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Etruscan Architecture (Classics)

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. The study of Etruscan architecture suffers greatly in comparison with its Greek and Roman counterparts because of the building materials used. Whereas Greek temples, such as the Parthenon in Athens, and Roman public buildings, such as the immense bath complex of Caracalla in Rome, immediately catch the attention and admiration of students and travelers, Etruscan architectural remains consist for the most part of underground tombs, foundation walls, models of huts and houses, and fragments of terracotta roof decoration. At the same time, thanks to the description by the Roman architectural historian Vitruvius (Ten Books on Architecture 4.7.1–4), the proportions and layout of the so-called Tuscan temple are well known and have been much admired and studied during the Renaissance and later. The perception of Etruscan architecture has, however, changed much since the advent of large-scale excavations in the late 19th century, and since the 1950s new evidence has produced important results for our understanding of the architectural traditions in ancient Italy.
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  5. General Overviews
  6.  
  7. The overviews on Etruscan architecture address very different kinds of audiences, and each has its own focus and strengths. Haynes 2000 includes architecture as one of the hallmarks of Etruscan civilization, whereas Boëthius 1978 provides an overview that at the time of writing (1970) represented the most complete and authoritative view. Colonna 1986 and Donati 2000 are chapters in general books on the Etruscans for Italian as well as international readers, while Damgaard Andersen 1998 covers all aspects of early Etruscan architecture in a very systematic presentation. Barker and Rasmussen 1998 emphasizes the landscape of Etruria with accounts of excavations and remains, including architecture. A recent topic of discussion concerns the relationship between Etruscan architecture in general and the architectural traditions of ancient Rome. Works such as Cifani 2008 and Hopkins 2010 emphasize the individual characteristic features of early Roman architecture in relation to that of its Etruscan neighbors. Paoletti and Camporeale 2005 and Moretti Sgubini 2001 illustrate the architectural traditions of different Etruscan sites with an emphasis on Caere/Cerveteri, Tarquinia, Veii, and Vulci. Since there are no reference works, bibliographies, report, or research papers that deal specifically with Etruscan architecture, consult the corresponding sections in the “Etruscans” article for more general resources.
  8.  
  9. Barker, Graeme, and Tom Rasmussen. 1998. The Etruscans. Oxford: Blackwell.
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  11. Excellent general overview of Etruscan culture with descriptions of sites and architecture.
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  13. Boëthius, Axel. 1978. Etruscan and early Roman architecture. 2d integrated ed. Revised by Roger Ling and Tom Rasmussen. Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin.
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  15. A solid overview based on archaeological evidence from Etruscan sites. Remains a useful reference work in spite of its date.
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  17. Cifani, Gabriele. 2008. Architettura romana arcaica. Rome: L’Erma di Bretschneider.
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  19. A catalogue of the remains from early Rome, including famous buildings such as the Capitoline temple.
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  21. Colonna, Giovanni. 1986. Urbanistica e architettura. In Rasenna: Storia e civiltà degli Etruschi. Edited by Giovanni Pugliese Carratelli, 371–530. Milan: Libri Scheiwiller.
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  23. An extensive presentation of architecture and city planning by Italy’s foremost Etruscologist.
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  25. Damgaard Andersen, Helle. 1998. Etruscan architecture from the Late Orientalizing to the Archaic period (c. 640–480 B.C.). PhD diss., Univ. of Copenhagen.
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  27. An outstanding and clear presentation of the archaeological evidence, unfortunately not published with illustrations and complete documentation.
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  29. Donati, Luigi. 2000. Civil, religious, and domestic architecture. In The Etruscans. Edited by Mario Torelli, 313–333. Milan: Bompiani.
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  31. Overview included in an exhibition catalogue published in Italian and English.
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  33. Haynes, Sybille. 2000. Etruscan civilization: A cultural history. London: British Museum.
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  35. An extensive overview of Etruscan culture based on late-20th-century discoveries and scholarship.
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  37. Hopkins, John N. 2010. The topographical transformation of Archaic Rome: A new interpretation of architecture and geography in the early city. PhD diss., Univ. of Texas at Austin.
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  39. Unpublished dissertation on the originality of early Roman architecture in relation to presumed Etruscan influences.
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  41. Moretti Sgubini, Anna Maria, ed. 2001. Veio, Cerveteri, Vulci: Città d’Etruria a confronto. Rome: L’Erma di Bretschneider.
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  43. Study of late-20th-century archaeological discoveries from three major Etruscan cities and a reevaluation of already excavated material.
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  45. Paoletti, Orazio, and Giovannangelo Camporeale, eds. 2005. Dinamiche di sviluppo delle città nell’Etruria meridionale: Veio, Caere, Tarquinia, Vulci; Atti del XXIII Convegno di studi etruschi ed italici, Roma, Veio, Cerveteri/Pyrgi, Tarquinia, Tuscania, Vulci, Viterbo, 1–6 ottobre 2001. Rome: Istituti Editoriali e Poligrafici Internazionali.
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  47. Two-volume collection of articles on major Etruscan sites in Italy by excavators and scholars. Review by Jean MacIntosh Turfa in Bryn Mawr Classical Review 3 (2006): 32.
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  49. Journals
  50.  
  51. Due to the international scholarship on Etruscan architecture, articles appear in a large variety of journals. For English-speaking readers, the Bryn Mawr Classical Review provides useful reviews of monographs, exhibit catalogues, and conference proceedings. The Journal of Roman Archaeology, although with a general focus on Rome and the Roman world, includes bibliographical overviews of Etruscan topics, including architecture, as well as articles on new discoveries at Etruscan sites.
  52.  
  53. Bryn Mawr Classical Review. 1990–.
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  55. Easily accessible scholarly reviews of current publications on Etruscan architecture.
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  57. Journal of Roman Archaeology. 1988–.
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  59. Articles and reviews on new discoveries and interpretations of Etruscan material, including architecture.
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  61. Collections of Papers
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  63. Collections of papers are usually oriented toward specific sites (Paoletti and Camporeale 2005 cited under General Overviews, Moretti Sgubini 2001 cited under General Overviews, Torelli and Moretti Sgubini 2008) or the overall topic of Etruscans (Pallottino 1986, Torelli 2000).
  64.  
  65. Moretti Sgubini, Anna Maria, ed. 2001. Veio, Cerveteri, Vulci: Città d’Etruria a confronto. Rome: L’Erma di Bretschneider.
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  67. Three major Etruscan cities and a reevaluation of already excavated material are the basis of this study of late-20th-century archaeological discoveries.
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  69. Pallottino, Massimo, ed. 1986. Rasenna: Storia e civiltà degli Etruschi. Milan: Libri Scheiwiller.
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  71. Well-illustrated account of many aspects of the Etruscan civilization, including the chapter by Giovanni Colonna on city planning and architecture (pp. 371–530).
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  73. Paoletti, Orazio, and Giovannangelo Camporeale, eds. 2005. Dinamiche di sviluppo delle città nell’Etruria meridionale: Veio, Caere, Tarquinia, Vulci; Atti del XXIII Convegno di studi etruschi ed italici, Roma, Veio, Cerveteri/Pyrgi, Tarquinia, Tuscania, Vulci, Viterbo, 1–6 ottobre 2001. Rome: Istituti Editoriali e Poligrafici Internazionali.
