks to extend human understanding to the social world of that species. Fluehr-Lobban 2007 discusses the Haitian politician and social scientist Anténor Firmín, but perhaps the most salient example of early humanist anthropology is Frank Hamilton Cushing, who developed individual relationships of rapport in his fieldwork and pioneered interpretive—at times even visionary or imaginative—analysis, sometimes with problematic consequences (Gleach 2007, Mark 1980).
  129. Durkheim, Émile. 1995. The elementary forms of religious life. Translated by Karen E. Fields. New York: Free Press.
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  131. Originally published in 1912. This edition features an excellent retranslation and extensive annotations of this foundational work for sociology and anthropology.
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  133. Fluehr-Lobban, Carolyn. 2007. Anténor Firmin, nineteenth-century pioneering anthropologist: His influence on anthropology in North America and the Caribbean. Histories of Anthropology Annual 3:167–183.
  134. DOI: 10.1353/haa.0.0025Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  135. Outlines the anthropological contributions of Haitian scholar-politician Firmin, particularly in race theory. Available online by subscription.
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  137. Gleach, Frederic W. 2007. Cushing at Cornell: The early years of a pioneering anthropologist.Histories of Anthropology Annual 3:99–120.
  138. DOI: 10.1353/haa.0.0033Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  139. A biographical exploration of some of the origins of Frank Hamilton Cushing’s humanistic tendencies. Available online by subscription.
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  141. Mark, Joan. 1980. Frank Hamilton Cushing (1857–1900). In 4 anthropologists: An American science in its early years. By Joan Mark, 96–130. New York: Science History.
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  143. Overview of Cushing’s life and career.
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  145. Morgan, Lewis Henry. 1998. Ancient society, or researches in the lines of human progress from savagery through barbarism to civilization. London: Routledge.
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  147. One of the American founders of anthropology whose thinking was influenced by Iroquoian people he met living and growing up in central New York as well as by the developing science of evolution.
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  149. Morgan, Lewis Henry. 1970. The American beaver and his works. New York: Burt Franklin.
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  151. Originally published in 1867. An exploration of social life, extended to the natural realm.
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  153. Silverberg, Robert. 1968. Mound builders of ancient America: The archaeology of a myth. Greenwich, CT: New York Graphic Society.
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  155. Presents the 18th- and 19th-century history of investigations of North American mounds and their builders.
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  157. Tylor, Edward B. 2004. Anthropology: An introduction to the study of man and civilization. New Delhi: Cosmo.
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  159. With Morgan’s Ancient Society, this is one of the foundational works in anthropology, taking a holistic view of humanity while developing scientific frameworks for understanding our diversity. Originally published in 1881 (New York: Appleton).
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  161. The Boasian Tradition
  162. In the United States, anthropology of the first half of the 20th century was dominated by Franz Boas and his students. Although most of these individuals worked in the United States, the period and their work were marked by ongoing curiosity and far-ranging comparative reading and correspondence, both internationally and interdisciplinarily. The diversity of Boas’s students was remarkable, and some were more deeply embedded in humanist concerns than others, but this extended cohort that dominated the discipline through the middle third of the century included several individuals who produced work that can be seen today as exemplifying humanistic anthropology. Benedict 1934 is perhaps the classic Boasian example of deploying science in the cause of humanist concerns, whereas Radin 1927 represents a more purely humanist approach.Mithun 1977 explores humanistic dimensions in the work of the most famous of Boas’s students, Margaret Mead. Landes 1971 evidences an early focus on gender. Kluckhohn and Leighton 1974and Hallowell 1955 examine Native American cultures as they contend with cultural change, andGershenhorn 2004 examines the work and public action of Melville Herskovits on Africa and African Americans.
  163. Benedict, Ruth. 1934. Patterns of culture. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
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  165. This classic example of Boasian anthropology seeks to develop a scientific classification of cultures, in the service of improving human understanding and acceptance of cultural diversity.
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  167. Gershenhorn, Jerry. 2004. Melville J. Herskovits and the racial politics of knowledge. Lincoln: Univ. of Nebraska Press.
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  169. Explores Herskovtos’s scholarship and public policy work on race, particularly Africanness, and how historical practices shaped contemporary realities.
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  171. Hallowell, A. Irving. 1955. Culture and experience. Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press.
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  173. Hallowell was an indirect Boasian, as a student of Frank Speck, and someone whose work consistently bridged more scientific and humanist approaches and concerns. This volume collects a series of papers on cultural change and personality.
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  175. Kluckhohn, Clyde, and Dorothea Leighton. 1974. The Navajo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
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  177. Part of a larger project covering five tribes, this volume sought to represent Navajo life in its human dimensions, with the central theme of how development might take place without “disrupting the whole fabric of human life” (p. xvi). Originally published in 1946 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press).
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  179. Landes, Ruth. 1971. The Ojibwa woman. New York: Norton.
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  181. Although marginalized in her career, Landes was one of the best Boasians on gender.
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  183. Mithun, Jacqueline. 1977. Margaret Mead and humanist anthropology. Anthropology and Humanism Quarterly 2.1: 17–19.
  184. DOI: 10.1525/ahu.1977.2.1.17Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  185. Discusses Mead as bridging science and humanism, particularly through her political orientations. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
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  187. Radin, Paul. 1927. Primitive man as philosopher. New York: Appleton.
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  189. Perhaps the most deeply humanist of the mainstream Boasians, Radin here uses ethnographic examples, poems, aphorisms, and effective writing to argue that “primitive man” is our equal (at least) in thinking about the world around us.
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  191. Anthropology and Modern Life
  192. Margaret Mead was for many years the principal public face of anthropology, through newspaper, magazine, and later television contributions, but the idea of an engaged anthropology was much more widely shared. The Boasians—beginning with Franz Boas himself—often sought to make anthropological understandings relevant and useful to mainstream Western society; Boas 1962(originally published in 1928), Lowie 1929, Kluckhohn 1949, and Henry 1963 exemplify such extensions of anthropological considerations to “moderns.” Race and cultural diversity were recurrent focuses, reflecting the American audience that these individuals saw as a key constituency, but more generalized issues of development and modernization, culture, and the nature of civilization were also targeted. Mead 1956 focuses on post–World War II development in Manus.Stassinos 2006 explores the allegories of war and racial xenophobia in Benedict and Weltfish 1948.Miner 1956 is a mock analysis of morning ritual, humorously questioning anthropological representations by turning the gaze onto a generalized American subject.
  193. Benedict, Ruth, and Gene Weltfish. 1948. In Henry’s backyard: The races of mankind. New York: Henry Schuman.
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  195. A children’s book challenging xenophobia.
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  197. Boas, Franz. 1962. Anthropology and modern life. New York: Norton.
