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Greek and Roman Mosaics (Classics)

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  1. Introduction
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  3. The earliest decorated mosaics in the Greco-Roman world were made in Greece in the late 5th century BCE, using black and white pebbles. Mosaics made with cut cubes (tesserae) of stone, ceramic, or glass were probably developed in the 3rd century BCE, and soon became standard. Relatively few mosaics are known from the classical and Hellenistic periods, but under Roman rule the technique spread far beyond the Mediterranean, and distinctive styles evolved in different regions. Mosaic was first used to decorate walls and vaults in Italy in the 1st century BCE. Early wall mosaics combined colored glass, shells, pumice, and other materials, but by the mid-1st century CE glass tesserae were the standard material. In all periods, floor mosaics are much more common than wall and vault mosaics, because they are less vulnerable when buildings collapse. Mosaics were most often used to decorate houses, but they were also used in baths, on both floors and walls, and sometimes in other public buildings. In Late Antiquity, floor and wall mosaics also became a common form of decoration in churches. The majority of ancient mosaics were decorated with geometric or vegetal patterns, but in the most important rooms they often depicted scenes from mythology or everyday life. The study of mosaics has traditionally been dominated by art-historical concerns, such as style, motifs, iconography, attribution, and chronology, but in recent years more interest has been devoted to the social and economic implications of mosaics, such as how they were used to present the patron and his family in a flattering light, or to structure space, especially in houses. Scientific analysis of materials is also beginning to play an important role in mosaic studies, providing a new source of evidence for art-historical questions such as attribution and the development of techniques and styles.
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  5. General Overviews
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  7. Dunbabin 1999 is the most comprehensive overview of ancient mosaics, and the obvious starting point both for students and for research. Ling 1998 is a more concise but no less authoritative introduction for students or general readers, covering similar ground to Dunbabin 1999. Smith 1983 is a reliable single-chapter overview of Roman mosaics, in a widely available textbook, although the author’s remarks about the role of prefabrication have been overtaken by more recent research (see Mosaic Production). Sear and Dunbabin 1996 is a more recent but less well illustrated survey.
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  9. Dunbabin, Katherine M. D. 1999. Mosaics of the Greek and Roman world. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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  11. An authoritative, detailed, and accessible synthesis, ranging from classical Greece to the 8th century CE, with chapters on classical and Hellenistic mosaics, the development of mosaics in different regions of the Roman Empire, wall and vault mosaics, craftsmen and patrons, techniques, motifs, and the relationship of mosaics to their setting.
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  13. Ling, Roger. 1998. Ancient mosaics. London: British Museum.
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  15. Short, well-illustrated survey for the nonspecialist reader, tracing the history of mosaic from classical Greece to the churches of 6th-century CE Ravenna.
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  17. Sear, Frank B., and Katherine M. D. Dunbabin. 1996. Rome, ancient, §VI. Mosaics. In The dictionary of art. Vol. 27. Edited by Jane Turner, 58–68. London: Grove.
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  19. Concise overview of Roman floor and wall mosaics, with discussion of mosaic types and techniques, subject-matter, and historical development.
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  21. Smith, David J. 1983. Mosaics. In A handbook of Roman art: A survey of the visual arts of the Roman world. Edited by Martin Henig, 116–138. London: Phaidon.
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  23. Chapter on the development of Roman mosaics, in a standard textbook on Roman art. Includes extensive notes and suggestions for further reading.
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  25. Bibliographies
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  27. The Bulletin de l’Association International pour l’Étude de la Mosaïque Antique, produced by the International Association for the Study of Ancient Mosaics (AIEMA), is an essential resource for locating new finds and research.
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  29. Bulletin de l’Association International pour l’Étude de la Mosaïque Antique. 1968–.
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  31. Roughly biennial listing of publications about all aspects of ancient mosaics, with some coverage of medieval mosaics; organized by topic and by region. Also includes book reviews, reports on conferences and projects, abstracts of mosaic-related dissertations, and a few short articles, mostly on methods of recording and cataloguing mosaics.
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  33. Conferences
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  35. Picard and Stern 1965 is the first in the ongoing series of international conferences on ancient and medieval mosaics organized by the Association International pour l’Étude de la Mosaïque Antique (AIEMA). Later volumes are published under the same title or various versions of Colloque international pour l’étude de la mosaïque antique, depending on the language of the host country (often abbreviated to CMGR). They consist of short papers on aspects of iconography, motifs, style, and technique, as well as presentations of new finds. Some of AIEMA’s national branches also organize and publish regular conferences: see Atti del Colloquio dell’Associazione Italiana per lo Studio e la Conservazione del Mosaico, cited under Italy, and Şahin 2008, cited under Turkey. Ben Abed, et al. 2008 is a recent volume in the series of conference proceedings issued by the International Committee for the Conservation of Mosaics (ICCM), which are a useful source for new discoveries and new information about older ones, although their main purpose is to report on conservation practices and methods.
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  37. Ben Abed, Aïcha, Martha Demas, and Thomas Roby, eds. 2008. Lessons learned: Reflecting on the theory and practice of mosaic conservation; Proceedings of the 9th Conference of the International Committee for the Conservation of Mosaics, Hammamet, Tunisia, November 29–December 3, 2005. Los Angeles: Getty.
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  39. Volume in an ongoing series of conferences reporting on and assessing methods of mosaic conservation. The full list of volumes can be found on the ICCM website.
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  41. Picard, Gilbert, and Henri Stern, eds. 1965. La mosaïque gréco-romaine, Paris, 29 août–3 septembre 1963. Paris: CNRS.
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  43. Proceedings of the first international congress organized by the Association International pour l’Étude de la Mosaïque Antique (AIEMA).
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  45. Journals
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  47. Articles about ancient mosaics can be found in a wide range of classical and archaeological journals, but there are a handful of journals devoted exclusively to mosaics. Musiva et Sectilia was set up to complement the bibliographic Bulletin de l’Association International pour l’Étude de la Mosaïque Antique (cited under Bibliographies) by publishing substantial scholarly articles with high-quality color illustrations. The Journal of Mosaic Research deals mostly with mosaics in Turkey and the eastern Mediterranean, with color illustrations. Mosaic is a more popular journal, which is produced by the British branch of AIEMA and thus focuses on Romano-British mosaics, though it often includes articles relating to mosaics from other areas.
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  49. Journal of Mosaic Research. 2008–.
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  51. Journal of the Uludağ University Mosaic Research Centre, with articles on all aspects of mosaic research and conservation in Turkey and the eastern Mediterranean; in English, French, German, and Turkish, with abstracts in English.
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  53. Mosaic. 1979–.
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  55. Annual journal of the Association for the Study and Preservation of Roman Mosaics (ASPROM), with short articles aimed at a broad readership. Full tables of contents are available online.
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  57. Musiva et Sectilia. 2004–.
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  59. International journal specializing in Greco-Roman and early medieval floor and wall decoration in mosaic and colored stone; articles in English, French, German, Italian, and Spanish, with abstracts in English.
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  61. Typology and Terminology
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  63. Many types of decorative paving were used in the ancient world. They are often described in the modern literature by Latin terms borrowed from ancient texts; basic glossaries can be found in introductory works such as Dunbabin 1999 and Ling 1998 (both cited under General Overviews), but the terminology used by modern scholars is very diverse and there is little agreement as to which term should be used for which type of pavement. Farneti 1993 attempts to guide the reader through this minefield by listing all the English, Italian, and Latin terms in common use for different pavement types, materials, and techniques, as well as, where they are disputed, the different senses in which they are used, although the list is not exhaustive. Many of the Latin terms originate from Pliny the Elder’s brief history of mosaics (Natural History XXXVI.184–189), which uses several rare and obscure words and has generated much controversy but few conclusions. Tang 2006 reviews the problem, with references to the debates over various terms, and makes some sensible suggestions for a way forward. Other works in this section deal with types of pavement related to mosaics. Guidobaldi 1985 establishes a widely used framework for the study of opus sectile floors, made with pieces of colored stone cut to shape and fitted together; there is a handy introduction to the technique in Dunbabin 1999, chapter 15 (cited under General Overviews). Morricone 1980 proposes a chronology for pavements decorated with inset fragments of colored stone, which the author controversially identifies with the scutulatum in the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus mentioned by Pliny (Natural History XXXVI.185), rejecting the term lithostroton preferred by earlier scholars; more recent authors generally refer to floors of this type as “crustae-pavements” (crustae are the stone fragments). Vassal 2006 surveys pavements in opus signinum, red mortar containing crushed terracotta, often with decoration in tesserae or stone chips, a type of flooring that is ubiquitous in the Roman world.
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  65. Farneti, Manuela. 1993. Glossario technico-storico del mosaico/Technical-historical glossary of mosaic art. Ravenna, Italy: Longo.
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  67. Illustrated glossary of terms for pavement types, techniques, and materials, in Italian and English, with a brief description of mosaic styles and techniques from antiquity to the present.
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  69. Guidobaldi, Federico. 1985. Pavimenti in opus sectile di Roma e dell’area romana: Proposte per una classificazione e criteri di datazione. In Marmi antichi: Problemi di impiego, di restauro e d’identificazione. Edited by Patrizio Pensabene, 171–233. Studi Miscellanei 26, 1981–1983. Rome: “L’Erma” di Bretschneider.
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  71. Study of marble opus sectile (cut stone) pavements in Rome, Latium, and Campania from the 1st century BCE to the 4th century CE; categorizes their designs according to scale, complexity, and pattern, and proposes a broad chronology based on this typology and on techniques and materials.
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  73. Morricone, Maria L. 1980. Scutulata pavimenta: I pavimenti con inserti di marmo o di pietra trovati a Roma e nei dintorni. Studi e Materiali del Museo della Civiltà Romana. Rome: “L’Erma” di Bretschneider.