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  75. Two-volume collection of articles on major Etruscan sites in Italy by excavators and scholars. Review by Jean MacIntosh Turfa in Bryn Mawr Classical Review 3 (2006): 32.
  76. Find this resource:
  77. Torelli, Mario, ed. 2000. The Etruscans. Milan: Bompiani.
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  79. Catalogue of an exhibition on the Etruscans at Palazzo Grassi, Venice. Includes an article on Etruscan architecture by Luigi Donati (pp. 313–333).
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  81. Torelli, Mario, and Anna Maria Moretti Sgubini, eds. 2008. Etruschi: Le antiche metropoli del Lazio. Verona, Italy: Mondadori Electa.
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  83. Catalogue of an exhibition on the Etruscans at the Palazzo delle Esposizioni in Rome. The chapters on specific Etruscan sites include comments by Mario Torelli on the interactions among the Etruscans, the Latins, and the inhabitants of Rome.
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  85. Museum and Exhibition Catalogues
  86.  
  87. The most important exhibition catalogues pertaining to Etruscan architecture are still Colonna 1985 and Stopponi 1985. Dore, et al. 2000 focuses on the political aspect of architecture as an example of “elites,” whereas Warden 2009 introduces the topographical and architectural context of objects from the Archaeological Museum in Florence and the excavations at Poggio Colla. Torelli 2001 presents all aspects of Etruscan culture, including architecture. Moretti Sgubini 2001 and Torelli and Moretti Sgubini 2008 provide recent information on particularly important sites and discoveries.
  88.  
  89. Colonna, Giovanni, ed. 1985. Santuari d’Etruria. Milan: Electa.
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  91. Overview of temples and sanctuaries from important Etruscan sites in the exhibition catalogue from The Year of the Etruscans.
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  93. Dore, Anna, Marinella Marchesi, and Laura Minarini, eds. 2000. Principi etruschi: Tra Mediterraneo ed Europa. Venice: Marsilio.
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  95. Thematic analysis of the social stratum of the so-called “elites” in Etruscan society, including the architectural aspects of “palaces” in articles by Mario Torelli (pp. 67–78) and Giuseppe Sassatelli (pp. 143–162) and tombs by Gilda Bartoloni (pp. 163–190).
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  97. Moretti Sgubini, Anna Maria, ed. 2001. Veio, Cerveteri, Vulci: Città d’Etruria a confronto. Rome: L’Erma di Bretschneider.
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  99. Exhibition catalogue from the Villa Giulia Museum in Rome. Study of late-20th-century archaeological discoveries from three major Etruscan cities and a reevaluation of already excavated material.
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  101. Stopponi, Simonetta, ed. 1985. Case e palazzi d’Etruria. Milan: Electa.
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  103. Exhibition catalogue from Siena as part of The Year of the Etruscans. Includes presentation of evidence for Etruscan settlements, including Acquarossa and Murlo/Poggio Civitate.
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  105. Torelli, Mario, ed. 2001. The Etruscans. London: Thames and Hudson.
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  107. Catalogue of an exhibition on the Etruscans at Palazzo Grassi, Venice. Includes an article on Etruscan architecture by Luigi Donati (pp. 313–333).
  108. Find this resource:
  109. Torelli, Mario, and Anna Maria Moretti Sgubini, eds. 2008. Etruschi: Le antiche metropoli del Lazio. Verona, Italy: Mondadori Electa.
  110. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  111. Catalogue of an exhibition on the Etruscans at the Palazzo delle Esposizioni in Rome. Comments by Mario Torelli on the interactions among the Etruscans, the Latins, and the inhabitants of Rome are included in the chapters on specific Etruscan sites.
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  113. Warden, P. Gregory, ed. 2009. From the temple and the tomb: Etruscan treasures from Tuscany. Dallas, TX: Meadows Museum, Southern Methodist Univ.
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  115. Catalogue of an exhibition at Southern Methodist University with objects from the Florence Archaeological Museum and the excavations at Poggio Colla.
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  117. Origins and History of Scholarship
  118.  
  119. It is perhaps ironic that through their readings of Vitruvius (Vitruvius 1999) scholars of Latin and Renaissance art historians and architects (Morolli 1985, Morolli 1992) were familiar with Etruscan architecture long before any substantial archaeological remains of temples and houses were uncovered. The exuberant narrative of Dennis 1878 still highlights the fascination with the discovery of Etruscan cities and tombs within the landscape of Etruria and what is now Latium.
  120.  
  121. Dennis, George. 1878. The cities and cemeteries of Etruria. London: J. Murray.
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  123. Classic text on the discovery of Etruscan monuments, first published in 1848; later editions in 1907 and (abridged) in 1985.
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  125. Morolli, Gabriele. 1985. Dal tempio etrusco all’ordine tuscancio: Le origini mitiche dell’arte edificatoria nella trattatistica architettonica. In La fortuna degli Etruschi. Edited by G. F. Borsi, 82–101. Milan: Electa.
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  127. Traces the development of the Etruscan temple to Vitruvius’s description of the Tuscan style in the exhibition catalogue from The Year of the Etruscans.
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  129. Morolli, Gabriele. 1992. L’ordine tuscanico nella concezione rinascimentale e postrinascimentale. In Gli Etruschi e l’Europa. Edited by Paolo Parlavecchia, Massimo Pallottino, Italia Ministero per i Beni Culturali e Ambientali, Staatliche Museen, and Réunion des Musées Nationaux, 292–297. Milan: Fabbri Editori.
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  131. Highlights the importance of the Tuscan style in Renaissance architecture.
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  133. Vitruvius. 1999. Ten books on architecture. Translated by Ingrid D. Rowland. Drawings and commentary by Thomas N. Howe. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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  135. English translation with commentary and drawings of Vitruvius. Emphasizes the distinction between Tuscanicus (translated as “Tuscanoid”) and Etruscus or Tuscus (“Etruscan”) in Vitruvius’s text.
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  137. Architects and Patrons
  138.  
  139. Unlike Greek and to some extent Roman architecture, Etruscan buildings are anonymous, and we can only evaluate the skill of design and workmanship by the product (Edlund-Berry 2009). Since architectural terracottas form a major part of the evidence for architectural creations, studies of workshops suggest that each city acted on its own initiative and that the surrounding areas followed suit (Winter 2009). According to the literary sources (Pliny 35.12.157), an artist from Veii was invited to Rome to decorate the newly built Capitoline temple there, but there is no evidence that he had any part in the design of the temple itself (Vacano 1973). Historical sources indicate that the Etruscan kings of Rome (the Tarquins) were responsible for building activity there, thus connecting the architecture of Rome with that of its Etruscan neighbors (Winter 2005).
  140.  
  141. Edlund-Berry, Ingrid. 2009. The historical and religious context of vows fulfilled in Etruscan temple foundations. In Votives, places, and rituals in Etruscan religion. Edited by Margarita Gleba and Hilary Becker, 101–106. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  142. DOI: 10.1163/ej.9789004170452.i-292Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  143. Thanks to the Roman historians, we can attribute the construction of Roman temples to named individuals. Due to the lack of texts, Etruscan buildings remain anonymous.
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  145. Vacano, Otto-Wilhelm von. 1973. Vulca, Rom und die Wölfin. In Austieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt. Vol. 4, Pt. 1. Edited by Hildegard Temporini, 524–583. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
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  147. The name “Vulca” is a manuscript emendation to Pliny’s text. The interaction between Veii and Rome in the creation of terracotta sculpture is much debated.