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  199. Originally published in 1928. Here Boas develops the relevance of anthropological understandings, particularly of race, culture, and nationalism, for the general public.
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  201. Henry, Jules. 1963. Culture against man. New York: Random House.
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  203. Examines American culture and values, with a particular focus on how some of those values are contrary to the common good.
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  205. Kluckhohn, Clyde. 1949. Mirror for man: The relation of anthropology to modern life. New York: Whittlesey House.
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  207. Kluckhohn’s contribution to the Boasian effort to improve cultural understanding for general audiences.
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  209. Lowie, Robert H. 1929. Are we civilized? Human culture in perspective. New York: Harcourt, Brace.
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  211. This “entertaining and anecdotal book” (in the words of the dust jacket) sought to broaden popular conceptions of humanity through understanding diversity.
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  213. Mead, Margaret. 1956. New lives for old: Cultural transformation—Manus, 1928–1953. New York: William Morrow.
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  215. For decades the main public face of anthropology, here Mead documents the changes brought on in Manus by development following the Second World War.
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  217. Miner, Horace. 1956. Body ritual among the Nacirema. American Anthropologist 58.3: 503–507.
  218. DOI: 10.1525/aa.1956.58.3.02a00080Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  219. A humorous presentation on morning ablutions, to encourage reflection on how anthropologists represent the unfamiliar.
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  221. Stassinos, Elizabeth. 2006. Culture and personality In Henry’s backyard: Boasian war allegories in children’s science writ large stories. Histories of Anthropology Annual 2:273–283.
  222. DOI: 10.1353/haa.0.0022Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  223. Analyzes Benedict and Weltfish’s children’s book as an effort to reach the American public with anthropological understandings. Available online by subscription.
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  225. Disciplinary Crossings
  226. Although the Americanist focus on “culture”—behavior, beliefs, and values shared and learned by individuals within societies—and the “four fields” approach in American anthropology made that a major center for humanistic strands in anthropology, the humanist core remained in many if not most international traditions through focuses on individuals and freedom, cultures as moral systems, and issues of development in a globalizing world. Interdisciplinarity was a hallmark of humanism; sociology and psychology were particularly widely read and employed by anthropologists, but moral philosophy and progressivist politics were also key components. Dewey 1934 represents an approach from philosophy of art and Mead 1934 from social psychology and philosophy. Marrett 1932 was an influential work in moral philosophy. Redfield 1955 is a sociologically informed anthropology and Bidney 1953 a more moralistic philosophical iteration. Gleach 2009 explores political progressivism in sociology in a context of undergraduate training. Bateson 1972 reflects a scholarly collection of work that is perhaps sui generis but greatly influential across many disciplinary lines.
  227. Bateson, Gregory. 1972. Steps to an ecology of mind: Collected essays in anthropology, psychiatry, evolution, and epistemology. San Francisco: Chandler.
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  229. Virtually a collection of Bateson’s life’s work, boldly if not maddeningly broad in its reach, a brilliant attempt to capture the relationships of mind, self, society, and world.
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  231. Bidney, David. 1953. Theoretical anthropology. New York: Columbia Univ. Press.
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  233. Anthropology as moral philosophy, prioritizing a search for universal human values over a relativistic approach.
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  235. Dewey, John. 1934. Art as experience. New York: Minton, Balch.
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  237. Philosophical explorations of art and life.
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  239. Gleach, Frederic W. 2009. Sociology, progressivism, and the undergraduate training of anthropologists at the University of Wisconsin, 1925–30. Histories of Anthropology Annual5:229–250.
  240. DOI: 10.1353/haa.0.0055Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  241. Examines the relationships between anthropology and sociology through the undergraduate careers of John Gillin, Clyde Kluckhohn, Ad Hoebel, Lauriston Sharp, Sol Tax, and Philleo Nash. Availableonline by subscription.
  242. Find this resource:
  243. Marrett, R. R. 1932. Faith, hope and charity in primitive religion. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  244. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  245. The moral philosophy of Marrett was influential to Evans-Pritchard in seeing societies as moral systems.
  246. Find this resource:
  247. Mead, George H. 1934. Mind, self and society, from the standpoint of a social behaviorist. Edited by Charles W. Morris. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
  248. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  249. Philosophical explorations of the nature of the individual and social relationships.
  250. Find this resource:
  251. Redfield, Robert. 1955. The little community: Viewpoints for the study of a human whole. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
  252. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  253. Trained in a more sociological anthropology at the University of Chicago, Redfield takes a series of distinct viewpoints to examine “the little community” in its different dimensions.
  254. Find this resource:
  255. The Interpretive Turn and Reinventing Anthropology
  256. Responding in part to a growth of scientistic approaches in the post–World War II era as well as to social movements including decolonialism, civil rights, and the antiwar movement in the 1960s and 1970s many anthropologists turned back to approaches that emphasized human values over structures and models, a move widely known as “the interpretive turn” after Geertz 1973 (Welte 1986offers an avowedly humanistic critique of Geertz). Hymes 1972 offers a variety of perspectives for rethinking the discipline in light of the social context, with Scholte 1978 as a useful follow-up; Sahlins 1968 comments on traditional understandings of hunters and gatherers in ways that led to widespread rethinking. The later writing culture movement, the “reflexive turn” of the 1980s–1990s, and feminist and other moves to “rethink” and “reinvent” anthropology also have roots in that social milieu. Ruby 1982 is an influential collection on reflexivity and Olson and Hirsh 1995 another on feminist perspectives. Humanistic anthropology is a strand that weaves through but is distinct from all of these movements, also having received a boost from the social movements of the period.
  257. Geertz, Clifford. 1973. The interpretation of cultures. New York: Basic Books.
  258. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  259. Collects a series of essays from the previous decade with the newly written “Thick Description: Toward an Interpretive Theory of Culture” in what became a foundation for rethinking anthropology.
  260. Find this resource:
  261. Hymes, Dell, ed. 1972. Reinventing anthropology. New York: Pantheon.
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  263. Collecting a variety of perspectives on the discipline and generally calling for a politically aware, personally involved anthropology committed to improving the human condition, this remains a provocative work.
  264. Find this resource:
  265. Olson, Gary A., and Elisabeth Hirsh, eds. 1995. Women writing culture. Albany: State Univ. of New York Press.
  266. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  267. A series of conversations with prominent female scholars around feminist interpretations of culture and multiculturalism.
  268. Find this resource:
  269. Ruby, Jay, ed. 1982. A crack in the mirror: Reflexive perspectives in anthropology. Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press.
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  271. Foundational collection turning the anthropological gaze back upon the discipline and its practitioners; particularly notable for its inclusion of visual media and focus on lived experience.