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  75. Catalogue and study of late Republican mosaics and mortar pavements from Rome and environs decorated with inset fragments of colored limestone or marble, usually against a monochrome background.
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  77. Tang, Birgit. 2006. Towards a typology and terminology of ancient pavements. Analecta Romana Instituti Danici 32:93–104.
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  79. Argues that terms from ancient sources should not be used to define pavement types, and proposes instead a simple descriptive classification based on the technical characteristics of the pavements.
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  81. Vassal, Véronique. 2006. Les pavements d’opus signinum: Technique, décor, fonction architecturale. BAR International Series 1472. Oxford: Archaeopress.
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  83. Study of Roman pavements in opus signinum (mortar containing crushed terracotta), covering terminology, technique, geographical distribution, decoration, and function, illustrated by a catalogue of selected examples.
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  85. Wall and Vault Mosaics
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  87. Sear 1977 is the standard monograph on Roman wall and vault mosaics, and it catalogues all the examples known at the time from Italy and the provinces. Lavagne 1988 considers the origins and meaning of wall mosaics in relation to the fashion for artificial caves in Italy in the 1st centuries BCE and CE. Shorter introductions to wall and vault mosaic can be found in Sear and Dunbabin 1996 and Dunbabin 1999 (chapter 14), both cited under General Overviews.
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  89. Lavagne, Henri. 1988. Operosa antra: Recherches sur la grotte à Rome de Sylla à Hadrien. Bibliothèque des Écoles Françaises d’Athènes et de Rome 272. Rome: École Française de Rome.
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  91. Study of artificial grottoes in late Republican and early Imperial Italy, where wall mosaics first appeared.
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  93. Sear, Frank B. 1977. Roman wall and vault mosaics. Römische Mitteilungen Ergänzungsheft 23. Heidelberg, Germany: F. H. Kerle.
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  95. Catalogue of wall and vault mosaics from the 1st century BCE to the 5th century CE, with a survey of their development, decoration, and technique.
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  97. Mosaic Production
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  99. Clear explanations of how mosaics were made can be found in Strong and Brown 1976, and in chapters 16 and 17 of Dunbabin 1999, cited under General Overviews. Both draw on the instructions for laying a mosaic given by Vitruvius (On Architecture VII.1), as well as on evidence from surviving mosaics. Neal, in Strong and Brown 1976, assumes that mosaics were regularly prefabricated in a workshop using the indirect method, which involves arranging the tesserae in a bed of sand and gluing cloth or paper onto the surface to transport them to the site, or the reverse method, where the tesserae are glued face-down onto cloth or paper bearing a mirror-image of the final design. However, Ling 1994 argues that there is no conclusive evidence for this, and it is generally accepted that ancient mosaics were normally laid in situ, apart from a minority of fine figured panels (emblemata), which were prefabricated in a tray or on a solid support. Wootton 2012 reconstructs the construction process in detail in relation to a single Hellenistic mosaic from Israel, showing how much information about working practices can be extracted from close examination of mosaic foundations; a study of a Roman mosaic from Antioch, Becker and Kondoleon 2005 (cited under Materials), indicates a similar process, but a slightly different sequence. Donderer 1989–2008 collects all the written evidence for Greek and Roman mosaicists, which mostly consists of signatures on mosaics; it also analyses the Greek and Latin terms used to refer to makers of mosaics. The sole surviving example of a mosaicist’s contract, which provides valuable insights into working methods, is discussed in the light of evidence from contemporary mosaics in Bruneau 1980 and Daszewski 1985, pp. 6–14 (cited under Egypt and Cyrenaica).
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  101. Bruneau, Philippe. 1980. Un devis de pose de mosaïques: Le papyrus Cairo Zen. 59665. In ΣΤΗΛΗ: Τόμος εις μνήμην Νικολάου Κοντολέοντος, 134–143. Athens, Greece: Friends of Nikolaos Kondoleon.
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  103. Commentary on a mid-3rd-century BCE papyrus from the archive of the Egyptian official Zenon, which sets out the specifications for the mosaics to be laid in a bath.
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  105. Donderer, Michael. 1989–2008. Die Mosaizisten der Antike und ihre wirtschaftliche und soziale Stellung: Eine Quellenstudie; Die Mosaizisten der Antike II: Epigraphische Quellen—Neufunde und Nachträge. Erlangen, Germany: Universitätsbund Erlangen-Nürnberg.
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  107. Two-volume study of the economic and social position of mosaicists in the ancient world; Volume I includes a catalogue of all the known mosaicists’ signatures and other inscriptions referring to mosaicists, which is updated in Volume II.
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  109. Ling, Roger. 1994. Against the reverse technique. In Fifth International Colloquium on Ancient Mosaics, held at Bath, England, on September 5–12, 1987. Edited by Peter Johnson, Roger Ling, and David J. Smith, 77–88. Journal of Roman Archaeology supp. 9, part 1. Ann Arbor, MI: Journal of Roman Archaeology.
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  111. Argues against the theory that ancient mosaicists used the reverse method to prefabricate pavements, by offering alternative explanations for errors in mosaics that have been attributed to the use of the reverse technique.
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  113. Strong, Donald, and David Brown. 1976. Roman crafts. London: Duckworth.
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  115. Textbook on craft techniques in the ancient world, with chapters on floor mosaics by David S. Neal, and on wall and vault mosaics by Frank Sear.
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  117. Wootton, Will. 2012. Making and meaning: the Hellenistic mosaic from Tel Dor. American Journal of Archaeology 116:209–234.
  118. DOI: 10.3764/aja.116.2.0209Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  119. Study of a fragmentary mosaic from Israel, which reconstructs the process of laying the pavement from seams in the surface and foundations, and uses the techniques and materials as evidence for the organization of mosaic production in the late Hellenistic period.
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  121. Materials
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  123. The scientific study of materials is a relatively new area of mosaic scholarship, which is beginning to transform our understanding of the organization of mosaic production and the movement of materials and craftsmen. There are numerous small-scale studies of mosaic materials, published in reports on individual sites or mosaics, or in specialist archaeological science journals or conference proceedings, but the works listed in this section use scientific data to draw out wider economic and artistic implications. Berger and Joos 1971 is an early petrographic study of a Roman mosaic in Switzerland, which showed that most of the stones used could have been obtained in the local area, although some were imported from as far away as Carrara in Italy. Allen and Fulford 2004 presents a petrographic study of tesserae from mosaics in southern Britain; the results suggest a centralized supply system for some common materials. Modern scientific techniques also offer the possibility of characterizing the composition and original colors of artificial materials such as glass and faience. Guimier-Sorbets and Nenna 1992 makes the important observation that the present appearance of a mosaic may be quite different from its original color scheme, because of the ways in which artificial materials degrade. Becker and Kondoleon 2005 is an excellent example of how scientific analysis of materials and close examination of setting techniques can complement traditional stylistic description to throw light on the process of laying a complex figured pavement and the relationships between the craftsmen involved. Boschetti 2011 compares the use of glass and faience in early mosaics in Italy to that in contemporary mosaics from the Hellenistic east, showing how analysis of materials can help us to understand the spread of styles and techniques between regions of the ancient world.
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  125. Allen, John R. L., and Michael G. Fulford. 2004. Early Roman mosaic materials in southern Britain, with particular reference to Silchester (Calleva Atrebatum): A regional geological perspective. Britannia 35:9–38.
  126. DOI: 10.2307/4128620Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  127. Identifies similarities in the materials used in mosaics of the 1st and 2nd centuries CE at numerous sites across southern Britain, and traces several of the most common stones to the Kimmeridge Bay area of Dorset, which suggests centralized control of certain key natural resources.
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  129. Becker, Lawrence, and Christine Kondoleon. 2005. The arts of Antioch: Art historical and scientific approaches to Roman mosaics and a catalogue of the Worcester Art Museum Antioch Collection. Worcester, MA: Worcester Art Museum.
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  131. Interdisciplinary study, by a team of art-historians and conservators, of an early 2nd-century CE mosaic from the Atrium House at Antioch; also includes a catalogue of material from Antioch in the Worcester Art Museum, including a number of mosaics.
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  133. Berger, Ludwig, and Marcel Joos. 1971. Das Augster Gladiatorenmosaik. Augst, Switzerland: Römermuseum.
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  135. Pioneering collaboration between an archaeologist and a petrographer that identifies and provenances the stones used in a Roman mosaic from Augst in Switzerland, in order to throw light on workshop connections, chronology, and the regional economy.
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  137. Boschetti, Cristina. 2011. Vitreous materials in early mosaics in Italy: Faience, Egyptian blue, and glass. Journal of Glass Studies 53:59–91.
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  139. Scientific study of the use of glass, faience, and Egyptian blue in Italian floor and wall mosaics from the end of the 2nd century BCE to the late 1st century CE.
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  141. Guimier-Sorbets, Anne-Marie, and Marie-Dominique Nenna. 1992. L’emploi du verre, de la faïence et de la peinture dans les mosaïques de Délos. Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique 116:607–631.
  142. DOI: 10.3406/bch.1992.4669Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  143. Identifies glass and faience tesserae and paint in the late Hellenistic mosaics of Delos, and reconstructs their original colors.
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  145. Design, Motifs, and Subjects
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  147. Balmelle, et al. 2002 is the standard reference for mosaic motifs and designs; it attempts to establish a standardized terminology for describing mosaics in five major European languages, although many of the English descriptions are cumbersome and unidiomatic. Salies 1974 defines a typology of the geometric frameworks of Roman mosaics, which is widely used by other authors. Ackermann, et al. 1981–1999 is the standard reference work on the iconography of mythological characters and stories in ancient art, and an essential resource for identifying mythological subjects in mosaics and understanding how they relate to similar depictions in other media. An important strand in recent research considers how mosaic designs related to their architectural setting. Clarke 1979 analyzes the compositional principles of black-and-white figural mosaics, showing how they reflect and direct the movement of the viewer within the spaces that they decorate. These mosaics represent the beginning of a major shift in mosaic design, from the classical picture-centered tradition to the more abstract, all-over compositions of Late Antiquity, which was originally traced in the classic article Lavin 1963.