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  149. Winter, Nancy A. 2005. Gods walking on the roof: The evolution of terracotta statuary in Archaic Etruscan architecture in light of the kings of Rome. Journal of Roman Archaeology 18:241–251.
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  151. Ties the presence of architectural terracottas as roof acrotieria on buildings in Rome and in Etruria to the accounts of the kings of Rome.
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  153. Winter, Nancy A. 2009. Symbols of wealth and power: Architectural terracotta decoration in Etruria and central Italy, 640–510 B.C. Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press.
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  155. Analysis of terracotta roof decoration that establishes the chronology and historical context (when possible) of Etruscan buildings, including those in Rome.
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  157. City Planning and Location of Buildings
  158.  
  159. As with Vitruvius’s discussion of Tuscan temples (see Vitruvius 1999 [cited under Origins and History of Scholarship], 4.7.1–5), our knowledge of Etruscan planning came from a literary text long before any Etruscan city had been excavated. According to the late Roman author Servius’s commentary to the Aeneid (Ad Aen. 1.422), an Etruscan city should be laid out with three gates, three streets, and three temples. Since the location of most ancient Etruscan cities corresponds with modern towns in Tuscany and Lazio, evidence of city planning has to be pieced together from a variety of sites, ranging from cities on high hills, such as Orvieto, to those laid out according to a grid system, such as Marzabotto (Sassatelli and Govi 2005). As illustrated in Colonna 1986, Steingräber 2000, and Rasmussen 2005, Etruscan cities were placed in optimum locations as far as accessibility, defense, and water supply; for specific plans, sites such as Acquarossa and San Giovenale (Roos and Wikander 1986) illustrate the lineup of houses and streets in relation to the contours of the hill on which they were located. At some sites, such as Caere/Cerveteri, Orvieto, and Tarquinia, the layout of the extra-urban cemeteries parallels that of the cities of the living, as shown in Prayon 1975.
  160.  
  161. Colonna, Giovanni. 1986. Urbanistica e architettura. In Rasenna: Storia e civiltà degli Etruschi. Edited by Giovanni Pugliese Carratelli, 371–530. Milan: Libri Scheiwiller.
  162. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  163. An extensive and well-illustrated presentation of architecture and city planning by Italy’s leading Etruscologist.
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  165. Prayon, Friedhelm. 1975. Frühetruskische Grab- und Hausarchitektur. RM Ergänzungsheft 22. Heidelberg, Germany: F. H. Kerle.
  166. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  167. Systematic presentation of tombs and houses known from excavations before 1975.
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  169. Rasmussen, Tom. 2005. Urbanization in Etruria. In Mediterranean urbanization 800–600 BC. Edited by Robin Osborne and Barry Cunliffe, 71–90. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
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  171. Overview of Etruscan urban sites, including a discussion of population figures.
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  173. Roos, Paavo, and Örjan Wikander. 1986. Architettura etrusca nel Viterbese: Ricerche svedesi a San Giovenale e Acquarossa, 1956–1986. Rome: De Luca Editore.
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  175. Account of pioneering excavations of Etruscan settlements in southern Etruria with evidence of continuity from the Iron Age to the Etruscan period.
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  177. Sassatelli, Giuseppe, and Elisabetta Govi. 2005. Culti, forma urbana e artigianato a Marzabotto: Nuove prospettive di ricerca; Atti del convegno di studi, Bologna, S. Giovanni in Monte 3–4 giugno 2003. Bologna, Italy: Ante Quem.
  178. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  179. Collection of papers on old and new discoveries at the Etruscan city of Marzabotto.
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  181. Steingräber, Stephan. 2000. Etruscan urban planning. In The Etruscans. Edited by Mario Torelli, 291–311. Milan: Bompiani.
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  183. Useful survey of new evidence in the catalogue for the Etruscan exhibition in Venice in 2000.
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  185. Temples, Shrines, and Sanctuaries
  186.  
  187. In the eyes of the Romans, as expressed by the Roman historian Livy (History of Rome 5.1.6), their Etruscan neighbors were obsessed with religion, and there is ample evidence for cult practices at most Etruscan sites, including the places of worship. Partly because of the Roman architectural historian Vitruvius, whose description of the Tuscan temple (Ten Books on Architecture 4.7.1–4) has formed our view of Etruscan sacred building types (Lake 1935), it is only recently that scholars have begun to accept that there were other types of buildings that served as shrines or sanctuaries. As seems to be the case with all aspects of Etruscan culture, each city or site shows individual solutions for the creation of sacred spaces (sanctuaries) with buildings ranging from modest buildings with one or more rooms, for example, the oikos at Veii (Bartoloni, et al. 2006) or the Edificio Beta at Tarquinia (Bonghi Jovino 2010), to monumental temples with several rooms and rows of columns across the front and along the sides of the structure from sites such as Tarquinia or Pyrgi (Colonna 2006). In addition to the shrine or temple, a sanctuary complex often included altars and service buildings, and its setting in the landscape was determined by the access to water and the road system that connected it with the community to which it belonged (Backe Forsberg 2005, Colonna 1985, Edlund-Berry 2009).
  188.  
  189. Backe Forsberg, Yvonne. 2005. Crossing the bridge: An interpretation of the archaeological remains in the Etruscan bridge complex at San Giovenale, Etruria. PhD diss., Univ. of Uppsala.
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  191. Dissertation describing the remains of a bridge sanctuary at the South Etruscan site of San Giovenale. Important for the discussion of location of sanctuaries.
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  193. Bartoloni, Gilda, V. Acconcia, A. Piergrossi, S. Ten Korte, and I. van Kampen Naar. 2006. Veio: L’abitato di Piazza d’Armi; Le terrecotte architettoniche. In Deliciae fictiles III: Architectural terracottas in ancient Italy; New discoveries and interpretations. Edited by Ingrid Edlund-Berry, Giovanna Greco, and John Kenfield, 50–76. Oxford: Oxbow.
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  195. Important study of the development of sacred architecture at the site of Veii, Rome’s rival for power during the Archaic period. Proceedings of the international conference held at the American Academy in Rome in 2002.
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  197. Bonghi Jovino, M. 2010. The Tarquinia project: A summary of 25 years of excavation. American Journal of Archaeology 114:161–180.
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  199. Summary of excavations at different areas of the ancient city of Tarquinia, known for its majestic temple, Ara della Regina, but also other sacred areas. Furnishes full references to past publications of this site.
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  201. Colonna, Giovanni, ed. 1985. Santuari d’Etruria. Milan: Electa.
  202. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  203. Overview of temples and sanctuaries from important Etruscan sites in the exhibition catalogue from The Year of the Etruscans.
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  205. Colonna, Giovanni. 2006. Sacred architecture and the religion of the Etruscans. In The religion of the Etruscans. Edited by Nancy T. de Grummond and Erika Simon, 132–168. Austin: Univ. of Texas Press.
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  207. Authoritative overview of Etruscan sacred architecture, including the important sanctuary at Pyrgi.
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  209. Edlund-Berry, Ingrid E. M. 2009. Temples and the Etruscan way of religion. In From the temple and the tomb: Etruscan treasures from Tuscany. Edited by P. Gregory Warden, 67–93. Dallas, TX: Meadows Museum, Southern Methodist Univ.