  272. Find this resource:
  273. Sahlins, Marshall. 1968. Notes on the original affluent society: [And discussion] Does hunting bring happiness? In Man the hunter. Edited by Richard B. Lee and Irven DeVore, 85–92. Chicago: Aldine.
  274. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  275. These comments from a conference on hunters and gatherers began the argument (developed in Sahlins’ Stone Age Economics [Chicago: Aldine, 1972]) that hunter-gatherer life was not always simply “nasty, brutish and short” (p. 89), as Hobbes put it.
  276. Find this resource:
  277. Scholte, Bob. 1978. Critical anthropology since its reinvention: On the convergence between the concept of paradigm, the rationality of debate and critical anthropology. Anthropology and Humanism Quarterly 3.1–2: 4–17.
  278. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  279. Argues for a critical (humanist) anthropology as a solution to the “crisis of anthropology” (p. 4). Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Welte, Cecil R. 1986. The human context of the interpretation of cultures. Anthropology and Humanism Quarterly 11.3: 56–61.
  282. DOI: 10.1525/ahu.1986.11.3.56Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  283. Argues against Geertz’s “anti anti-relativism” for a sense of a common humanity as a basis for a humanistic anthropology. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  284. Find this resource:
  285. Performance and Language
  286. While language and performance (typically ritual) had always been a part of anthropology, in the 1960s each received new focus that sought to reintegrate them into a more holistic vision of practice, meaning, and context. Turner 1967 on ritual draws together both symbolic meaning and performance/theatricality through ethnographic examination of ritual; the author went on to develop “experience” as an anthropological category, exemplified by the contributions in Turner and Bruner 1986. Firth 1973 explores symbols in human society, and Myerhoff 1974 provides an extended study of ritual experience among the Huichol. The development of “the ethnography of communication” (Gumperz and Hymes 1964) brought language into its social and performative contexts, and an indigenized perspective on language and the construction of a lived landscape is offered in Basso 1996. Ridington 1990 also explores knowledge, experience, and narrativity in a Native (Canadian) setting. The contributors in Fernandez 1986 develop the poetic categories of tropes and metaphors as anthropological tools. Together these developing approaches of performance, experience, and language contributed significantly to the recognition and establishment of humanistic anthropology as a distinct approach.
  287. Basso, Keith H. 1996. Wisdom sits in places: Landscape and language among the Western Apache. Albuquerque: Univ. of New Mexico Press.
  288. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  289. Uses the Apache language of landscape to understand how they construct and understand their world.
  290. Find this resource:
  291. Fernandez, James W., ed. 1986. Persuasion and performances: The play of tropes in culture. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press.
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  293. Deploys the poetic categories of metaphors and other tropes in ethnographic contexts, exploring their cultural creation and their utility in understanding cultural practice.
  294. Find this resource:
  295. Firth, Raymond. 1973. Symbols: Public and private. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press.
  296. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  297. Exploring the relationships between the individual and society as expressed through symbolic practice in realms including food and hairstyles, this was one of the inaugural works to take human use of symbols as a central focus in a humanistic anthropology.
  298. Find this resource:
  299. Gumperz, John J., and Dell Hymes. 1964. The ethnography of communication. Special Publication: Part 2. Edited by John J. Gumperz and Dell Hymes. American Anthropologist66.6.
  300. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  301. The “ethnography of communication” movement, initiated with the symposia that led to this publication, sought to reengage linguistics with its contexts of performance in human life.
  302. Find this resource:
  303. Myerhoff, Barbara G. 1974. Peyote Hunt: The sacred journey of the Huichol Indians. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press.
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  305. An ethnographic exploration of the individual and ritual experience; Myerhoff accomplished what Carlos Castañeda pretended to do in his much more widely read works.
  306. Find this resource:
  307. Ridington, Robin. 1990. Little bit know something: Stories in a language of anthropology. Iowa City: Univ. of Iowa Press.
  308. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  309. Drawing on over twenty-five years of fieldwork with the Dunne-za, Ridington presents a dialogic understanding that seeks to bridge the two worlds.
  310. Find this resource:
  311. Turner, Victor. 1967. The forest of symbols: Aspects of Ndembu ritual. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press.
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  313. This classic work on symbolism in ritual became the foundation for rethinking meaning and practice in human ritual contexts.
  314. Find this resource:
  315. Turner, Victor, and Edward M. Bruner, eds. 1986. The anthropology of experience. Urbana: Univ. of Illinois Press.
  316. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  317. This volume collects work by over a dozen scholars on experience, interpretation, and performance in relation to ethnographic ways of knowing.
  318. Find this resource:
  319. Ethnographic Narrativity
  320. While ethnographic fieldwork is often taken as the foundation of sociocultural anthropology, and there are Alternative Genres, the written ethnography is the form probably most readily encountered—not only by anthropologists but particularly by other audiences. Within the genre of the ethnography there is also considerable variability, from descriptive to interpretive to multisited comparisons; they may be more or less literary in feel, more or less logical in organization, attempting more or less subjective or objective accounts. Humanistic anthropology considers the diverse natures of the genre and celebrates in particular examples that evoke the human qualities of the situations being presented. For many, Clifford and Marcus 1986 stands as the primary source for thinking about ethnography as writing, but it had been a part of the humanistic project from the beginning. Gatewood 1984 and the contents of a 2007 issue of Anthropology and Humanism (e.g.,Behar 2007, Narayan 2007, Sharman 2007, and Turner 2007) exemplify approaches within humanistic anthropology. Handler and Segal 1984 seek narrative inspiration in the forms of Jane Austen, and Cruikshank 1998 considers Yukon Native storytelling practice, both in its own right and as inspiration for ethnographic forms.
  321. Behar, Ruth. 2007. Ethnography in a time of blurred genres. Anthropology and Humanism32.2: 145–155.
  322. DOI: 10.1525/ahu.2007.32.2.145Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  323. Suggests reading and writing ethnographies with the eye of a writer of fiction, for their artistic techniques as well as for content, for better understanding and relevance. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  324. Find this resource:
  325. Clifford, James, and George E. Marcus, eds. 1986. Writing culture: The poetics and politics of ethnography. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  326. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  327. Foundational collection on ethnography as text.
  328. Find this resource:
  329. Cruikshank, Julie. 1998. The social life of stories: Narrative and knowledge in the Yukon Territory. Lincoln: Univ. of Nebraska Press.
  330. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  331. The role of oral narrativity in the contemporary Yukon context and what anthropologists can learn to improve their own storytelling.
  332. Find this resource:
  333. Gatewood, John B. 1984. A short typology of ethnographic genres: Or ways to write about other peoples. Anthropology and Humanism Quarterly 9.4: 5–10.