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  149. Ackermann, Hans C., Jean-Robert Gisler, and Lilly Kahil. 1981–1999. Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae. 8 vols. Zurich, Switzerland: Artemis.
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  151. Comprehensive pictorial lexicon illustrating the ways in which mythological figures and episodes are depicted in Greek, Etruscan, and Roman art, with commentaries in English, French, German, or Italian, and extensive bibliographies; often abbreviated to LIMC.
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  153. Balmelle, Catherine, Michèle Blanchard-Lemée, Jeanne Christophe, et al. 2002. Le décor géométrique de la mosaïque romaine. 2 vols. Paris: Picard.
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  155. Illustrated lexicon of geometric and vegetal motifs used in Greco-Roman mosaics, with descriptions in English, French, German, Italian, and Spanish; Volume 1, Répertoire graphique et descriptif des compositions linéaires et isotropes, originally published in 1985, covers linear and repeating patterns; Volume 2, Répertoire graphique et descriptif des décors centrés, covers basic decorative elements and centralized designs.
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  157. Clarke, John R. 1979. Roman black-and-white figural mosaics. New York: New York Univ. Press.
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  159. Study of the development of black-and-white mosaics in Italy in the 1st to 3rd centuries CE, focusing on their style and relationship to their architectural setting.
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  161. Lavin, Irving. 1963. The hunting mosaics of Antioch and their sources: A study of compositional principles in the development of early mediaeval style. Dumbarton Oaks Papers 17:181–285.
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  163. Study of the transition from classical to medieval conventions of representation in mosaics, tracing the origins of the figural designs with multiple perspectives that became popular in Late Antiquity, which Lavin argues lie in the western Mediterranean, especially North Africa.
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  165. Salies, Gisela. 1974. Untersuchungen zu den geometrischen Gliederungsschemata römischer Mosaiken. Bonner Jahrbücher 174:1–178.
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  167. Proposes a typology of the geometric grids and frameworks used to lay out Roman mosaics, and analyzes the development of schemes over time and their popularity in different parts of the Empire.
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  169. Sociological Approaches
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  171. The works in this section exemplify the recent shift in mosaic studies away from the traditional focus on style and iconography, and toward a greater interest in the meaning and social function of mosaics, and their relationship to the use of space in houses. Lancha 1997 examines how patrons in the Western Empire chose “cultural” subjects to advertise their education and familiarity with literature. Muth 1998 argues instead that mythological scenes should be seen primarily as pictures in their own right, rather than as dependent on literary narratives, and that they were chosen to reflect values and ideal gender roles, and to create an appropriate ambience for the activities that took place in the room. Clarke 1991 is an influential study of Roman interior decoration, showing how the design of mosaics and wall paintings relates to the form and use of space in houses. Drawing on Clarke’s ideas, Westgate 2000 uses the materials and designs of mosaics as evidence for the use of space in Hellenistic houses, and Swift 2009 proposes innovative ways of understanding Roman geometric mosaics in terms of their effect on the spectator and their ability to structure space and relationships.
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  173. Clarke, John R. 1991. The houses of Roman Italy 100 B.C.–A.D. 250: Ritual, space, and decoration. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
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  175. Examines selected houses and apartments at Pompeii, Herculaneum, Oplontis, and Ostia, to show how floor and wall decoration were coordinated to structure the space and the experience of the viewer.
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  177. Lancha, Janine. 1997. Mosaïque et culture dans l’Occident romain (Ier–IVe s.). Bibliotheca Archaeologica 20. Rome: “L’Erma” di Bretschneider.
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  179. Study of “cultural” subjects on mosaics in the Western Empire, including the Muses; portraits of philosophers, poets, and other writers; theatrical masks; and scenes from literature and drama.
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  181. Muth, Susanne. 1998. Erleben von Raum—Leben im Raum: Zur Funktion mythologischer Mosaikbilder in der römisch-kaiserzeitlichen Wohnarchitektur. Archäologie und Geschichte 10. Heidelberg, Germany: Verlag Archäologie und Geschichte.
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  183. Study of the role of mythological images in Roman houses, illustrated by case studies of mosaics from Spain and North Africa depicting the abduction of Hylas by the Nymphs and the discovery of Achilles on Skyros.
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  185. Swift, Ellen. 2009. Style and function in Roman decoration: Living with objects and interiors. Farnham, UK: Ashgate.
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  187. Study of the function of decorative arts in Roman society, with chapters on mosaics, silverware, and dress accessories, mainly from the Western Empire.
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  189. Westgate, Ruth. 2000. Space and decoration in Hellenistic houses. Annual of the British School at Athens 95:391–426.
  190. DOI: 10.1017/S0068245400004743Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  191. Demonstrates how the materials, colors, and complexity of pavements and wall paintings were used to create hierarchies of space in late Hellenistic houses at Delos, Morgantina, and Monte Iato.
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  193. Early Mosaics: The Classical and Hellenistic Periods
  194.  
  195. This section includes works that consider the early development of mosaics in general. Regional studies and catalogues that cover early mosaics are listed in the topographical sections, although several include important general discussions of Hellenistic mosaics: note especially Bruneau 1972, cited under Greece: Regional Studies and Catalogues; Daszewski 1985, cited under Egypt and Cyrenaica; Pernice 1938, cited under Campania, and Boeselager 1983, cited under Sicily and Sardinia. Westgate 2012 is a summary of the current state of knowledge, aimed at students or scholars; there is a more extensively illustrated introduction in chapters 1–3 of Dunbabin 1999, cited under General Overviews. Salzmann 1982 is the standard scholarly synthesis on classical and Hellenistic pebble mosaics, which are the earliest mosaics in the Greco-Roman world; it is concerned mainly with chronology and the evolution of tessellated mosaic, rather than with iconography or social aspects. Dunbabin 1979 and Dunbabin 1994 also consider the invention of tessellated mosaic: the author envisages a more complex, less linear model than Salzmann’s, in which tessellated mosaics evolved through independent experiments with techniques and materials in different regions of the Hellenistic world. Westgate 2000 examines the spread of mosaics from the Hellenistic to the Roman world, placing early Pompeian pictorial mosaics in the context of the Roman fashion for copies and pastiches of Greek art in the 2nd and 1st centuries BCE. Andreae 2003 also discusses these early Roman picture-mosaics, made in the fine, painterly technique described by modern scholars as opus vermiculatum, and studies their iconographic connections with the Hellenistic world; the book is well worth consulting for its unparalleled color illustrations. Recent directions in the study of Hellenistic mosaics are represented by several works cited in other sections: Boschetti 2011 and Guimier-Sorbets and Nenna 1992, cited under Materials; Wootton 2012, cited under Mosaic Production; and Westgate 2000, cited under Sociological Approaches.
  196.  
  197. Andreae, Bernard. 2003. Antike Bildmosaiken. Mainz, Germany: Von Zabern.
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  199. Sumptuously illustrated survey of Hellenistic and early Roman pictorial mosaics, ranging from Pergamon and Delos to Pompeii, Rome, and Hadrian’s Villa at Tivoli.
  200. Find this resource:
  201. Dunbabin, Katherine M. D. 1979. Technique and materials of Hellenistic mosaics. American Journal of Archaeology 83:265–277.
  202. DOI: 10.2307/505057Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  203. Examines mosaics of stone chips and mixtures of chips, pebbles, or tesserae, which are sometimes thought to represent an intermediate step between pebble and tessellated mosaic; concludes that the dating evidence does not support this, and argues instead that such mosaics were made for a variety of aesthetic and practical reasons.
  204. Find this resource:
  205. Dunbabin, Katherine M. D. 1994. Early pavement types in the West and the invention of tessellation. In Fifth International Colloquium on Ancient Mosaics, held at Bath, England, on September 5–12, 1987. Edited by Peter Johnson, Roger Ling, and David J. Smith, 26–40. Journal of Roman Archaeology supp. 9, part 1. Ann Arbor, MI: Journal of Roman Archaeology.
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  207. Draws attention to a number of unusually early tessellated mosaics in Sicily and southern Italy, and suggests that they evolved locally from opus signinum (red mortar) pavements decorated with inset tesserae, which are characteristic of Carthage and other Punic sites.
  208. Find this resource:
  209. Salzmann, Dieter. 1982. Untersuchungen zu den antiken Kieselmosaiken von den Anfängen bis zum Beginn der Tesseratechnik. Archäologische Forschungen 10. Berlin: Mann.
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  211. Survey of pebble mosaics from the Aegean Bronze Age to the Hellenistic period, with a complete catalogue and copious illustrations; also includes Hellenistic mosaics of stone chips and mixed materials, which Salzmann argues were forerunners of tessellated mosaic.
  212. Find this resource:
  213. Westgate, Ruth. 2000. Pavimenta atque emblemata vermiculata: Regional styles in Hellenistic mosaic and the first mosaics at Pompeii. American Journal of Archaeology 104:255–275.
  214. DOI: 10.2307/507451Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  215. Identifies two stylistic and technical traditions in Hellenistic tessellated mosaics, in the eastern and western Mediterranean, and argues that the earliest mosaics at Pompeii are derived from the western tradition; but whereas Greek patrons mostly commissioned geometric designs, Pompeian patrons were mainly interested in picture-panels that copy or imitate Greek works.
  216. Find this resource:
  217. Westgate, Ruth. 2012. Mosaics. In A companion to Greek art. Edited by Tyler Jo Smith and Dimitris Plantzos, 186–199. Oxford: Blackwell.