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  211. Discussion of the location of Etruscan sanctuaries with examples pertaining to an exhibition of objects from Poggio Colla and the Florence Archaeological Museum.
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  213. Lake, Agnes Kirsopp. 1935. The archaeological evidence for the “Tuscan” temple. Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome 12:89–149.
  214. DOI: 10.2307/4238583Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  215. A fundamental presentation of the examples of so-called Tuscan temples as known in the 1930s.
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  217. Monumental Buildings
  218.  
  219. Perhaps because of the impact of the Roman architectural historian Vitruvius, studies on Etruscan architecture tend to focus on what is perceived as the traditional Etruscan temple. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries excavations at many sites have shown that in addition to small shrines there were also monumental buildings, usually consisting of rooms around four sides of a courtyard, whose function may have included both sacred and secular activities. Research has focused on the origin of this architectural form (for example, Mario Torelli in Stopponi 1985) but also on the problem of identification and use (Bartoloni 1992, Meyers 2003). The technology needed to erect and roof these structures further highlights the engineering skills of the Etruscans (Turfa and Steinmayer 1996). As always in Etruscan architecture, it is important to identify the context in which a building existed, whether it was isolated or part of an urban community (Poggesi, et al. 2005).
  220.  
  221. Bartoloni, Gilda. 1992. Palazzo o tempio? A proposito dell’edificio arcaico di Poggio Bucco. AION Archeologia e Storia Antica 14:9–31.
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  223. Discussion of the remains of a monumental building at the site of Poggio Buco.
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  225. Meyers, Gretchen E. 2003. Etrusco-Italic monumental architectural space from the Iron Age to the Archaic period: An examination of approach and access. PhD diss., Univ. of Texas at Austin.
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  227. Dissertation evaluating the function of monumental buildings, including those at Acquarossa and Murlo (Poggio Civitate) by their location and the approach and access to the whole building complex as well as the individual rooms.
  228. Find this resource:
  229. Poggesi, Gabriella, Luigi Donati, Elisabetta Bocci, Giovanni Millemacci, Lucia Pagnini, and Pasquino Pallecchi. 2005. Prato-Gonfienti: Un nuovo centro etrusco sulla via per Marzabotto. In Culti, forma urbana e artigianato a Marzabotto: Nuove prospettive di ricerca; Atti del Convegno di Studi, Bologna, S. Giovanni in Monte 3–4 giugno 2003. Edited by Giuseppe Sassatelli and Elisabetta Govi, 267–300. Bologna, Italy: Ante Quem.
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  231. Presentation of the monumental courtyard building at Prato Gonfienti.
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  233. Stopponi, Simonetta, ed. 1985. Case e palazzi d’Etruria. Milan: Electa.
  234. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  235. Fundamental presentation of the remains, including architectural terracottas, from excavated monumental buildings in Etruria and Latium.
  236. Find this resource:
  237. Turfa, Jean MacIntosh, and A. G. Steinmayer. 1996. The comparative structure of Greek and Etruscan monumental buildings. Papers of the British School at Rome 64:1–39.
  238. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  239. Evaluates the technical aspects of erecting monumental buildings using clay and wood as the primary building materials. Presents evidence that Etruscan builders pioneered the use of tie-beam trusses to counter the problem of heavy tiled roofs.
  240. Find this resource:
  241. Domestic Architecture
  242.  
  243. Because of the lack of excavated houses for the living, Etruscan domestic architecture used to be studied primarily from the underground tombs that were built in the shape of houses with one or more rooms (Prayon 1975). Thanks to excavations at sites such as Acquarossa and San Giovenale in southern Etruria (Roos and Wikander 1986), we are now in a better position to evaluate individual house types, including the so-called impluvium type represented at Roselle (Donati 1994), to illustrate the regional and chronological variations throughout Etruria (Izzet 2001, Prayon 2009, Sassatelli and Govi 2005). Studies of individual houses, for example, at Accesa (Camporeale and Giuntoli 2000), at Roselle (Cygielman 2009), and at Marzabotto and Prato Gonfienti (Sassatelli and Govi 2005), are important for our understanding of domestic architecture in general but also of the society in which different house types were created.
  244.  
  245. Camporeale, Giovannangelo, and Stefano Giuntoli. 2000. Il parco archeologico dell’Accesa a Massa Marittima. Follonica, Italy: Leopoldo II.
  246. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  247. Presentation of a small settlement in the mining district of Etruria.
  248. Find this resource:
  249. Cygielman, Mario. 2009. Roselle fra tarda età del ferro e periodo orientalizzante. In Signori di Maremma. Edited by Mariagrazia Celuzza, 55–59. Florence, Italy: Edizioni Polistampa.
  250. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  251. Overview of houses from Roselle, with emphasis on the Casa del Recinto from the Orientalizing period.
  252. Find this resource:
  253. Donati, Luigi. 1994. La casa dell’impluvium: Architettura etrusca a Roselle. Rome: G. Bretschneider.
  254. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  255. Important evaluation of the history of the impluvium house, a common Roman house type, with a 6th-century BCE house at Roselle as a starting point. A review by Erik Nielsen is in the Journal of Roman Archaeology 10 (1997): 323–326.
  256. Find this resource:
  257. Izzet, Vedia. 2001. Putting the house in order: The development of Etruscan domestic architecture. In From huts to houses: Transformation of ancient societies. Edited by J. Rasmus Brandt, and Lars Karlsson, 41–49. Stockholm: Paul Åströms Förlag.
  258. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  259. Brief overview of the development of Etruscan house types, from oval huts to rectangular houses.
  260. Find this resource:
  261. Prayon, Friedhelm. 1975. Frühetruskische Grab- und Hausarchitektur. RM Ergänzungsheft 22. Heidelberg, Germany: F. H. Kerle.
  262. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  263. Fundamental study of funerary and domestic architecture based on the layout of cemeteries, the plans of tombs and houses, and evidence of doors and interior spaces.
  264. Find this resource:
  265. Prayon, Friedhelm. 2009. The atrium as Italo-Etruscan architectural concept and as societal form. In Etruscan by definition: The cultural, regional, and personal identity of the Etruscans; Papers in honour of Sybille Haynes, WBE. Edited by Judith Swaddling and Philip Perkins, 60–63. London: British Museum.
  266. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  267. Evaluation of the concept of the Etruscan atrium, otherwise known primarily from Roman architecture.
  268. Find this resource:
  269. Roos, Paavo, and Örjan Wikander. 1986. Architettura etrusca nel Viterbese: Ricerche svedesi a San Giovenale e Acquarossa, 1956–1986. Rome: De Luca Editore.
  270. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  271. Presentation of house plans and architectural terracottas from two major sites with examples of Etruscan houses.
  272. Find this resource:
  273. Sassatelli, Giuseppe, and Elisabetta Govi, eds. 2005. Culti, forma urbana e artigianato a Marzabotto: Nuove prospettive di ricerca; Atti del convegno di studi. Bologna, Italy: Dipartimento di archeologia dell’università degli studi di Bologna.
  274. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  275. Overview of remains from the Etruscan city of Marzabotto, including new discoveries, such as a courtyard building at Prato Gonfienti.
  276. Find this resource:
  277. Farmhouses, Storage Buildings, Workshops
  278.  