  334. DOI: 10.1525/ahu.1984.9.4.5Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  335. Surveys a range of more literary ethnographic writings, from Sir Richard Burton to Jean Auel, as well as some classic ethnographies, to suggest a range of genres. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. Handler, Richard, and Daniel Segal. 1984. Narrating multiple realities: Some lessons from Jane Austen for ethnographers. Anthropology and Humanism Quarterly 9.4: 15–21.
  338. DOI: 10.1525/ahu.1984.9.4.15Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  339. Proposes taking Austen’s narrative techniques as a model to reconsider ethnographic narrative strategies of presenting alternative perspectives. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  340. Find this resource:
  341. Narayan, Kirin. 2007. Tools to shape texts: What creative nonfiction can offer ethnography.Anthropology and Humanism 32.2: 130–144.
  342. DOI: 10.1525/ahu.2007.32.2.130Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  343. Takes storytelling techniques of fiction, deployed in creative nonfiction, to reflect on practices of ethnographic writing. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  344. Find this resource:
  345. Sharman, Russell Leigh. 2007. Style matters: Ethnography as method and genre.Anthropology and Humanism 32.2: 117–129.
  346. DOI: 10.1525/ahu.2007.32.2.117Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  347. Drawing on experimental ethnography, takes narrative style as a tool to place experience at the center of ethnographic writing. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  348. Find this resource:
  349. Turner, Edith. 2007. Introduction to the art of ethnography. Anthropology and Humanism 32.2: 108–116.
  350. DOI: 10.1525/ahu.2007.32.2.108Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  351. Storytelling as a dialog between anthropologists and others. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  352. Find this resource:
  353. The Victor Turner Prize for Ethnographic Writing
  354. Instituted by the SHA shortly after the death of Victor Turner, each year the Victor Turner Prize recognizes outstanding book-length examples of ethnographic writing. Some years there are shared prizes, honorable mentions, or special awards for unusual works. The complete list can be found on the website of the SHA, and each year the winners are announced in Anthropology and Humanism(cited under Institutional Sources) with descriptive award statements. The works recognized with this award represent a broad cross-section of humanistic anthropological work, united by their recognition as outstanding examples of writing. The selection here is intended to represent the variety of these works recognized as exemplary ethnographic writing. Cohen 1998 is a narrative ethnography of mental health; Narayan 1989 focuses on folk narrative; and Heatherington 2010explores environmentalism. Gottlieb and Graham 1993 constructs a first-person, experiential narrative, whereas Grinker 2000 uses a biographical format to explore an anthropological life andRaffles 2010 takes a creative encyclopedic approach to consider insects as ethnographic subjects.Wilkie 2010 brings in archaeological data and methods along with more traditionally sociocultural approaches to consider fraternity life in the past.
  355. Cohen, Lawrence. 1998. No aging in India: Alzheimer’s, the bad family, and other modern things. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  356. DOI: 10.1525/california/9780520083967.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  357. Interweaves story and analysis to understand aging and mental decline in cross-cultural contexts; 1998 winner.
  358. Find this resource:
  359. Gottlieb, Alma, and Philip Graham. 1993. Parallel worlds: An anthropologist and a writer encounter Africa. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
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  361. This 1993 winner recounts through first-person narrative the experiences of an anthropologist and a fiction writer in villages in Cote d’Ivoire.
  362. Find this resource:
  363. Grinker, Roy R. 2000. In the arms of Africa: The life of Colin M. Turnbull. New York: St. Martin’s.
  364. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  365. This biography of the anthropologist Colin Turnbull received an Honorable Mention in 2001.
  366. Find this resource:
  367. Heatherington, Tracey. 2010. Wild Sardinia: Indigeneity and the global dreamtimes of environmentalism. Seattle: Univ. of Washington Press.
  368. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  369. Explores the cultural politics of environmentalism through ethnography of highland central Sardinia; 2010 winner.
  370. Find this resource:
  371. Narayan, Kirin. 1989. Storytellers, saints and scoundrels: Folk narrative in Hindu religious teaching. Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press.
  372. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  373. The winner of the first Victor Turner Prize in 1990, examines stories and storytelling as central forces in Hindu religious teaching.
  374. Find this resource:
  375. Raffles, Hugh. 2010. Insectopedia. New York: Pantheon.
  376. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  377. Recipient in 2010 of a Special Award for Extending Ethnographic Understanding—in this case, to the insect world.
  378. Find this resource:
  379. Wilkie, Laurie A. 2010. The lost boys of Zeta Psi: A historical archaeology of masculinity at a university fraternity. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
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  381. Recipient of an Honorable Mention in 2010, combines archaeology with archival and oral history research to examine fraternity life c. 1900.
  382. Find this resource:
  383. Fieldwork
  384. Most sociocultural anthropologists take ethnographic fieldwork as a necessary and fundamental part of both the discipline and their own work, although there have always been alternate sites for data collection (e.g., archival and archaeological research). The humanistic tradition has always prioritized the human relations at the core of fieldwork and encouraged reflection on the fieldworkers’ positionalities and experiences. The publication of Malinowski 1989 (originally published in 1967) provided provocative reading on the fieldwork experience, although Lévi-Strauss 1974 (in earlier editions) had begun such considerations. Rabinow 1977 spurred great reflexivity among anthropologists in thinking about how anthropological data and analyses are shaped by the fieldwork experience, but Magnarella 1986 focused on the experience of fieldwork itself as an anthropological exercise—the more humanistic position. Gottlieb and Graham 1999 focuses on reciprocity and Starr 1979 on the method of participant observation. Stoller 1997 and Gupta and Ferguson 1997 consider the effects of a globalizing world context on anthropological fieldwork.
  385. Gottlieb, Alma, and Philip Graham. 1999. Revising the text, revisioning the field: Reciprocity over the long term. Anthropology and Humanism 24.2: 117–128.
  386. DOI: 10.1525/ahu.1999.24.2.117Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  387. Reflections on the experience of returning to a field site years later. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  388. Find this resource:
  389. Gupta, Akhil, and James Ferguson, eds. 1997. Anthropological locations: Boundaries and grounds of a field science. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  390. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  391. Collection of essays exploring the nature of “the field” and its effects on the practice and practitioners of anthropology.
  392. Find this resource:
  393. Lévi-Strauss, Claude. 1974. Tristes tropiques. New York: Atheneum.
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  395. Originally published 1955 (in French); first English publication 1961 (abridged) as A World on the Wane. The account of Lévi-Strauss’s first fieldwork, widely read for its experiential qualities but also widely critiqued as overly literary—and a bad example to emulate.
  396. Find this resource:
  397. Magnarella, Paul J. 1986. Anthropological fieldwork, key informants, and human bonds.Anthropology and Humanism Quarterly 11.2: 33–37.