  218. DOI: 10.1002/9781118273289Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  219. Concise overview of classical and Hellenistic mosaics, looking at their technical and stylistic development, chronology, iconography, and functions.
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  221. Italy
  222.  
  223. Concise introductions to mosaics in Italy can be found in Dunbabin 1999, chapters 3, 4, and 8 (cited under General Overviews), and in Becatti 1965 and Becatti 1975, although the latter are now somewhat dated. Clarke 1979 (cited under Design, Motifs, and Subjects) is a more recent study of Italian black-and-white mosaics. Much work on Italian mosaics is still underpinned by the classic studies of Marion Blake (Blake 1930, Blake 1936, Blake 1940), who examined a large proportion of the pavements known at the time and established a chronology based on external evidence from building techniques, associated wall paintings, and brick-stamps, as well as on features of the mosaics themselves, although many of her assumptions could now be questioned. The lavishly illustrated series Mosaici antichi in Italia is intended to form a complete catalogue of ancient mosaics in Italy, but still covers only a handful of sites (noted in the relevant regional sections). The Atti del Colloquio dell’Associazione Italiana per lo Studio e la Conservazione del Mosaico, published annually, are a mine of up-to-date information about new finds, new research, and conservation projects in Italy.
  224.  
  225. Atti del Colloquio dell’Associazione Italiana per lo Studio e la Conservazione del Mosaico. 1994–. Ravenna, Italy: Girasole and Bordighera: Istituto internazionale di studi liguri and Tivoli: Scripta manent.
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  227. Proceedings of the annual colloquia of the Italian Association for the Study and Conservation of Mosaics (often abbreviated to CollAISCOM).
  228. Find this resource:
  229. Becatti, Giovanni. 1965. Alucune caratteristiche del mosaico bianco-nero in Italia. In La mosaïque gréco-romaine, Paris, 29 août–3 septembre 1963. Edited by Gilbert Picard and Henri Stern, 15–28. Paris: CNRS.
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  231. Survey of the development of black-and-white mosaics in Italy from the 1st century BCE to the 3rd century CE.
  232. Find this resource:
  233. Becatti, Giovanni. 1975. Alucune caratteristiche del mosaico policromo in Italia. In La mosaïque gréco-romaine II, Vienne, 30 août–4 septembre 1971. Edited by Henri Stern and Marcel Le Glay, 173–192. Paris: CNRS.
  234. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  235. Survey of the development of polychrome mosaics in Italy from the 1st century BCE to the 4th century CE.
  236. Find this resource:
  237. Blake, Marion E. 1930. The pavements of Roman buildings of the Republic and early Empire. Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome 8:7–159.
  238. DOI: 10.2307/4238548Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  239. Study of the types and development of pavements in Italy in the 1st centuries BCE and CE, including mosaics, opus sectile, crustae-pavements, mortar, and brick pavements; based primarily on material from Pompeii and Rome.
  240. Find this resource:
  241. Blake, Marion E. 1936. Roman mosaics of the second century in Italy. Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome 13:67–214.
  242. DOI: 10.2307/4238589Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  243. Study of the development of polychrome and black-and-white mosaics in Italy in the 2nd century CE, based on material from Rome, Ostia, Tivoli, Aquileia, and other sites in northern Italy.
  244. Find this resource:
  245. Blake, Marion E. 1940. Mosaics of the Late Empire in Rome and vicinity. Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome 17:81–130.
  246. DOI: 10.2307/4238612Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  247. Study of mosaics in Rome and the surrounding area in the 3rd and 4th centuries CE, tracing the decline of the black-and-white style and the resurgence of polychrome mosaics.
  248. Find this resource:
  249. Mosaici antichi in Italia. 1967–. 9 vols. Rome: Istituto Poligrafico dello Stato.
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  251. Multivolume catalogue of ancient mosaics in Italy: most volumes catalogue all the pavements from a single site or region, while the Studi monografici are in-depth studies of particular types of pavement.
  252. Find this resource:
  253. Rome and Ostia
  254.  
  255. Werner 1994 catalogues all the polychrome mosaics known from sites in and around Rome. Though very useful, this is far from a full catalogue of mosaics from the region, as it does not include black-and-white mosaics and other types of decorative pavement. Comprehensive catalogues are only available for the Palatine Hill, site of the imperial palace (Morricone Matini 1967), and for the port town of Ostia (Becatti 1961). Both sites are key points of reference for scholars working on mosaics elsewhere in Italy, because they have yielded sequences of fairly well-dated pavements representing the entire development of mosaic and other decorated floor types from the 2nd century BCE to the 4th century CE. Material not covered in Werner 1994 is also filled in Blake 1930, Blake 1936, and Blake 1940 (all cited under Italy); in Morricone Matini 1971, on late Republican opus signinum (red mortar) and related pavements; and in Guidobaldi 1985 and Morricone 1980 (both cited under Typology and Terminology), on opus sectile (cut stone) and crustae-pavements respectively. Mosaics from Ostia are also the main focus of Clarke 1979, cited under Design, Motifs, and Subjects, but from a more contextual point of view. Werner 1998 examines one of the best-known collections of mosaics in Italy, assembled in the 18th and 19th centuries from Rome and the surrounding area; it is of interest as much for the light it throws on the reception of ancient mosaics as for the mosaics themselves, which are heavily restored.
  256.  
  257. Becatti, Giovanni. 1961. Scavi di Ostia. Vol. 4, Mosaici e pavimenti marmorei. 2 vols. Rome: Istituto Poligrafico dello Stato.
  258. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  259. Catalogue of all the pavements from Ostia, including mosaics, opus sectile (cut stone), opus signinum, and other types of mortar floor, from the 2nd century BCE to the 4th century CE, with a detailed study of their chronological development.
  260. Find this resource:
  261. Morricone Matini, Maria L. 1967. Mosaici antichi in Italia, Regione prima: Roma: Reg. X Palatium. Rome: Istituto Poligrafico dello Stato.
  262. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  263. Catalogue of all the pavements from the Palatine Hill in Rome, mostly from late Republican houses preserved under later structures, but also from the imperial residences; includes mosaics, opus sectile (cut stone), and opus signinum (red mortar).
  264. Find this resource:
  265. Morricone Matini, Maria L. 1971. Mosaici antichi in Italia, Studi monografici: Pavimenti di signino repubblicani di Roma e dintorni. Rome: Istituto Poligrafico dello Stato.
  266. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  267. Catalogue and study of Republican pavements from Rome and environs made of opus signinum (red mortar containing crushed terracotta, often decorated with tesserae or fragments of stone) and battuto bianco (a similar type of floor, containing crushed white stone rather than terracotta).
  268. Find this resource:
  269. Werner, Klaus E.. 1994. Mosaiken aus Rom: Polychrom Mosaikpavimente und Emblemata aus Rom und Umgebung. Würzburg, Germany: CompuTEAM.
  270. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  271. Catalogue of polychrome mosaics from Rome and environs, including Ostia and Tivoli.
  272. Find this resource:
  273. Werner, Klaus E. 1998. Die Sammlung antiker Mosaiken in den Vatikanischen Museen. Vatican City: Monumenti Musei e Gallerie Pontificie.
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  275. Catalogue of the ancient mosaics in the Vatican Museums; uses archive research and examination during conservation to trace their history and identify modern restorations.
  276. Find this resource:
  277. Central Italy
  278.  
  279. The sprawling villa of the Emperor Hadrian at Tivoli has produced an enormous quantity of mosaics and other decorated pavements that are closely dated, and the site is therefore an important point of reference for scholars of mosaics. De Franceschini 1991 is an extremely useful catalogue of all the pavements from the site, many of which are now lost or distributed across the museums of Europe. Guidobaldi, et al. 1994 examines the opus sectile (cut stone) pavements from the villa, focusing on style, technique, and materials. Two further volumes in the series Mosaici antichi in Italia (cited under Italy) cover the mosaics of Antium and the villa at Baccano. Bueno 2011 is a detailed survey of the decorated pavements of Tuscany, with a complete catalogue. Meyboom 1995 is the latest of many interpretations of the famous Nile Mosaic from Palestrina.
  280.  
  281. Bueno, Michele. 2011. Mosaici e pavimenti della Toscana, II secolo a.C.–V secolo d.C. Antenor Quaderni 22. Rome: Edizioni Quasar.
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  283. Catalogue and study of mosaics and other types of decorated pavement in Tuscany, 2nd century BCE to 5th century CE, with extensive discussion of their designs, development, and functions.
  284. Find this resource:
  285. De Franceschini, Marina. 1991. Villa Adriana: Mosaici, pavimenti, edifici. Rome: “L’Erma” di Bretschneider.
  286. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  287. Catalogue and study of the pavements from Hadrian’s Villa at Tivoli, including mosaics, opus sectile (cut stone), opus signinum (red mortar), and opus spicatum (herringbone brick), with discussion of their relationship to the architecture and other decoration of each area.
  288. Find this resource:
  289. Guidobaldi, Federico, Fulvia Olevano, Andrea Paribeni, and Daniela Trucchi. 1994. Mosaici antichi in Italia, Studi Monografici: Sectilia pavimenta di Villa Adriana. Rome: Istituto Poligrafico e Zecca dello Stato.
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  291. Catalogue and study of the opus sectile (cut stone) pavements from Hadrian’s Villa at Tivoli, including some valuable observations on the manufacture of sectile pavements, made possible by the robbing of the coloured marble tiles.
  292. Find this resource:
  293. Meyboom, Paul G. P. 1995. The Nile Mosaic of Palestrina: Early evidence of Egyptian religion in Italy. Religions in the Graeco-Roman World 121. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  294. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  295. Study of the iconography and meaning of the Nile Mosaic, which Meyboom links to the cult of Isis; includes full references to earlier work on the mosaic, but only small black-and-white photos.
  296. Find this resource:
  297. Northern Italy
  298.  