  279. Remains of farmhouses and other types of Etruscan buildings are known from many areas, but because of their often poor state of preservation they are difficult to evaluate. Because of the location and floor plans, some buildings can be classified as farmhouses (Grant, et al. 1993, Perkins and Attolini 1992), whereas others suggest a variety of functions, including manufacture of terracottas and bronzes at Murlo/Poggio Civitate (Nielsen 1987, Nielsen and Tuck 2001), Cetamura (de Grummond 2009), and Selvasecca (Klynne 2008). Regardless of the scarcity of remains, these types of buildings are extremely important for our understanding of Etruscan economy (Nijboer 1988).
  280.  
  281. de Grummond, Nancy T. 2009. The sanctuary of the Etruscan artisans at Cetamura del Chianti: The Legacy of Alvaro Tracchi. Florence, Italy: Edifir.
  282. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  283. Exhibition catalogue presenting the site of Cetamura as a production site connected with a sanctuary.
  284. Find this resource:
  285. Grant, A., Tom Rasmussen, and Graeme Barker. 1993. Tuscania: Excavation of an Etruscan rural building. Studi Etruschi 58:566–570.
  286. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  287. Presentation of a farm building at Tuscania in southern Etruria.
  288. Find this resource:
  289. Klynne, Alan. 2008. The Villa Selvasecca revisited. Opuscula Romana 21–22:29–57.
  290. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  291. Overview of the history and an interpretation of the rural site of Selvasecca, including evidence of kiln production.
  292. Find this resource:
  293. Nielsen, Erik O. 1987. Some preliminary thoughts on old and new terracottas. Opuscula Romana 16:91–120.
  294. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  295. Presentation of a workshop for manufacture of terracottas at Murlo/Poggio Civitate, including evidence for tiles drying on the ground as part of the production process.
  296. Find this resource:
  297. Nielsen, Erik O., and Anthony S. Tuck. 2001. An Orientalizing period complex at Poggio Civitate (Murlo): A preliminary view. Etruscan Studies 8:35–55.
  298. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  299. Overview of an early phase of the production of terracottas at Murlo/Poggio Civitate.
  300. Find this resource:
  301. Nijboer, A. J. 1998. From household production to workshops: Archaeological evidence for economic transformations, pre-monetary exchange, and urbanisation in central Italy from 800 to 400 BC. PhD diss., Univ. of Groningen.
  302. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  303. Study of archaeological remains as evidence for Etruscan economy.
  304. Find this resource:
  305. Perkins, Philip, and I. Attolini. 1992. An Etruscan farm at Podere Tartuchino. Papers of the British School at Rome 60:71–134.
  306. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  307. Presentation of a farmhouse in the Albegna Valley.
  308. Find this resource:
  309. Funerary Architecture
  310.  
  311. The fascination with Etruscan tombs stems partly from the accounts in Dennis 1883 and by other early travelers. The layout of cemeteries as veritable cities of the dead, such as at Caere/Cerveteri (Prayon 1975, Prayon 2000) and the monumental rock-cut tombs at sites such as Castel d’Asso and Norchia (Colonna di Paolo and Colonna 1970, Colonna di Paolo and Colonna 1978, Steingräber 2009) are truly stunning, and the details of painted tombs such as those at Tarquinia (Steingräber 1986) have provided much information on Etruscan interior architecture (Naso 1996, Naso 2001) and evidence for Etruscan customs in life and death.
  312.  
  313. Colonna Di Paolo, Elena, and Giovanni Colonna. 1970. Castel d’Asso. Rome: Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche.
  314. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  315. Authoritative work on the rock-cut tombs at Castel d’Asso.
  316. Find this resource:
  317. Colonna Di Paolo, Elena, and Giovanni Colonna. 1978. Norchia I. Rome: Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche.
  318. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  319. Authoritative work on the rock-cut tombs at Norchia.
  320. Find this resource:
  321. Dennis, George. 1883. The cities and cemeteries of Etruria. 2d ed. London: John Murray.
  322. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  323. Classic account of Etruscan sites as discovered in the 19th century.
  324. Find this resource:
  325. Naso, Alessandro. 1996. Architetture dipinte: Decorazioni parietali non figurate nelle tombe a camera dell’Etruria meridionale (VII-V sec. a.c.). Rome: L’Erma di Bretschneider.
  326. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  327. Authoritative presentation of the architectural features painted on the interior walls of tombs.
  328. Find this resource:
  329. Naso, Alessandro. 2001. Dalla capanna alla casa: Riflessi nell’architettura funeraria etrusca. In From huts to houses: Transformation of ancient societies. Edited by J. Rasmus Brandt and Lars Karlsson, 29–39. Stockholm: Paul Åströms Förlag.
  330. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  331. Discussion of the development of funerary architecture at Caere/Cerveteri.
  332. Find this resource:
  333. Prayon, Friedhelm. 1975. Frühetruskische Grab- und Hausarchitektur. RM Ergänzungsheft 22. Heidelberg, Germany: F. H. Kerle.
  334. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  335. Fundamental study of Etruscan tomb architecture.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. Prayon, Friedhelm. 2000. Tomb architecture. In The Etruscans. Edited by Mario Torelli, 335–343. Milan: Bompiani.
  338. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  339. Summary and update of the author’s previous work (1975).
  340. Find this resource:
  341. Steingräber, Stephan, ed. 1986. Etruscan painting: Catalogue raisonné of Etruscan wall painting. New York: Johnson Reprint
  342. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  343. Comprehensive presentation of Etruscan painted tombs.
  344. Find this resource:
  345. Steingräber, Stephan. 2009. Etruscan rock-cut chamber tombs: Origins, characteristics, local and foreign elements. In Etruscan by definition: The cultural, regional, and personal identity of the Etruscans; Papers in honour of Sybille Haynes, WBE. Edited by Judith Swaddling and Philip Perkins, 64–68. London: British Museum.
  346. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  347. Study of Etruscan rock-cut tombs.
  348. Find this resource:
  349. City Walls
  350.  
  351. The importance of city walls for Etruscan cities is documented by actual remains of majestic walls that still dominate the urban landscape. According to the late Roman author Servius (Ad Aen. 1.422), an Etruscan city was expected to have three temples as well as three gates and three main streets. Because of the erratic preservation of the ancient walls and gates, it is difficult to know what the number 3 signified and whether there was a difference in importance between major and minor gates. The techniques for building walls ranged from terracing walls to mud-brick or ashlar blocks cut from the local volcanic or other types of rock. The size of the walls at many sites suggests a sophisticated engineering and economic setup, and in each case one should consider the reason for these walls: Were they primarily built as a defense system toward a presumed or real attacker (Rome?), or did the walls also symbolize the political power of some cities in relation to others? Thanks to the publication Camporeale 2008b, it is now possible to appreciate the research on Etruscan walls in all their aspects, both general (Camporeale 2008a, Fontaine 2008) and more specific.
  352.  
  353. Camporeale, Giovannangelo. 2008a. La città murata d’Etruria nella tradizione letteraria e figurativa. In La città murata in Etruria: Atti del XXV convegno di studi Etruschi ed Italici. Edited by Giovannangelo Camporeale, 16–32. Pisa, Italy: Fabrizio Serra Editore.
  354. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  355. Introduction to the volume.
  356. Find this resource:
  357. Camporeale, Giovannangelo, ed. 2008b. La città murata in Etruria: Atti del XXV convegno di studi Etruschi ed Italici. Pisa, Italy: Fabrizio Serra Editore.