  398. DOI: 10.1525/ahu.1986.11.2.33Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  399. An experiential account of fieldwork in Turkey. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  400. Find this resource:
  401. Malinowski, Bronislaw. 1989. A diary in the strict sense of the term. Stanford, CA: Stanford Univ. Press.
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  403. Published posthumously (originally published in 1967) and never intended for publication, Malinowski’s diary presents a raw and at times unflattering view of his experience of fieldwork that helped usher in reflective consideration of the fieldwork experience.
  404. Find this resource:
  405. Rabinow, Paul. 1977. Reflections on fieldwork in Morocco. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
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  407. Generally recognized as the work that ignited reflexive anthropology, Rabinow provides an account that seeks to show how “objective data” (p. 4) and experience are interrelated.
  408. Find this resource:
  409. Starr, Jerold M. 1979. Reflections on participant observation and humanistic sociology.Humanity & Society 3.4: 286–313.
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  411. Takes the fieldwork method of participatory observation as bridging anthropology and sociology and explores ethical and political dimensions for the practice.
  412. Find this resource:
  413. Stoller, Paul. 1997. Globalizing method: The problems of doing ethnography in transnational spaces. Anthropology and Humanism 22.1: 81–94.
  414. DOI: 10.1525/ahu.1997.22.1.81Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  415. Taking West African street vendors in New York as an example, considers globalization and hybridity as anthropological subjects. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  416. Find this resource:
  417. Embodied Research
  418. As the process of doing fieldwork itself became a subject for research, the necessity of taking into consideration the qualities of the human person became increasingly apparent. This led to not only reflexivity toward the anthropological fieldworker but also to consideration of sensory and experiential dimensions of the human being that had often not been taken into account in earlier work. The contributors in Lewin and Leap 1996 consider the role of the ethnographer’s sexuality.Banks 2007 reflects on race in the discipline, and Wiener 1999 considers gender. Domínguez 1989considers other dimensions of difference, suggesting that it can be an asset as well as raise difficulties. In the second sense of embodied research, the contributors in Tedlock 1992 consider dreaming and dream interpretation, and Stoller 1989 and Stoller 1997 argue for greater attention to the senses and bodies in anthropology. Taussig 1993 considers the specific embodied practices of mimesis—culturally experienced copying, reproducing, reenacting, and reexperiencing—as ways to understand difference.
  419. Banks, David J. 2007. Minorities in American anthropology: A personal view. Histories of Anthropology Annual 3:222–246.
  420. DOI: 10.1353/haa.0.0028Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  421. Reflections on being an African American graduate student in anthropology at the University of Chicago in the second half of the 1960s. Available online by subscription.
  422. Find this resource:
  423. Domínguez, Virginia R. 1989. Different and difference. Anthropology and Humanism Quarterly14.1: 10–16.
  424. DOI: 10.1525/anhu.1989.14.1.10Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  425. Considers the role of the anthropologist’s identity, suggesting that there are other—academic and institutional—factors that may be of greater consequence than personal identity. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  426. Find this resource:
  427. Lewin, Ellen, and William L. Leap, eds. 1996. Out in the field: Reflections of lesbian and gay anthropologists. Urbana: Univ. of Illinois Press.
  428. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  429. Explores how anthropologists’ identities affect the fieldwork experience and its products.
  430. Find this resource:
  431. Stoller, Paul. 1989. The taste of ethnographic things: The senses in anthropology. Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press.
  432. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  433. Involving not only the sense of taste but others as well, Stoller argues that embodied, sensory experience is crucial to understanding and representing cultural realities.
  434. Find this resource:
  435. Stoller, Paul. 1997. Sensuous scholarship. Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press.
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  437. Here Stoller argues that the body is not a text to be read but rather is experienced through a variety of sensory practices and that ethnography is enriched when this complexity is recognized and brought in.
  438. Find this resource:
  439. Taussig, Michael. 1993. Mimesis and alterity: A particular history of the senses. New York: Routledge.
  440. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  441. Much of Taussig’s work draws on bodily experience, but here he focuses specifically on embodiment and mimesis as modes of understanding.
  442. Find this resource:
  443. Tedlock, Barbara, ed. 1992. Dreaming: Anthropological and psychological interpretations. Santa Fe, NM: School of American Research Press.
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  445. Originally published in 1987. Taking a variety of perspectives on dreams and their interpretations, the authors here seek to bring dreaming into anthropological practice.
  446. Find this resource:
  447. Wiener, Margaret. 1999. “Pay no attention to the man behind the curtain”: Irreverent notes on gender and ethnography. Anthropology and Humanism 24.2: 95–108.
  448. DOI: 10.1525/ahu.1999.24.2.95Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  449. Reflections on the gender of the “wizards” of anthropology and consequences for the study of gender in society. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  450. Find this resource:
  451. Practice and Application
  452. Because one strand of humanism focuses on social injustice, there has always been a tradition of application and practice in humanistic anthropology. Sol Tax’s “action anthropology” is an early example of applying humanist concerns in the field (Gearing 1970, Smith 2010), and situations of globalization and development have received particular attention. Human rights and oppression, often influenced by the educational philosophy described in Freire 1993, have been a recurring focus. Much contemporary practice relies on humanist concerns for values, genre, and creative expression, even when not explicitly in the service of righting social injustice. The extreme case of societal violence is considered by the contributors in Whitehead 2009. Berreman 1980 and Duncan 1977 focus on development and possible contributions from anthropology. Turner 1997 uses environmental issues to consider the globalized world. Applied work in consumer research is the focus in Sunderland and Denny 2007.
  453. Berreman, Gerald D. 1980. Are human rights merely a politicized luxury in the world today?Anthropology and Humanism Quarterly 5.1: 2–13.
  454. DOI: 10.1525/ahu.1980.5.1.2Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  455. Reviews some of the history of development and questions whether anthropology can offer any hope, but concludes with a Gramscian “optimism of the will” calling for ongoing critique and utopian dreaming. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  456. Find this resource:
  457. Duncan, Ronald J. 1977. Cultural freedom and conscientization as socio-economic change factors. Anthropology and Humanism Quarterly 2.2–3: 8–11.
  458. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  459. Drawing on Bidney 1953 (cited under Disciplinary Crossings and Freire 1993, argues for education and cultural freedom as tools for self-determination in development. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  460. Find this resource:
  461. Freire, Paulo. 1993. Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York: Continuum.
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  463. Originally published in 1970. Freire’s work on education as a tool to help correct oppression is a foundation for many scholars working in human rights and justice.
  464. Find this resource:
  465. Gearing, Frederick O. 1970. The face of the fox. Chicago: Aldine.
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  467. An account by one of the anthropological participants from the Fox Project, Sol Tax’s decade-long “action anthropology” program in Iowa.