  299. Donderer 1986 catalogues mosaics from northeastern Italy (the tenth Augustan region, comprising eastern Lombardy, Veneto, Friuli-Venezia Giulia, and Istria in Croatia), down to the late 2nd century CE, including the important site of Aquileia. The mosaics of the southern provinces of Veneto are examined in more detail and across a longer period in Rinaldi 2007. The mosaics of Milan are catalogued in David 1996, and those of Reggio Emilia in Scagliarini Corlaità and Venturi 1999. The cities of Verona and Ravenna are covered by volumes of Mosaici antichi in Italia (cited under Italy). Grassigli 1998 attempts to understand how the choice of themes in the figural mosaics of northern Italy contributed to the self-representation of the master of the house; the book includes a handy catalogue of figured mosaics from the region.
  300.  
  301. David, Massimiliano. 1996. I pavimenti decorati di Milano antica, I secolo a.C.–VI secolo d.C. 2 vols. Notizie dal Chiostro del Monastero Maggiore supp. 16. Milan: Comune di Milano, Settore Cultura e Spettacolo.
  302. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  303. Catalogue and survey of the mosaics of Milan, from the 1st century BCE to the 6th century CE.
  304. Find this resource:
  305. Donderer, Michael. 1986. Die Chronologie der römischen Mosaiken in Venetien und Istrien bis zur Zeit der Antonine. Archäologische Forschungen 15. Berlin: Mann.
  306. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  307. Catalogue and chronological survey of mosaics and other types of pavement in northeastern Italy and Istria, from the 1st century BCE to the 2nd century CE.
  308. Find this resource:
  309. Grassigli, Gian L. 1998. La scena domestica e il suo immaginario: I temi figurativi nei mosaici della Cisalpina. Aucnus 9. Naples, Italy: Edizioni scientifici italiane.
  310. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  311. Study of the function and meaning of figural themes on domestic mosaics in Cisalpine Gaul, from the 2nd century BCE to the 5th century CE.
  312. Find this resource:
  313. Rinaldi, Federica. 2007. Mosaici e pavimenti del Veneto, province di Padova, Rovigo, Verona e Vicenza (I sec. a.C.–VI sec. d.C.). Antenor Quaderni 7. Rome: Edizioni Quasar.
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  315. Well-illustrated study of the chronological development of mosaics, opus sectile (cut stone), and brick pavements in Veneto from the 1st century BCE to the 6th century CE, including a database on CD.
  316. Find this resource:
  317. Scagliarini Corlaità, Daniela, and Emanuela Venturi. 1999. Mosaici e pavimenti romani di Regium Lepidi. Cataloghi dei Musei Civici di Reggio Emilia 13. Reggio Emilia, Italy: Musei Civici.
  318. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  319. Catalogue of decorated pavements from Reggio Emilia, from the 2nd century BCE to the 4th century CE.
  320. Find this resource:
  321. Campania
  322.  
  323. Because of its wealth of well-dated pavements preserved in situ, Campania is an important point of reference for the study of mosaics. De Vos 1991 is an accessible introduction in English to the types and styles of pavement found in the region. The mosaics and other pavements found at Pompeii are documented in Baldassare, et al. 1991–2003, and the mosaics of some houses are published in more detail in the series Häuser in Pompeji. The pavements of the wealthy villas of Stabiae are catalogued in the series Mosaici antichi in Italia (cited under Italy). Pernice 1938 and Blake 1930 (cited under Italy) are still the only book-length syntheses of this mass of material. Pompeii and other Campanian sites are central to understanding the transmission of mosaics from the Hellenistic to the Roman world; Pernice 1938 considers this process, but it is also addressed in several more recent publications: Andreae 2003 (cited under Early Mosaics: The Classical and Hellenistic Periods), Westgate 2000 (cited under Sociological Approaches), and Boschetti 2011 (cited under Materials). Cohen 1997 presents a complex reading of the most spectacular mosaic from Pompeii, the Alexander Mosaic from the House of the Faun.
  324.  
  325. Baldassare, Ida, Giovanni Pugliese Carratelli, et al., eds., 1991–2003. Pompei: Pitture e mosaici. 11 vols. Rome: Istituto della Enciclopedia italiana.
  326. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  327. Photographic catalogue of mosaics and wall paintings at Pompeii, organized topographically by region, block, and building number, with concise descriptions; often abbreviated to PPM. Volume 11 is a collection of 18th- and 19th-century paintings and drawings of Pompeii.
  328. Find this resource:
  329. Cohen, Ada. 1997. The Alexander Mosaic: Stories of victory and defeat. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  330. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  331. Exploration of the iconography and meaning of the Alexander Mosaic, which considers it both in the context of the 4th century BCE, the date of the Greek painting that it is thought to be copied from, and in the context of Pompeii c. 100 BCE, when the mosaic was made.
  332. Find this resource:
  333. de Vos, Mariette. 1991. Paving techniques at Pompeii. Archaeological News 16:36–60.
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  335. Describes the mosaics and other types of pavement in use at Pompeii and their functions, motifs, and stylistic development.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. Häuser in Pompeji. 1984–. 12 vols. Munich: Hirmer.
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  339. Series of volumes documenting the decoration of individual houses at Pompeii, including mosaics.
  340. Find this resource:
  341. Pernice, Erich. 1938. Die hellenistische Kunst in Pompeji. Vol. 6, Pavimente und figürliche Mosaiken. Berlin: De Gruyter.
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  343. Study of mosaics and other pavements at Pompeii, with a particular emphasis on the late Republican period and on figural panels; attempts to establish a chronology by relating mosaics to associated wall paintings, and sets them in the context of Hellenistic mosaics elsewhere.
  344. Find this resource:
  345. Sicily and Sardinia
  346.  
  347. Sicily and Sardinia have produced Greek and Punic mosaics as well as Roman ones. The most comprehensive survey of mosaics in Sicily is Boeselager 1983, which covers both Greek mosaics of the Hellenistic period and Roman pavements of the Republican and Imperial periods. The book is not a complete catalogue of Sicilian mosaics, however, and only goes up to the 3rd century CE, so it does not include the lavish mosaics of the Late Antique villas on the island, the most famous of which, at Piazza Armerina, are published in Carandini, et al. 1982. The Punic and Roman pavements of Sardinia are catalogued in Angiolillo 1981.
  348.  
  349. Angiolillo, Simonetta. 1981. Mosaici antichi in Italia: Sardinia. Rome: Istituto Poligrafico e Zecca dello Stato.
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  351. Catalogue of Punic and Roman pavements from Sardinia, in mosaic, mortar, brick, and opus sectile (cut stone), from the Republican period to the early 5th century A.D.
  352. Find this resource:
  353. Boeselager, Dela von. 1983. Antike Mosaiken in Sizilien: Hellenismus und römische Kaiserzeit, 3. Jahrhundert v. Chr.–3. Jahrhundert n. Chr. Archaeologica 40. Rome: Giorgio Bretschneider.
  354. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  355. Survey of mosaics in Sicily from the 3rd century BCE to the 3rd century CE.
  356. Find this resource:
  357. Carandini, Andrea, Andreina Ricci, and Mariette de Vos. 1982. Filosofiana: The Villa of Piazza Armerina; The image of a Roman aristocrat at the time of Constantine. 2 vols. Palermo, Italy: S. F. Flaccovio.
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  359. The definitive publication of the structures, mosaics, and wall paintings of the 4th-century CE villa at Piazza Armerina, including photographs of all the mosaics; also published in Italian.
  360. Find this resource:
  361. Greece
  362.  
  363. Short surveys of Roman mosaics in Greece can be found in Waywell 1979, Bruneau 1981, Hellenkemper Salies 1986, and Dunbabin 1999, chapter 12 (cited under General Overviews). Bruneau 1981 characterizes Greek mosaics of the Imperial period as essentially conservative, preserving Hellenistic traditions, but Hellenkemper Salies 1986, Kankeleit 1994, and Dunbabin 1999 (cited under General Overviews) demonstrate that they were extensively influenced by Italian fashions from the early Imperial period onwards, and later also by styles from other parts of the Empire, especially Syria. There is no general catalogue of Roman mosaics in Greece, but Waywell 1979 and Kankeleit 1994 list a large number of examples, and there is a fairly well-illustrated catalogue of figured mosaics in Asimakopoulou-Atzaka 1973. Earlier and later periods are much better served. The earliest mosaics in Greece are covered in the catalogue of pebble and stone chip mosaics in Salzmann 1982 (cited under Early Mosaics: The Classical and Hellenistic Periods), while Bruneau 1972 (cited under Greece: Regional Studies and Catalogues) catalogues the mosaics from Delos, which constitute the majority of the Hellenistic mosaics discovered in Greece. Early Christian mosaics are catalogued in Spiro 1978 and Pelekanidis and Asimakopoulou-Atzaka 1974–1998; the former gives very full descriptions of the mosaics, including their setting, but only deals with the mainland, whereas the latter provides synthetic discussion in addition to the catalogue entries, and will eventually cover the whole country. However, the continuous stream of discoveries, especially from rescue excavations, means that many mosaics in Greece are unpublished or noted only in brief preliminary reports.
  364.  
  365. Asimakopoulou-Atzaka, Panagiota I. 1973. Κατάλογος ρωμαϊκῶν ψηφιδωτῶν δαπέδων μὲ ἀνθρώπινες μορφὲς στὸν ἑλληνικὸ χῶρο. Hellenika 26:216–254.
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  367. Catalogue of 1st- to 4th-century CE mosaics in Greece with human or semi-human figures, with brief descriptions, dates, bibliography, and an index of figured subjects.
  368. Find this resource:
  369. Bruneau, Philippe. 1981. Tendances de la mosaïque en Grèce à l’époque impériale. In Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II: Principat. Vol. 12, part 2, Künste. Edited by Hildegard Temporini, 320–346. Berlin: De Gruyter.