  358. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  359. Presentation of early 21st-century information on city walls in all of Etruria. A review by Ivo van der Graaff is in the Bryn Mawr Classical Review 7 (2009): 70.
  360. Find this resource:
  361. Fontaine, Paul. 2008. Mura, arte fortificatoria e città in Etruria: Riflessioni sui dati archeologici. In La città murata in Etruria: Atti del XXV convegno di studi Etruschi ed Italici. Edited by Giovannangelo Camporeale, 203–218. Pisa, Italy: Fabrizio Serra Editore.
  362. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  363. Summary of the archaeological evidence for city walls.
  364. Find this resource:
  365. Functional Architecture
  366.  
  367. According to historical references, the Etruscans had a highly developed system of hydraulics that involved drainage tunnels (cuniculi) at Veii and other sites (Bergamini 2001, Judson and Kahane 1963), and they also were skilled in building bridges across the many rivers that traversed the landscape, for example, the bridge at San Giovenale (Backe Forsberg 2005). It has been debated whether the Romans learned these skills from the Etruscans or developed them on their own in conjunction with other Latin communities (Cornell 1995). Since all communities needed the means to store and distribute water, cisterns must have been a major concern for Etruscan architects and engineers, but they are rarely studied as examples of Etruscan hydraulics, for example, the cistern at Castellina del Marangone (Belelli Marchesini 1995, Prayon 2005) and the well at Murlo/Poggio Civitate (Tuck, et al.). Likewise, storage areas of different types no doubt formed a considerable part of the urban and rural landscape, but they are difficult to identify unless they can be classified as “workshops” or had other identifiable uses, such as barns (Nijboer 1998).
  368.  
  369. Backe Forsberg, Yvonne. 2005. Crossing the bridge: An interpretation of the archaeological remains in the Etruscan bridge complex at San Giovenale, Etruria. PhD diss., Univ. of Uppsala.
  370. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  371. Important interpretation of a bridge and its cultic context.
  372. Find this resource:
  373. Belelli Marchesini, Barbara. 1995. La cisterna sulla Castellina del Marangone. Archeologia Classica 47:245–260.
  374. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  375. Detailed description of a building technique for a cistern, including the masons’ marks with numerical signs.
  376. Find this resource:
  377. Bergamini, Margherita, ed. 2001. Gli Etruschi maestri di idraulica. Perugia, Italy: Electa.
  378. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  379. Collection of important articles on the use of water technology primarily at Etruscan sites.
  380. Find this resource:
  381. Cornell, T. J. 1995. The beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000–264 BC). London and New York: Routledge.
  382. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  383. Analysis of functional architecture in early Rome.
  384. Find this resource:
  385. Judson, Sheldon, and A. Kahane. 1963. Underground drainageways in southern Etruria and northern Latium. Papers of the British School at Rome 31:75–99.
  386. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  387. Survey of evidence of drainage in areas with volcanic tuff.
  388. Find this resource:
  389. Nijboer, A. J. 1998. From household production to workshops: Archaeological economic transformations, pre-monetary exchange, and urbanisation in central Italy from 800 to 400 BC. PhD diss., Univ. of Groningen.
  390. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  391. Important overview of production centers and local economy in Etruria and Latium.
  392. Find this resource:
  393. Prayon, Friedhelm. 2005. Lo sviluppo urbanistico del sito etrusco di Castellina del Marangone (Comune di Santa Marinella, prov. di Roma). In Dinamiche di sviluppo delle città nell’Etruria meridionale: Veio, Caere, Tarquinia, Vulci; Atti del XXIII convegno di Studi Etruschi ed Italici. Edited by Orazio Paoletti and Giovannangelo Camporeale, 665–675. Rome: Istituti Editoriali e Poligrafici Internazionali.
  394. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  395. Analysis of the context for a cistern published in Belelli Marchesini 1995.
  396. Find this resource:
  397. Tuck, Anthony, Jevon Brunk, Theresa Huntsman, and Haley Tallman. An Archaic period well from Poggio Civitate (Murlo).
  398. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  399. Analysis of well construction and finds of roof tiles and pottery. Also published in Etruscan Studies 10 (2010): 93–106.
  400. Find this resource:
  401. Models of Buildings
  402.  
  403. As shown in many publications on Etruscan architecture, like Boëthius 1978, much if not most of what we know about Etruscan structures, temples in particular, is derived from terracotta (or occasionally bronze) models of oval huts and rectangular buildings (temples, houses), as in Staccioli 1968. These models originated with the Iron Age tradition of burying the cremated body in urns shaped like huts, shown with doorways, windows, roof elements, and other architectural features (Damgaard Andersen 1998). With the inception of Etruscan architecture as we know it, the form of the models changed to rectangular structures with imitations of roofs and roof decoration (Leighton 2005). These models were found in tombs or in nonfunerary contexts, presumably votive.
  404.  
  405. Boëthius, Axel. 1978. Etruscan and early Roman architecture. 2d integrated ed. Revised by Roger Ling and Tom Rasmussen. Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin.
  406. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  407. Classic study of all forms of Etruscan architecture.
  408. Find this resource:
  409. Damgaard Andersen, Helle. 1998. Etruscan architecture from the Late Orientalizing to the Archaic period (c. 640–480 B.C.). PhD diss., Univ. of Copenhagen.
  410. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  411. Dissertation presenting all aspects of Etruscan architecture, unfortunately not published with illustrations.
  412. Find this resource:
  413. Leighton, Robert. 2005. House urns and Etruscan tomb painting: Tradition versus innovation in the ninth–seventh centuries BC. Oxford Journal of Archaeology 24.4: 363–380.
  414. DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-0092.2005.00241.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  415. Discussion of the development of models.
  416. Find this resource:
  417. Staccioli, Romolo. 1968. Modelli di edifici etrusco-italici: I modelli votivi. Florence, Italy: Sansoni Editore.
  418. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  419. Standard reference work for votive models.
  420. Find this resource:
  421. Architectural Elements
  422.  
  423. Due to the perishable building materials used in Etruscan architecture, important additional information is provided by evidence of architectural details, such as columns, doors and windows, thresholds, and mouldings. Unlike Greek stone architecture, much important information on Etruscan temples, houses, and other buildings is gained from a detailed analysis of architectural terracottas, including roof tiles, and the kiln production of these elements. In addition, features such as altars provide information on architectural elements also used in buildings and illustrate the layout of sanctuaries.
  424.  
  425. Altars
  426.  
  427. Altars are an important component of Etruscan architecture in that they provide evidence for the use of space (sacred) and often model the architectural elements of temples through their mouldings (Etruscan round). They range in form from masses of rubble to rectangular, U-shaped, or hourglass-shaped blocks (Colonna 2006). Like other features of Etruscan architecture, their form is often determined by local traditions (Stopponi 2009) rather than by a chronological development (Euwe-Beaufort 1985, Steingräber 1982, Thuillier 1991), and the dating can therefore be difficult to ascertain.
  428.  
  429. Colonna, Giovanni. 2006. Sacred architecture and the religion of the Etruscans. In The religion of the Etruscans. Edited by Nancy T. de Grummond and Erika Simon, 132–168. Austin: Univ. of Texas Press.
  430. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  431. Overview of all different types of altars in conjunction with the temples and other features of Etruscan sanctuaries.