  468. Find this resource:
  469. Smith, Joshua. 2010. The political thought of Sol Tax: The principles of non-assimilation and self-government in action anthropology. Histories of Anthropology Annual 6:129–170.
  470. DOI: 10.1353/haa.2010.0000Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  471. Examines “action anthropology” in terms of Tax’s commitments to social justice, including challenges raised against such approaches. Available online by subscription.
  472. Find this resource:
  473. Sunderland, Patricia L., and Rita M. Denny. 2007. Doing anthropology in consumer research. Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast.
  474. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  475. Through a series of cases, takes engaged cultural analysis as a practice for studying consumer behavior.
  476. Find this resource:
  477. Turner, Edith. 1997. There are no peripheries to humanity: Northern Alaska nuclear dumping and the Iñupiat’s search for redress. Anthropology and Humanism 22.1: 95–109.
  478. DOI: 10.1525/ahu.1997.22.1.95Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  479. A narrative account, drawn from Alaska fieldwork, that challenges the idea of center and periphery in the globalized present. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  480. Find this resource:
  481. Whitehead, Neil L., ed. 2009. Special Issue. Anthropology and Humanism 34.1.
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  483. Special issue on humanistic approaches to violence. Originating from a 2006 AAA panel, the contributors here develop humanistic understandings of violent social contexts, historical and ethnographic.
  484. Find this resource:
  485. Creativity and Play
  486. Play and creativity are fundamental parts of human societies (although one might not guess that from reading many ethnographic works). Humor is notoriously resistant to analysis, and the uniqueness of invention makes it difficult to generalize. Invention takes place on a variety of scales, from the individual creator/performer to entire cultures and in everyday life as well as in specifically artistic endeavors. Given its emphasis on understanding human values and holistic vision, the humanistic tradition is particularly amenable to this area. Huizinga 1971 (originally published in 1938) is the classic work on play. Salamone 1989 and Faulkner and Becker 2009 consider musical performance and appreciation. Wagner 1975 and the contributors in Hobsbawm and Ranger 1992consider the role of invention and innovation in culture, and contributors in Lavie, et al. 1993consider creativity more generally. Witherspoon 1977 develops a Navajo understanding of the creative potentials of language and art, and Basso 1979 explores Apachean creative constructions of whites through joking.
  487. Basso, Keith H. 1979. Portraits of “the Whiteman”: Linguistic play and cultural symbols among the Western Apache. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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  489. In one of the best anthropological investigations of humor, Basso examines the ways Apaches joke about “the Whiteman.”
  490. Find this resource:
  491. Faulkner, Robert R., and Howard S. Becker. 2009. “Do you know…?”: The jazz repertoire in action. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
  492. DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226239224.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  493. Written by two sociologists, an outstanding humanistic ethnography of jazz musicians and performance practice.
  494. Find this resource:
  495. Hobsbawm, Eric, and Terence Ranger, eds. 1992. The invention of tradition. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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  497. Recounts the invention of several cultural inventions. While this argument was later often taken as suggesting that these traditions were thus inauthentic, the original point was that authenticity itself is invented.
  498. Find this resource:
  499. Huizinga, Johan. 1971. Homo Ludens: A study of the play element in culture. Boston: Beacon.
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  501. Foundational work on the cross-cultural meanings and institutions of play. Originally published in 1938.
  502. Find this resource:
  503. Lavie, Smadar, Kirin Narayan, and Renato Rosaldo, eds. 1993. Creativity/anthropology. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press.
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  505. Essays on the anthropology of creative practice in everyday life, not just ritual practice.
  506. Find this resource:
  507. Salamone, Frank A. 1989. Boppers and moldy figs: A tale of two cultures. Anthropology and Humanism Quarterly 14.4: 135–142.
  508. DOI: 10.1525/ahu.1989.14.4.135Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  509. Compares American and British jazz and its audiences. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  510. Find this resource:
  511. Wagner, Roy. 1975. The invention of culture. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
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  513. Foundational work taking the process of creative invention as a tool for understanding the self, society, and anthropology itself.
  514. Find this resource:
  515. Witherspoon, Gary. 1977. Language and art in the Navajo universe. Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press.
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  517. Develops a Navajo model of the world as created and known through language and art.
  518. Find this resource:
  519. Alternative Genres
  520. Beyond the traditional ethnography, anthropologists have produced a wide variety of works in order to understand and communicate understanding of the worlds they have encountered. Ethnographic film and “life history” are fairly well accepted as legitimate genres by most in the field, but many others (e.g., poetry, visual art, music, drama, ethnographic fiction, creative nonfiction) are not—and have historically sometimes been produced anonymously, or using a pseudonym, or at least held back until after tenure has been granted. Fictionalized and literary ethnographies seek to retain their authority while drawing on creative literary techniques (to a greater or lesser extent), while ethnographic fiction departs more radically from the “real world.” Langness and Frank 1978, Narayan 1999, and Stoller 2007 explore some of these genres; Jackson 1986 includes both a fictionalized narrative and reflections on fieldwork. Eiseley 1978 uses essays and poetry to explore the human condition. De Angulo 1990 and Reck 1978 are more narrative, experiential ethnographies, andRidington 1988 seeks to convey an ethnographic understanding through “shared discourse.” Ethnographic films and photography may be more documentary in nature or more artistic. Humanistic anthropology generally seeks to be open to a wide range of approaches and media.
  521. de Angulo, Jaime. 1990. Indians in overalls. San Francisco: City Lights.
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  523. Originally published as an article in the Hudson Review in 1950. A short ethnographic narrative on the Pit River Indians of California, capturing life in the community. De Angulo was one of the less orthodox of Boas’s students.
  524. Find this resource:
  525. Eiseley, Loren. 1978. The star thrower. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
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  527. Best remembered as an essayist and poet, Eiseley was an anthropologist of broad interests who appealed to literary readers. Here he considers the place of humanity in the universe.
  528. Find this resource:
  529. Jackson, Michael. 1986. Barawa and the ways birds fly in the sky: An ethnographic novel. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press.
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  531. Including both a fictionalized narrative and reflections on the fieldwork experience, Jackson seeks to develop a richer understanding of the Koranko of Sierra Leone.
  532. Find this resource:
  533. Langness, L. L., and Gelya Frank. 1978. Fact, fiction and the ethnographic novel.Anthropology and Humanism Quarterly 3.1–2: 18–22.
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  535. Surveys the ethnographic fiction produced by anthropologists and others through the 20th century. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  536. Find this resource:
  537. Narayan, Kirin. 1999. Ethnography and fiction: Where is the border? Anthropology and Humanism 24.2: 134–147.
  538. DOI: 10.1525/ahu.1999.24.2.134Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  539. Considers the perils of erasing borders, along with a history of ethnographic fiction written by anthropologists and an example of the author’s own text “from fieldwork to fiction.” Available onlinefor purchase or by subscription.