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  371. Surveys the development of mosaics in Greece in the Imperial period, focusing on their materials, style, composition, motifs, and figural repertoire; controversially, argues that they were conservative and tied to Hellenistic traditions.
  372. Find this resource:
  373. Hellenkemper Salies, Gisela. 1986. Römische Mosaiken in Griechenland. Bonner Jahrbücher 186:241–284.
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  375. Survey of mosaics in Greece from the 1st to the 3rd century CE that attempts to construct a chronology on the basis of archaeological and stylistic data, and identifies clear influence from Italy throughout the period.
  376. Find this resource:
  377. Kankeleit, Alexandra. 1994. Kaiserzeitliche Mosaiken in Griechenland. PhD diss., Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität, Bonn.
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  379. Study of mosaics in Greece from the 1st to 3rd centuries CE, considering their designs, chronological development, and relationship to their architectural context; accompanied by a catalogue of mosaics from 213 sites (not a complete corpus).
  380. Find this resource:
  381. Pelekanidis, Stylianos, and Panagiota I. Asimakopoulou-Atzaka. 1974–1998. Σύνταγμα των παλαιοχριστιανικών ψηφιδωτών δαπέδων της Ελλάδος. 3 vols. Βυζαντινά Μνημεία 9. Thessaloniki, Greece: Byzantine Research Centre.
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  383. Catalogue of early Christian mosaics in Greece, 4th to 6th centuries CE; volumes published so far cover: I, the Greek islands, including Cyprus; II, the Peloponnese and central Greece; III.1, Thessaloniki. Introductory chapters in each volume discuss workshops, chronology, themes and motifs, and the inscriptions on the mosaics.
  384. Find this resource:
  385. Spiro, Marie. 1978. Critical corpus of the mosaic pavements on the Greek mainland, fourth/sixth centuries, with architectural surveys. 2 vols. New York and London: Garland.
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  387. Detailed catalogue of early Christian mosaics on the Greek mainland, 4th to 6th centuries CE, with extensive discussion of their architectural contexts, but no overall synthesis.
  388. Find this resource:
  389. Waywell, S. Elisabeth. 1979. Roman mosaics in Greece. American Journal of Archaeology 83:293–321.
  390. DOI: 10.2307/505060Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  391. Synthesis of composition types, motifs, and figural subjects, accompanied by a selective catalogue of fifty-four sites with mosaics of the 1st to 5th centuries CE
  392. Find this resource:
  393. Regional Studies and Catalogues
  394.  
  395. Only a handful of sites and regions are covered by substantial studies or catalogues. The late Hellenistic mosaics from the cosmopolitan trading community at Delos—the largest surviving group from the entire Hellenistic world—are catalogued and studied in Bruneau 1972, which is also an important study of Hellenistic mosaics in general. De Matteis 2004 catalogues the mosaics found on Kos during the Italian and German occupations of the early 20th century, but not those from excavations conducted by the Greek Archaeological Service. Sweetman 2003 examines the mosaics from Knossos, which, as a Roman colony, is a good place to investigate cultural change in Greece following the Roman conquest.
  396.  
  397. Bruneau, Philippe. 1972. Exploration archéologique de Délos 29: Les mosaïques. Paris: De Boccard.
  398. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  399. Definitive catalogue and study of the late Hellenistic mosaics from Delos.
  400. Find this resource:
  401. De Matteis, Lorella M. 2004. Mosaici di Cos dagli scavi delle missioni italiane e tedesche (1900–1945). Monografie della Scuola Archeologica de Atene e delle Missioni Italiane in Oriente 17. Athens, Greece: Scuola Archeologica Italiana di Atene.
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  403. Catalogue of mosaics found by Italian and German excavators on Kos, with a study of their technique, design, chronology, themes, function, and meaning.
  404. Find this resource:
  405. Sweetman, Rebecca. 2003. The Roman mosaics of the Knossos valley. Annual of the British School at Athens 98:517–547.
  406. DOI: 10.1017/S0068245400016968Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  407. Catalogue of mosaics from Knossos, from the 1st to the 4th century CE, followed by discussion of their distribution across the city, attribution to workshops, and relationship to mosaics elsewhere in Crete and the Empire.
  408. Find this resource:
  409. Turkey
  410.  
  411. A concise overview of mosaics in Turkey can be found in Dunbabin 1999, chapter 13 (cited under General Overviews). Bingöl 1997 is a longer introduction that usefully summarizes material from a wide range of sources, with excellent illustrations. There is no substantial synthesis or corpus covering the whole country, although a project to catalogue all the known mosaics has recently been revived with the publication of Raynaud 2009, cited under Turkey: Regional Studies and Catalogues. As part of the same initiative, the Uludağ University Mosaic Research Centre has initiated a series of conferences on developments in Turkish mosaic studies; conferences from the third onwards have been published (e.g., Şahin 2008). The Centre also produces the Journal of Mosaic Research, cited under Journals, which focuses on mosaics in Turkey and neighboring countries.
  412.  
  413. Bingöl, Orhan. 1997. Malerei und Mosaik der Antike in der Türkei. Kulturgeschichte der antiken Welt 67. Mainz, Germany: Von Zabern.
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  415. Short, well-illustrated survey of mosaics and paintings in Turkey from the Neolithic to the late Roman Empire, with full coverage of classical and Hellenistic mosaics, and a more selective account of Roman mosaics.
  416. Find this resource:
  417. Şahin, Mustafa, ed. 2008. The proceedings of IV. International Mosaic Corpus of Türkiye “The Mosaic Bridge from Past to Present”/IV. Uluslararası Türkiye mozaik korpusu sempozyum bildirileri “Geçmişten günümüze mozaik köprüsü,” 6–10 June/Haziran 2007—Gaziantep. Uludağ University Mosaic Research Centre Series 1, Symposium Papers 2. Bursa, Turkey: Uludağ Univ. Press.
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  419. Proceedings of the fourth conference of the Uludağ University Mosaic Research Centre, with reports on new discoveries and research projects, iconography, conservation, recording, and presentation of mosaics, and reflections by modern mosaicists on ancient techniques; papers in Turkish or English, with abstracts in both languages.
  420. Find this resource:
  421. Regional Studies and Catalogues
  422.  
  423. The huge quantity of mosaics known from Turkey, ranging from the classical period to Late Antiquity, and the rapid pace of new discoveries, often during building works, mean that publication of mosaics is very patchy. Budde 1969–1972 and Scheibelreiter-Gail 2011 are the only regional catalogues, covering Cilicia and western Asia Minor, respectively, though the former is very limited in its coverage of Christian mosaics, and neither includes mosaics dating before Roman rule (for which Bingöl 1997, cited under Turkey, is the only source). Most studies focus on a single site or even a single building. Jobst 1977 is the original publication of the mosaics in the Terrace Houses at Ephesos, which are an important point of reference for mosaic scholars; however, it should be read in conjunction with Scheibelreiter-Gail 2011, as Jobst’s datings have been challenged by more recent work. Ergeç 2007 and Önal 2009 present the spectacular 2nd- and 3rd-century CE mosaics from Zeugma on the Euphrates, mostly rescued from the rising waters of the Birecik Dam. Both are picture books aimed at the general reader, rather than formal publications of the mosaics, but they are useful for their superb color illustrations. Campbell 1991 and Campbell 1998 are more scholarly catalogues, covering the sites of Aphrodisias and Anemurium; the catalogue entries are brief, and there is only a very short synthesis of the material, but they are well illustrated with plans and photographs. These (and Campbell 1988, cited under Antioch) were intended to form part of a corpus of mosaics of Turkey, which never came to fruition. Raynaud 2009 is the first volume of a projected new corpus. Jobst, et al. 1997 is a well-illustrated introduction to the Great Palace mosaic, one of the largest and most vivid mosaics from the whole ancient world, which is now thought to have decorated the palace of the emperor Justinian I. The city of Antioch-on-the-Orontes, although located in Turkey, is generally treated as part of Syria in mosaic studies, and is therefore covered in the Middle East section, under Antioch.
  424.  
  425. Budde, Ludwig. 1969–1972. Antike Mosaiken in Kilikien. 2 vols. Recklinghausen, Germany: Aurel Bongers.
  426. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  427. Catalogue of the mosaics of Cilicia in southeastern Turkey: Volume I (Früchristliche Mosaiken in Misis-Mopsuhestia) is a study of the 4th-century CE pavements in the early Christian martyrion of Mopsuestia; Volume II (Die heidnischen Mosaiken) covers pagan mosaics of the 3rd to 5th centuries CE.
  428. Find this resource:
  429. Campbell, Sheila D. 1991. The mosaics of Aphrodisias in Caria. Subsidia Mediaevalia 18. Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Medieval Studies.
  430. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  431. Catalogue of all the mosaics found at Aphrodisias, from the Hellenistic period to the mid-5th century CE.
  432. Find this resource:
  433. Campbell, Sheila D. 1998. The mosaics of Anemurium. Subsidia Mediaevalia 18. Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Medieval Studies.
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  435. Catalogue of the rich mosaics from Anemurium in southern Turkey, dating from the 2nd to 6th centuries CE.
  436. Find this resource:
  437. Ergeç, Rifat, ed. 2007. Belkis-Zeugma and its mosaics. Gaziantep, Turkey: Sanko.
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  439. Sumptuous picture-book presenting the mosaics from Zeugma, with minimal descriptions but color illustrations throughout; also includes a short introduction to the history of the site and its discovery, and plans and photographs showing the mosaics in their original contexts.
  440. Find this resource:
  441. Jobst, Werner. 1977. Römische Mosaiken aus Ephesos I: Die Hanghäuser des Embolos. Forschungen in Ephesos 8.2. Vienna: Austrian Academy of Sciences.