  432. Find this resource:
  433. Euwe-Beaufort, J. 1985. Altari etruschi. Bulletin Antieke Beschavung 60:100–105.
  434. DOI: 10.2143/BAB.60.0.2012613Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  435. Brief account of Etruscan altars.
  436. Find this resource:
  437. Menichelli, Silvia. 2009. Etruscan altars from the 7th to the 4th centuries B.C.E.: Typology, function, and cult. Etruscan Studies 12:99–129.
  438. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  439. Accessible overview of different forms of Etruscan altars.
  440. Find this resource:
  441. Steingräber, Stephan. 1982. Überlegungen zu etruskischen Altären. In Miscellanea Archaeologica Tobias Dohrn dedicata. Edited by H. Blanck and Stephan Steingräber, 103–116. Rome: G. Bretschneider.
  442. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  443. Overview of Etruscan altars.
  444. Find this resource:
  445. Stopponi, Simonetta. 2009. Campo della Fiera di Orvieto: Nuove acquisizioni. In Annali della fondazione per il museo Claudio Faina 16:425–478.
  446. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  447. Presentation of new discoveries at the sanctuary of Campo della Fiera at Orvieto.
  448. Find this resource:
  449. Thuillier, Jean-Paul. 1991. Autels d’Etrurie. In L’espcace sacrificial dans les civilisations méditerranéennes de l’antiquité: Actes du colloque tenu à la Maison de l’Orient, Lyon, 4–7 juin 1988. Edited by Roland Étienne and Marie-Thérèse Le Dinahet, 243–247. Paris: Boccard.
  450. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  451. Brief account of Etruscan altars.
  452. Find this resource:
  453. Architectural Terracottas
  454.  
  455. All forms of architectural terracottas were common in Etruscan buildings, ranging from protective plaques (frieze plaques, cymas, and so forth) to primarily decorative elements (akroteria and pedimental sculpture), on which see Andrén 1939–1940 and Winter 2009. Due to their abundance and variety of form of terracottas, the study of architectural terracottas, often including the roof systems consisting of pan tiles, cover tiles, and ridgepole tiles, is a particularly important area of Etruscan architecture and one that continues to provide new evidence from excavations or museum storerooms (Edlund-Berry, et al. 2006). The archaeological evidence suggests that all types of buildings, both private and public structures, could be decorated with architectural terracottas, not only temples as has often been proposed.
  456.  
  457. Andrén, Arvid. 1939–1940. Architectural terracottas from Etrusco-Italic temples. Lund, Sweden: C. W. K. Gleerup.
  458. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  459. Fundamental study of architectural terracottas with classification by type, location, and date.
  460. Find this resource:
  461. Edlund-Berry, Ingrid, Giovanna Greco, and John Kenfield, eds. 2006. Deliciae fictiles III: Architectural terracottas in ancient Italy; New discoveries and interpretations. Oxford: Oxbow.
  462. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  463. Proceedings of the international conference held at the American Academy in Rome in 2002. Example of collection of articles on research on Etruscan architectural terracottas. Part of a series of conference proceedings published under the title Deliciae Fictiles in 1993, 1996, and forthcoming.
  464. Find this resource:
  465. Winter, Nancy A. 2009. Symbols of wealth and power: Architectural terracotta decoration in Etruria and central Italy, 640–510 B.C. Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press.
  466. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  467. Presents an important new approach to the study of Etruscan architectural terracottas by grouping the fragments into roof systems at different sites.
  468. Find this resource:
  469. Columns, Capitals, and Bases
  470.  
  471. Columns of the Tuscan type (Tuscanicus) are described by the Roman architectural historian Vitruvius in De architectura 4.7.2–3 (Morolli 1992). They consist of an unfluted shaft, superimposed by a round block (echinus) with a square block (abacus) on top (Boëthius 1962). The base is round, like the echinus, and it is often difficult to tell from a fragment whether it formed part of the top or of the base of the column (Shoe Meritt and Edlund-Berry 2000). Examples of complete columns are found in rock-cut tombs, in tomb paintings (Naso 1996), and in models of temples and other buildings, whereas fragments of capitals and bases come from sites such as Acquarossa, Caere/Cerveteri, and Veii (Damgaard Andersen 1998). Even when fragmentary, the height of the columns can be estimated from the proportions recorded by Vitruvius. Columns of other types, including Aeolic, are only found in tombs (Ciascia 1962).
  472.  
  473. Boëthius, Axel. 1962. Of Tuscan columns. American Journal of Archaeology 66.3: 249–254.
  474. DOI: 10.2307/501449Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  475. Fundamental article of evidence known at the time.
  476. Find this resource:
  477. Ciasca, Antonia. 1962. Il capitello detto eolico in Etruria. Florence, Italy: Sansoni Editore.
  478. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  479. Standard monograph on the Aeolic capitals in Etruria.
  480. Find this resource:
  481. Damgaard Andersen, Helle. 1998. Etruscan architecture from the Late Orientalizing to the Archaic period (c. 640–480 B.C.). PhD diss., Univ. of Copenhagen.
  482. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  483. Includes discussion of columns in a general analysis of architectural features.
  484. Find this resource:
  485. Morolli, Gabriele. 1992. Motivi architettonici: Arco e colonna tuscanica. In Gli Etruschi e l’Europa. Edited by Paolo Parlavecchia, Massimo Pallottino, Italia Ministero per i Beni Culturali e Ambientali, Staatliche Museen, and Réunion des Musées Nationaux, 224–230. Milan: Fabbri Editori.
  486. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  487. Provides a discussion of the appreciation of the Tuscan column from the time of Vitruvius to the Renaisssance and after.
  488. Find this resource:
  489. Naso, Alessandro. 1996. Architetture dipinte: Decorazioni parietali non figurate nelle tombe a camera dell’Etruria meridionale (VII-V sec. a.c.). Rome: L’Erma di Bretschneider.
  490. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  491. Presents evidence of painted columns in tombs.
  492. Find this resource:
  493. Shoe Meritt, Lucy T., and Ingrid E. M. Edlund-Berry. 2000. Etruscan and republican Roman mouldings. Philadelphia: Univ. Museum, Univ. of Pennsylvania.
  494. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  495. Originally published in Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome 28 (1965). The 2000 version has additional chapters. Fundamental presentation of the use of mouldings in Etruscan architecture, including columns.
  496. Find this resource:
  497. Doors and Windows
  498.  
  499. Because of the poor preservation of walls and superstructures of Etruscan buildings, our evidence for doors and windows comes primarily from models of Etruscan buildings, primarily from funerary urns of the Villanovan or Etruscan period (Hanfmann 1942, Scheffer 1994). By combining evidence from the building models with the remains of foundation walls and roof tiles (Damgaard Andersen 1998, Prayon 1975), it is possible to postulate the flow of traffic into and within a building and the light provided by windows on the outside and inside walls.
  500.  
  501. Damgaard Andersen, Helle. 1998. Etruscan architecture from the Late Orientalizing to the Archaic period (c. 640–480 B.C.). PhD diss., Univ. of Copenhagen.
  502. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  503. Includes discussion of evidence from doors and windows in Etruscan tombs and hut and house models.
  504. Find this resource:
  505. Hanfmann, George M. A. 1942. Etruscan doors and windows. Journal of the American Society of Architectural Historians 2.1: 8–16.
  506. DOI: 10.2307/901199Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  507. Pioneering study by eminent archaeologist.