  540. Find this resource:
  541. Reck, Gregory G. 1978. In the shadow of Tlaloc: Life in a Mexican village. New York: Penguin.
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  543. Excellent example of a narrative, humanistic ethnography.
  544. Find this resource:
  545. Ridington, Robin. 1988. Trail to heaven: Knowledge and narrative in a northern native community. Iowa City: Univ. of Iowa Press.
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  547. Uses “shared discourse” to present a Dunne-za understanding of their world.
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  549. Stoller, Paul. 2007. Ethnography/memoir/imagination/story. Anthropology and Humanism32.2: 178–191.
  550. DOI: 10.1525/ahu.2007.32.2.178Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  551. Briefly explores these different genres through examples, arguing for the centrality of storytelling practice in each. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
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  553. Ethnographic Fiction
  554. Whether written by an anthropologist or not, ethnographic fiction constructs fictional worlds in order to convey human realities. Some, like Castañeda 1968, have sought to pass off fiction as fact, but more typically anthropologists have been careful to be quite clear when they are being inventive. Some literary authors, particularly in speculative fiction genres, are known for their evocative created worlds; Ursula Le Guin, Kurt Vonnegut, and China Miéville have backgrounds in anthropology, of different sorts, but many others create in similar ways. Vonnegut 1963 and Miéville 2009 exemplify fictional works by authors who are not primarily trained as anthropologists (although both have some background in the field), and Freedman 2008 provides an interview of another such author, Ursula Le Guin. Bowen 1964, Richardson 1990, Lindisfarne 2000, and Isbell 2009 are examples of fiction written by professional anthropologists.
  555. Bowen, Elenore Smith. 1964. Return to laughter: An anthropological novel. New York: Doubelday.
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  557. Written by Laura Bohannan under a pseudonym. Originally published in 1954. This fictionalized account of fieldwork with the Tiv in Nigeria, along with the author’s 1966 article “Shakespeare in the Bush,” are among the most widely read works in anthropology.
  558. Find this resource:
  559. Castañeda, Carlos. 1968. The teachings of Don Juan: A Yaqui way of knowledge. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
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  561. Although long identified as fraudulent scholarship, Castañeda’s books are probably the most widely sold and read works of “anthropology”—this kind of ethnographic fiction is not what is intended in humanistic anthropology but illustrates some of the perils of pursuing creativity too far.
  562. Find this resource:
  563. Freedman, Carl, ed. 2008. Conversations with Ursula K. Le Guin. Jackson: Univ. Press of Mississippi.
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  565. Le Guin, the daughter of Alfred Kroeber, is widely recognized for the social content and reality of the created worlds in her science-fiction writing.
  566. Find this resource:
  567. Isbell, Billie Jean. 2009. Finding Cholita. Urbana: Univ. of Illinois Press.
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  569. An ethnographic novel set in the Andes from the 1970s to the present by an anthropologist who worked there through that period. Recipient of an Honorable Mention in the 2009 Victor Turner Prize competition.
  570. Find this resource:
  571. Lindisfarne, Nancy. 2000. Dancing in Damascus: Stories. Albany: State Univ. of New York Press.
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  573. Collection of ethnographic short stories set in contemporary Damascus, originating in fieldwork there from 1988 to 1990. An Arabic edition was published in Syria in 1997.
  574. Find this resource:
  575. Miéville, China. 2009. The city & the city. New York: Random House.
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  577. Miéville, a creative fiction author who received a bachelor of arts degree in anthropology at Cambridge University, is known for constructing extremely unusual worlds in order to explore social issues. Here he takes on life in the ultimate divided city through a murder mystery that directly involves archaeology and anthropology.
  578. Find this resource:
  579. Richardson, Miles. 1990. Cry lonesome and other accounts of the anthropologist’s project. Albany: State Univ. of New York Press.
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  581. This collection of ethnographic fiction, recipient of an Honorable Mention in the 1991 Victor Turner Prize competition, takes the genre to examine the anthropological project rather than the exotic Other.
  582. Find this resource:
  583. Vonnegut, Kurt. 1963. Cat’s cradle. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
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  585. Vonnegut had studied anthropology at the University of Chicago but had two master’s theses rejected by the department; in 1971 he was awarded the degree, taking Cat’s Cradle as a thesis equivalent. Reprinted several times (e.g., London: Penguin, 2011).
  586. Find this resource:
  587. Ethnographic Poetry
  588. Many anthropologists, and others, have turned to poetry to express their thoughts about the world. Some have published this work (some under pseudonyms), while others have hidden it away as “unprofessional.” Since the 1980s, Anthropology and Humanism (cited under Institutional Sources) has provided space (long edited by Dell Hymes) for anthropological poetry, and the Society for Humanistic Anthropology (cited under Institutional Sources) sponsors poetry readings at the annual meetings of the American Anthropological Association. Prattis 1985, Richardson 1994, and Tedlock 1999 reflect on the relationships between poetry and more traditional ethnographic genres. Flores 1986 collects some of the poetry of Edward Sapir, and Ridington 1987 considers poetics in Benjamin Whorf’s classic work on emic understanding. Examples of anthropological poetry as such include de Angulo 2006 and Earle and Simonelli 2007.
  589. de Angulo, Jaime. 2006. Home among the swinging stars: Collected poems of Jaime de Angulo. Edited by Stefan Hyner. Albuquerque, NM: La Alameda.
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  591. The poems of de Angulo are among the best known by an anthropologist and remain popular particularly in the areas of California and the Southwest, where he worked and lived.
  592. Find this resource:
  593. Earle, Duncan, and Jeanne Simonelli. 2007. Poems for “The Active Voice: Narrative in Applied and activist anthropology.” Anthropology and Humanism 32.2: 171–177.
  594. DOI: 10.1525/ahu.2007.32.2.171Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  595. Four poems by Earle and one by Simonelli on immigration, Guatemalan politics, and hysterectomy. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  596. Find this resource:
  597. Flores, Toni. 1986. The poetry of Edward Sapir. Dialectical Anthropology 11.2–4: 157–168.
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  599. This article collects and comments on a number of examples of the poetry of linguist Edward Sapir. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
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  601. Prattis, J. Iain. 1985. Reflections: The anthropological muse. Arlington, VA: American Anthropological Association.
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  603. Explores the poetic dimension in anthropology and argues for its relevance.
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  605. Richardson, Miles. 1994. Writing poetry and doing ethnography: Aesthetics and observation on the page and in the field. Anthropology and Humanism 19.1: 77–87.