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  443. Very detailed catalogue of the mosaics from the Terrace Houses at Ephesos, with a brief introduction and summary.
  444. Find this resource:
  445. Jobst, Werner, Behçet Erdal, and Christian Gurtner. 1997. Istanbul: The Great Palace mosaic: The story of its exploration, preservation and exhibition 1983–1997. Istanbul: Arkeoloji ve Sanat Yayınları.
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  447. Short but informative booklet published to mark the conservation and redisplay of the largest known mosaic from Antiquity, in the peristyle of the 6th-century CE palace of Justinian I. Text in English, German, and Turkish, with numerous color illustrations.
  448. Find this resource:
  449. Önal, Mehmet. 2009. Zeugma mosaics: A corpus. Istanbul: A Turizm Yayınları.
  450. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  451. Catalogue of almost all the mosaics found at Zeugma, with brief descriptions and numerous color illustrations.
  452. Find this resource:
  453. Raynaud, Marie-Patricia. 2009. Corpus of the mosaics of Turkey. Vol. 1, Lycia: Xanthos, Part 1, The East Basilica. Bursa, Turkey: Uludağ Univ. Press.
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  455. Comprehensive publication of the Early and Middle Byzantine mosaics in the basilica, including some interesting observations on the groups of mosaicists who laid the floors, and the techniques that they used.
  456. Find this resource:
  457. Scheibelreiter-Gail, Veronika. 2011. Die Mosaiken Westkleinasiens: Tessellate des 2. Jahrhunderts v. Chr. bis Anfang des 7. Jahrhunderts n. Chr. Vienna: Austrian Archaeological Institute.
  458. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  459. Catalogue and study of the mosaics of western Asia Minor (Lydia, Caria, and the Roman province of Asia), from 133 BCE to the 7th century CE, including chapters on techniques, architectural setting, iconography, and design.
  460. Find this resource:
  461. Middle East
  462.  
  463. This section covers the Greek-speaking areas of the eastern Mediterranean: Syria (including Antioch), Lebanon, Cyprus, Israel, and Jordan. A general introduction to the mosaics of this region can be found in chapters 10, 11, and 13 of Dunbabin 1999 (cited under General Overviews). Balty 1981 is a lengthier survey, and a valuable mine of references to individual sites and mosaics. Balty 1995 collects a number of articles published elsewhere, providing an overview of mosaics in the region and a flavor of the debates that surround them. Bowersock 2006 is a well-illustrated and accessible study of Late Antique mosaics in the Near East, tracing the afterlife of the classical tradition in the emerging Christian, Jewish, and Islamic cultures of the region.
  464.  
  465. Balty, Janine. 1981. La mosaïque antique au Proche-Orient, I. Des origines à la Tétrarchie. In Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II: Principat. Vol. 12, part 2, Künste. Edited by Hildegard Temporini, 347–429. Berlin: De Gruyter.
  466. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  467. Survey of mosaics in the Near East, from the Hellenistic period to the Tetrarchy, with rich bibliography.
  468. Find this resource:
  469. Balty, Janine. 1995. Mosaïques antiques du Proche-Orient: Chronologie, iconographie, interprétation. Annales Littéraires de l’Université de Besançon 551, Centre de Recherches d’Histoire Ancienne 140. Paris: Les Belles Lettres.
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  471. Collection of the author’s articles on Near Eastern mosaics, mostly focused on Syria, with an introduction summing up the state of research; the articles trace the stylistic development of mosaics in the region, the persistence of the Hellenistic tradition, and various problems of iconography and interpretation.
  472. Find this resource:
  473. Bowersock, Glen W. 2006. Mosaics as history: The Near East from Late Antiquity to Islam. Revealing Antiquity 16. Cambridge, MA: Belknap.
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  475. Concise historical study of Late Antique mosaics in Syria, Palestine, Jordan, and Arabia, examining them as evidence for the complex interplay of classical, Christian, Jewish, and Islamic cultures.
  476. Find this resource:
  477. Syria and Lebanon
  478.  
  479. Balty 1977 is a handy introduction to the Roman and Late Antique mosaics of modern Syria, aimed at the general reader, though its usefulness is limited by the fact that the illustrations mostly show details rather than whole pavements. Chéhab 1957–1959 is not a corpus of mosaics in Lebanon, but a catalogue of finds from a number of recent excavations. Donceel-Voûte 1988 is a more comprehensive catalogue, covering the church mosaics of Syria and Lebanon; as well as recording the pavements, it considers how they functioned as a setting for the liturgy. Balty 1990 was intended as the first in a multivolume corpus of mosaics from Syria, though no further volumes have appeared yet. The richest and most studied group of mosaics in the region is from Antioch-on-the-Orontes (modern Antakya), the capital of ancient Syria, which is treated in a separate section (see Antioch).
  480.  
  481. Balty, Janine. 1977. Mosaïques antiques de Syrie. Brussels: Centre belge de recherches archéologiques à Apamée de Syrie.
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  483. Short, illustrated introduction to the mosaics of Syria for the general reader, from Roman pavements of the 1st century CE to the 8th-century wall mosaics of the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus.
  484. Find this resource:
  485. Balty, Janine. 1990. La mosaïque de Sarrîn (Osrhoène). Bibliothèque archéologique et historique 140. Inventaire des mosaïques antiques de Syrie 1. Paris: Librairie orientaliste Paul Geuthner.
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  487. Study of a 6th-century CE mosaic from Sarrîn in northern Syria, with a rich array of scenes from classical mythology which suggest that paganism was still alive at this late date.
  488. Find this resource:
  489. Chéhab, Maurice. 1957–1959. Mosaïques du Liban. 2 vols. Bulletin du Musée de Beyrouth 14–15. Paris: Librairie d’Amérique et d’Orient, Adrien Maisonneuve.
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  491. Detailed, richly illustrated publication of mosaic finds from twelve house, villa, and church sites in Lebanon, ranging from the 3rd to the 7th century CE.
  492. Find this resource:
  493. Donceel-Voûte, Pauline. 1988. Les pavements des églises byzantines du Syrie et du Liban: Décor, archéologie et liturgie. 2 vols. Louvaine-la-Neuve, Belgium: Département d’archéologie et d’histoire de l’art.
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  495. Catalogue of mosaics in the Byzantine churches of Syria and Lebanon from the 4th to 8th centuries CE, with a study of their motifs, iconography, and relationship to the liturgy; includes large-scale plans showing the mosaic designs in relation to the layout of the churches.
  496. Find this resource:
  497. Antioch
  498.  
  499. The large number of high-quality, well-studied figured pavements found at Antioch means that it serves as a key point of reference in studies of Roman mosaics. Levi 1947 is the original publication of the mosaics found in the American excavations of the 1930s, and is still the standard work. Campbell 1988 is a briefer catalogue with fewer illustrations, covering only the city of Antioch. It was intended to update Levi 1947, especially in regard to chronology, but there is no synthetic discussion of the mosaics and it is not a substitute for the original publication. Cimok 2000 provides the color illustrations that Levi 1947 and Campbell 1988 lack, with brief descriptions and dates based on Levi’s text, but no discussion or references. Other important works that deal with mosaics from Antioch include Becker and Kondoleon 2005, cited under Materials, which presents a detailed technical study of a mosaic from the Atrium House, and Lavin 1963, cited under Design, Motifs, and Subjects, which uses the Antioch hunting mosaics as the starting-point for an examination of the origins of medieval visual conventions.
  500.  
  501. Campbell, Sheila D. 1988. The mosaics of Antioch. Subsidia Mediaevalia 15. Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Medieval Studies.
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  503. Concise catalogue of the mosaics from the city of Antioch, summarizing and updating Levi 1947. A further volume covering the area around Antioch was planned but never appeared.
  504. Find this resource:
  505. Cimok, Fatih, ed. 2000. Antioch mosaics: A corpus. Istanbul: A Turizm Yayınları.
  506. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  507. Collection of new color photographs of nearly all the mosaics from the 1930s excavations, with brief descriptions, and drawings and photomontages reconstructing pavements whose elements have been separated.
  508. Find this resource:
  509. Levi, Doro. 1947. Antioch mosaic pavements. 2 vols. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
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  511. The original publication of the mosaics from Antioch and the suburbs of Daphne and Seleucia, with extensive discussion of composition, motifs, style, and iconography.
  512. Find this resource:
  513. Cyprus
  514.  
  515. The best starting point is Michaelides 1987, which catalogues all the Greco-Roman mosaics from Cyprus in a concise format that is suitable for the general reader, but also handy for specialists, with references to the primary publications. Kondoleon 1995 is a more in-depth study of the iconography, meaning, and social implications of the mythological mosaics of a wealthy Roman house at Nea Paphos.
  516.  
  517. Kondoleon, Christine. 1995. Domestic and divine: Roman mosaics in the House of Dionysos. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press.
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  519. Detailed study of the mosaics of a 2nd-century CE house at Nea Paphos, showing how they relate to their architectural and social setting.
  520. Find this resource:
  521. Michaelides, Demetrios. 1987. Cypriot mosaics. Picture Book 7. Nicosia: Department of Antiquities, Cyprus.
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  523. Concise, well-illustrated catalogue of mosaics on Cyprus from the Hellenistic period to the 7th century CE. A revised edition was published in 1992, but is not widely available.
  524. Find this resource:
  525. Israel and Jordan
  526.  
  527. All the mosaics found in Israel up to 1935 are listed in Avi-Yonah 1981 (pp. 283–382). This catalogue is continued up to 1975 by Ovadiah and Ovadiah 1987. In both cases the catalogue entries are very brief, but they include references and, in the later work, extensive illustrations. Hachlili 2009, while not intended as a general survey, is a useful complement to these lists; it discusses various important themes and trends in the iconography of mosaics in Israel, and provides more up-to-date references. The Roman and Late Antique mosaics of Jordan are briefly described and superbly illustrated in Piccirillo 1993, although it is not a systematic catalogue and provides only a very selective bibliography for each site. It also includes little in the way of introduction to the mosaics; a more detailed survey and further references can be found in Piccirillo 1986.