  508. Find this resource:
  509. Prayon, Friedhelm. 1975. Frühetruskische Grab- und Hausarchitektur. RM Ergänzungsheft 22. Heidelberg, Germany: F. H. Kerle.
  510. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  511. Fundamental study of Etruscan tomb architecture, including interior details.
  512. Find this resource:
  513. Scheffer, Charlotte. 1994. The arched door in late Etruscan funerary art. In Murlo and the Etruscans. Edited by Richard D. De Puma and J. P. Small, 196–210. Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Press.
  514. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  515. Analysis of the symbolism of the arched door in Etruscan funerary art.
  516. Find this resource:
  517. Kilns
  518.  
  519. Because of the extensive use of fired clay for roofs and architectural revetments in Etruscan architecture, the presence of workshops is an important factor in evaluating Etruscan architecture (Nielsen 1987). The scanty archaeological evidence for kilns suggests that roof tiles and other terracotta features were mostly produced locally and close to the building to which they pertained (Damgaard Andersen 1998, Winter 2009).
  520.  
  521. Damgaard Andersen, Helle. 1998. Etruscan architecture from the Late Orientalizing to the Archaic period (c. 640–480 B.C.). PhD diss., Univ. of Copenhagen.
  522. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  523. Includes a discussion of kilns known from Etruscan sites.
  524. Find this resource:
  525. Nielsen, Erik O. 1987. Some preliminary thoughts on old and new terracottas. Opuscula Romana 16:91–120.
  526. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  527. Discusses the workshop for production of architectural terracottas at Murlo/Poggio Civitate.
  528. Find this resource:
  529. Winter, Nancy A. 2009. Symbols of wealth and power: Architectural terracotta decoration in Etruria and central Italy, 640–510 B.C. Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press.
  530. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  531. See especially chapter 8 on the production process of Etruscan architectural terracottas.
  532. Find this resource:
  533. Mouldings
  534.  
  535. Ancient architecture, whether Greek or Roman, was characterized by mouldings cut into the building blocks to form the transitions between vertical and horizontal features. While in Greek architecture these mouldings display a predictable chronological and regional progression, the Etruscan equivalents are primarily regional. The most common moulding type used in Etruscan architecture was the Etruscan round, or torus, which was incorporated into Roman architecture as a statement of continuity between Etruscan and Roman architectural traditions (Shoe Meritt and Edlund-Berry 2000). The Romans used this form primarily in temple podiums where the temple was erected as a statement of Roman political presence in a non-Roman territory.
  536.  
  537. Shoe Meritt, Lucy T., and Ingrid E. M. Edlund-Berry. 2000. Etruscan and republican Roman mouldings. Philadelphia: Univ. Museum, Univ. of Pennsylvania.
  538. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  539. Originally published in Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome 28 (1965). Fundamental study of the use of mouldings in Etruscan architecture.
  540. Find this resource:
  541. Roofs
  542.  
  543. The study of roofs in Etruscan architecture has allowed for a whole new dimension of documentation of construction techniques and of buildings (Wikander 1986, Wikander 1993). While earlier architecture (Iron Age, Villanovan), on which see Damgaard Andersen 2001, Damgaard Andersen and Toms 2001, and Wikander 2001, is characterized by thatched roofs, Etruscan buildings display a sophisticated system of roof construction for small and large buildings (Turfa and Steinmayer 1996). As shown in Winter 2009, the use of roof tiles (pan tiles, cover tiles, and ridgepole tiles) is specific to a type of building and the time period in which it was built. For the historical significance of the manufacture and distribution of roof tiles, see Wikander 1988 and Wikander 1992.
  544.  
  545. Damgaard Andersen, Helle. 2001. Thatched or tiled roofs from the early Iron Age to the Archaic period in central Italy. In From huts to houses: Transformation of ancient societies. Edited by J. Rasmus Brandt and Lars Karlsson, 245–262. Stockholm: Paul Åströms Förlag.
  546. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  547. Discussion of the roof construction in early Etruscan architecture.
  548. Find this resource:
  549. Damgaard Andersen, Helle, and Judith Toms. 2001. The earliest tiles in Italy? In From huts to houses: Transformation of ancient societies. Edited by J. Rasmus Brandt, and Lars Karlsson, 263–268. Stockholm: Paul Åströms Förlag.
  550. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  551. Discussion of the origins of Etruscan tiles.
  552. Find this resource:
  553. Turfa, Jean MacIntosh, and A. G. Steinmayer Jr. 1996. The comparative structure of Greek and Etruscan monumental buildings. Papers of the British School at Rome 64:1–39.
  554. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  555. Discussion of the technology of creating roof supports for Etruscan terracotta roofs.
  556. Find this resource:
  557. Wikander, Örjan. 1986. Acquarossa. Vol. 6, The roof-tiles, Pt. 1, Catalogue and architectural context. Stockholm: Paul Åströms Förlag.
  558. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  559. Fundamental study of roof tiles from Acquarossa.
  560. Find this resource:
  561. Wikander, Örjan. 1988. Ancient roof-tiles: Use and function. Opuscula Atheniensia 17:203–216.
  562. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  563. Overview of a significance of study of roof tiles.
  564. Find this resource:
  565. Wikander, Örjan. 1992. Archaic roof-tiles: The first generation. Opuscula Atheniensia 19:151–161.
  566. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  567. Discussion of the history of roof tile production.
  568. Find this resource:
  569. Wikander, Örjan. 1993. Acquarossa. Vol. 6, The roof-tiles, Pt. 2, Typology and technical features. Stockholm: Paul Åströms Förlag.
  570. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  571. Fundamental typology of Etruscan roof tiles, established from material at Acquarossa.
  572. Find this resource:
  573. Wikander, Charlotte. 2001. From huts to houses: The problem of architectural decoration. In From huts to houses: Transformation of ancient societies. Edited by J. Rasmus Brandt and Lars Karlsson, 269–272. Stockholm: Paul Åströms Förlag.
  574. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  575. Overview of use of architectural terracottas, including roof tiles.
  576. Find this resource:
  577. Winter, Nancy A. 2009. Symbols of wealth and power: Architectural terracotta decoration in Etruria and central Italy, 640–510 B.C. Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press.
  578. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  579. Fundamental study of Etruscan architectural terracottas, including roof tiles, as examples of assemblages.
  580. Find this resource:
  581. Thresholds
  582.  
  583. The foundations of Etruscan buildings allow us to speculate on how they were entered and how the various rooms and units interacted with each other (Meyers 2003, Rohner 1996). Thresholds, whether marked as gaps in a foundation wall or identified by special blocks, suggest openings to the outside and connections between individual rooms.
  584.  
  585. Meyers, Gretchen E. 2003. Etrusco-Italic monumental architectural space from the Iron Age to the Archaic period: An examination of approach and access. PhD diss., Univ. of Texas at Austin.
  586. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  587. Uses the presence or absence of thresholds as a criterion for documenting access to and with Etruscan monumental buildings.
  588. Find this resource:
  589. Rohner, Dorothy Dvorsky. 1996. Etruscan domestic architecture: An ethnoarchaeological model. In Etruscan Italy. Edited by John F. Hall, 115–145. Provo, UT: Museum of Art, Brigham Young Univ.
  590. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  591. See especially page 142, note 10. Includes a brief discussion of the importance of identifying Etruscan thresholds.
  592. Find this resource:
  593. back to top
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