  606. DOI: 10.1525/ahu.1994.19.1.77Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  607. Argues for bridging the gap between ethnographer and poet. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  608. Find this resource:
  609. Ridington, Robin. 1987. Models of the universe: The poetic paradigm of Benjamin Lee Whorf.Anthropology and Humanism Quarterly 12.1: 16–24.
  610. DOI: 10.1525/ahu.1987.12.1.16Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  611. Taking Whorf’s 1950 classic “An American Indian Model of the Universe” (International Journal of American Linguistics 16.2: 67–72) as a starting point, explores the meaning of science and its relationships to language and metaphor, calling for a humanistic science that includes poetics. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
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  613. Tedlock, Dennis. 1999. Poetry and ethnography: A dialogical approach. Anthropology and Humanism 24.2: 155–167.
  614. DOI: 10.1525/ahu.1999.24.2.155Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  615. Argues against the separation of ethnographic issues from linguistic and poetic ones and for the importance of anthropological poetry. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
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  617. Life History and Memoir
  618. The life history is an anthropological biography, often developed through oral interviews with the subject. Langness and Frank 1981 provides an overview of the topic, and Darnell 2001 gives a historical perspective on Americanist roots of the genre. Often the goal is to take one individual’s life as an exemplar for better understanding the society in which that person lived and the historical changes that occurred through his or her life. The story of Ishi (Kroeber 1961) is a classic example, written by the wife of Alfred Kroeber who was a major protagonist in the story. Crapanzano 1969 andCruikshank, et al. 1990 are further examples. Less often, one sees the life of anthropologists treated in similar fashion, as in Rideout 1912 about the life of Fox anthropologist William Jones, and there are also anthropological memoirs such as Behar 2007 and Narayan 2007 that use personal stories to elucidate broader issues.
  619. Behar, Ruth. 2007. An island called home: Returning to Jewish Cuba. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers Univ. Press.
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  621. Using text and photography, Behar seeks to understand her heritage and find memories of her place of birth.
  622. Find this resource:
  623. Crapanzano, Vincent. 1969. The fifth world of Enoch Maloney: Portrait of a Navaho. New York: Random House.
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  625. Taking the form of an anthropologist’s journal, presents the life of a Navajo man through the 20th century.
  626. Find this resource:
  627. Cruikshank, Julie, Angela Sidney, Kitty Smith, and Annie Ned. 1990. Life lived like a story: Life stories of three Yukon native elders. Lincoln: Univ. of Nebraska Press.
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  629. A deeply coauthored work presenting three life histories in narrative and poetic form to convey the human subtleties of these lives in a changing world.
  630. Find this resource:
  631. Darnell, Regna. 2001. “The challenge of life histories.” In Invisible genealogies: A history of Americanist anthropology. By Regna Darnell, 207–238. Lincoln: Univ. of Nebraska Press.
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  633. Discusses Americanist roots underlying recent developments in writing life histories as anthropological texts.
  634. Find this resource:
  635. Kroeber, Theodora. 1961. Ishi in two worlds: A biography of the last wild Indian in North America. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
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  637. Tells the story of Ishi (“the last of his tribe”) and his relationships with Alfred Kroeber and the Museum of Anthropology at Berkeley, where he spent the latter part of his life.
  638. Find this resource:
  639. Langness, L. L., and Gelya Frank. 1981. Lives: An anthropological approach to biography. Novato, CA: Chandler & Sharp.
  640. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  641. Explores the history, methods, and problems of the life history as an anthropological genre.
  642. Find this resource:
  643. Narayan, Kirin. 2007. My family and other saints. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
  644. DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226568157.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  645. Narayan explores her childhood and family in Bombay, a multicultural context with American disciples—and her brother—seeking enlightenment from Indian gurus.
  646. Find this resource:
  647. Rideout, Henry Milner. 1912. William Jones: Indian, cowboy, American scholar, and anthropologist in the field. New York: Frederick A. Stokes.
  648. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  649. The story of a Fox Indian who studied with Boas, became an anthropologist, and was killed by Ilongots in the Philippines, written by a college friend (and noted novelist).
  650. Find this resource:
  651. Visual Media
  652. Visual anthropology and ethnographic film are respected genres of anthropology on their own. Humanistic anthropology includes some work that is recognized in those genres—as it meets the definition of humanistic—but also makes room for more experimental and creative works than many are willing to recognize within those formal genres. Lévi-Strauss 1997 considers art in general as a cultural expression. Ruby 2000 introduces issues of filmmaking and anthropology; Pinney 2011 does similarly for photography. Mead and MacGregor 1951 is a classic example of using photography in anthropology. Carpenter 1970 is a more experimental approach to photography, and Ascher 1985describes an experimental effort at producing sculpture as an anthropological exercise. Lips 1966considers depictions of Euro-Americans by indigenous peoples in a work that can be seen as complementing Basso 1979 (cited under Creativity and Play).
  653. Ascher, Robert. 1985. Sculpting Americans. Anthropology and Humanism Quarterly 10.1: 16–17.
  654. DOI: 10.1525/ahu.1985.10.1.16Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  655. Describes a project to produce wooden sculptures as an experiment in experiential learning and questions, “Is what I do anthropology?” Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  656. Find this resource:
  657. Carpenter, Edmund. 1970. They became what they beheld. New York: Ballantine.
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  659. Photographed by Ken Heyman. Originating in collaboration with Marshall McLuhan, this poetic photo-essay explores cultural expression in the world of the late 1960s.
  660. Find this resource:
  661. Lévi-Strauss, Claude. 1997. Look, listen, read. New York: Basic Books.
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  663. Originally published in French in 1993. Writing in a more humanist vein than his best-known work, Lévi-Strauss considers the creation and perception of art.
  664. Find this resource:
  665. Lips, Julius E. 1966. The savage hits back. New Hyde Park, NY: Univ. Books.
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  667. Originally published in 1937. Explores artistic depictions of white people by indigenous artists/craftsmen.
  668. Find this resource:
  669. Mead, Margaret, and Frances Cooke MacGregor. 1951. Growth and culture: A photographic study of Balinese childhood. New York: Putnam.
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  671. Photographed by Gregory Bateson. Mead and Bateson were among the pioneers in using photographs not just as documentary record but as evocative texts.
  672. Find this resource:
  673. Pinney, Christopher. 2011. Photography and anthropology. London: Reaktion.
  674. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  675. Introduces and surveys the anthropology of photographic images and the use of photography in anthropology.
  676. Find this resource:
  677. Ruby, Jay. 2000. Picturing culture: Explorations of film and anthropology. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
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  679. Collection of essays by one of elders of visual anthropology; a nice introduction to the history and relationships between film and anthropology.
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