  528.  
  529. Avi-Yonah, Michael. 1981. Art in ancient Palestine: Selected studies. Jerusalem: Magnes Press, Hebrew Univ.
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  531. Volume of collected articles, which includes a list of mosaics found in Israel before 1935 (reprinted from the Quarterly of the Department of Antiquities in Palestine, Vols. 2–4, 1933–1935) and three other articles about Israeli mosaics.
  532. Find this resource:
  533. Hachlili, Rachel. 2009. Ancient mosaic pavements: Themes, issues, and trends. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  534. DOI: 10.1163/ej.9789004167544.i-420Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  535. Study of various aspects of mosaic iconography in Israel and their relationship to Jewish and Christian beliefs; ranges from the 1st century BCE to the 8th century CE, with a focus on the 4th to 6th centuries CE.
  536. Find this resource:
  537. Ovadiah, Ruth, and Asher Ovadiah. 1987. Hellenistic, Roman and early Byzantine mosaic pavements in Israel. Bibliotheca Archaeologica 6. Rome: “L’Erma” di Bretschneider.
  538. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  539. Concise but well-illustrated catalogue of mosaics in Israel, from the 2nd century BCE to the 7th century CE, with a short summary covering techniques, stylistic development, church and synagogue mosaics, design, and motifs; also useful indices of motifs and building types.
  540. Find this resource:
  541. Piccirillo, Michele. 1986. I mosaici di Giordania. Rome: Edizioni Quasar.
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  543. Catalogue of an exhibition of Jordanian mosaics, with introductory chapters by Piccirillo and others on Roman, Byzantine, and Islamic mosaics in the region. A shorter version was published under the same title in 1991, with fewer illustrations, but more in color.
  544. Find this resource:
  545. Piccirillo, Michele. 1993. The mosaics of Jordan. American Center of Oriental Research Publication 1. Amman, Jordan: American Center of Oriental Research.
  546. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  547. Lavishly illustrated catalogue of mosaics in Jordan, 1st century BCE to 8th century CE.
  548. Find this resource:
  549. Egypt and Cyrenaica
  550.  
  551. Egypt and the northeastern part of modern Libya are treated separately from the rest of North Africa because their mosaics have closer affinities to the Greek-speaking eastern Mediterranean than to the western provinces of the Empire. For Egypt, Daszewski 1985 catalogues all the known mosaics up to the early 2nd century CE, although there have been several important finds in Alexandria since the book was published. A second volume covering the later Roman period has not yet appeared; a brief survey can be found in Daszewski 1996. There is no catalogue of mosaics from Cyrenaica, but Michaelides 1998 provides a general survey, with references, as well as publishing the floors from Berenike (Benghazi).
  552.  
  553. Daszewski, Wiktor A. 1985. Corpus of mosaics from Egypt I: Hellenistic and early Roman period. Aegyptiaca Treverensia 3. Mainz, Germany: Von Zabern.
  554. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  555. Catalogue of mosaics from the early Hellenistic period to the 2nd century CE, with introductory chapters discussing their designs, iconography, technique, and relationship to their architectural and social context.
  556. Find this resource:
  557. Daszewski, Wiktor A. 1996. From Hellenistic polychromy of sculptures to Roman mosaics. In Alexandria and Alexandrianism: Papers delivered at a symposium organized by the J. Paul Getty Museum and the Getty Center for the History of Art and the Humanities and held at the Museum, April 22–25, 1993. Edited by Marion True and Kenneth Hamma, 141–154. Malibu, CA: J. Paul Getty Museum.
  558. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  559. Survey of the main features of Roman mosaics in Egypt, with references to major finds.
  560. Find this resource:
  561. Michaelides, Demetrios. 1998. Excavations at Sidi Khrebish, Benghazi (Berenice). Vol. 4.1, The mosaic and marble floors. Libya Antiqua Supplements 5. Tripoli: Department of Antiquities, Secretariat of Education, Socialist People’s Libyan Arab Jamahiriya.
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  563. Catalogue of pavements from the Sidi Khrebish area of Berenike and a few earlier finds from other parts of the site, with a discussion of their relationship to mosaics elsewhere in Cyrenaica and the Empire.
  564. Find this resource:
  565. North Africa
  566.  
  567. Dunbabin 1999, chapter 7 (cited under General Overviews) is a concise introduction to the mosaics of Roman North Africa, which consists of Tripolitania (western Libya), Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco. Dunbabin 1978 is the standard book-length survey, although it is concerned mainly with figured mosaics, which are the minority of the surviving material. Novello 2007 covers similar ground but takes advantage of the more comprehensive documentation now available, and of recent developments in the understanding of Roman domestic space. Parrish 1984 is an in-depth study of a single figured subject, the Four Seasons, which is one of the most popular themes in Roman mosaics anywhere. The contributors to Balmelle, et al. 1990 and Ben Abed-Ben Khader, et al. 2001 explore two of the most common decorative motifs in African mosaics.
  568.  
  569. Balmelle, Catherine, Aïcha Ben Abed-Ben Khader, Wassila Ben Osman, et al. 1990. Recherches franco-tunisiennes sur la mosaïque de l’Afrique antique. Vol. 1, Xenia. Collection de l’École Française de Rome 125. Rome: École Française de Rome.
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  571. Collection of papers examining “still life” images of food, birds, fish, and animals in North African mosaics, which modern scholars call xenia (“guest-gifts”) after a type of painting described by Vitruvius (On Architecture VI.7.4).
  572. Find this resource:
  573. Ben Abed-Ben Khader, Aïcha, Catherine Balmelle, Jean-Pierre Darmon, et al. 2001. Recherches franco-tunisiennes sur la mosaïque de l’Afrique antique. Vol. 2, Trames géométriques végetalisées. Collection de l’École Française de Rome 288. Rome: École Française de Rome.
  574. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  575. Collection of papers discussing the characteristic use of vegetal ornaments such as scrolls and garlands in North African mosaics to divide the floor surface into grids or panels.
  576. Find this resource:
  577. Dunbabin, Katherine M. D. 1978. The mosaics of Roman North Africa: Studies in iconography and patronage. Oxford: Clarendon.
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  579. Study of popular figured themes in North African mosaics and their meanings: hunting, rural life, the games, literature, the gods and mythology, apotropaic motifs, and Dionysiac figures.
  580. Find this resource:
  581. Novello, Marta. 2007. Scelte tematiche e committenza nelle abitazioni dell’Africa Proconsolare: I mosaici figurati. Biblioteca di “Eidola,” Series Maior 1. Pisa, Italy, and Rome: Fabrizio Serra.
  582. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  583. Study of the figured themes found in mosaics in Africa Proconsularis (Tunisia and eastern Algeria), from the 2nd to the 7th centuries CE, which considers their meaning in light of their chronological and geographical distribution and their location within houses.
  584. Find this resource:
  585. Parrish, David. 1984. Season mosaics of Roman North Africa. Archaeologica 46. Rome: Giorgio Bretschneider.
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  587. Study of the iconography of the seasons in North African mosaics, and the contexts in which they are represented.
  588. Find this resource:
  589. Tunisia
  590.  
  591. Ben Abed 2006 is a good introduction to the mosaics of Tunisia, with references to more specialized publications. There are also several glossy picture books with introductory texts but few references; of these, Blanchard-Lemée, et al. 1996 and Ben Abed-Ben Khader, et al. 2003 have the best photos, but Fantar 1994 has more useful accompanying text. The Corpus des mosaïques de Tunisie is a more scientific catalogue, which is still far from complete. Dunbabin 1999, chapter 7 (cited under General Overviews) gives references to other catalogues for sites that the Corpus has not yet reached, to which can now be added Gozlan, et al. 2001, on the mosaics from the houses at Acholla.
  592.  
  593. Ben Abed, Aïcha, ed. 2006. Stories in stone: Conserving mosaics of Roman Africa; Masterpieces from the National Museums of Tunisia. Los Angeles: Getty.
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  595. Catalogue of an exhibition held at the Getty Villa, Malibu, 26 October 2006 to 30 April 2007, that provides a useful introduction to Tunisian mosaics and the problems of mosaic conservation.
  596. Find this resource:
  597. Ben Abed-Ben Khader, Aïcha, Élisabeth de Balanda, and Armando Uribe Echeverría, eds. 2003. Image in Stone: Tunisia in mosaic. Paris: Ars Latina/Tunisian Agency for the Development of Heritage and Cultural Promotion.
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  599. Sumptuous picture book with excellent photographs, introductory text, and notes about each mosaic; also published in French.
  600. Find this resource:
  601. Blanchard-Lemée, Michèle, Mongi Ennaïfer, Hédi Slim, and Latifa Slim. 1996. Mosaics of Roman Africa: Floor mosaics from Tunisia. London: British Museum.
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  603. Picture book illustrating the main themes of Tunisian mosaics, with explanatory text; originally published in French as Sols de l’Afrique romaine (1995).
  604. Find this resource:
  605. Corpus des mosaïques de Tunisie. 1973–. 9 vols. Tunis, Tunisia: Institut National du Patrimoine.
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  607. Multivolume catalogue of mosaics in Tunisia; volumes published so far cover Utica, Thuburbo Majus, and parts of Thysdrus (El Djem) and Carthage.
  608. Find this resource:
  609. Fantar, M’hamed H. 1994. La mosaïque en Tunisie. Paris: CNRS.
  610. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  611. Picture book illustrating the development, style, and main themes of Tunisian mosaics, with explanatory text and select references for each mosaic illustrated.
  612. Find this resource:
  613. Gozlan, Suzanne, Nahiba Jeddi, Véronique Blanc-Bijon, and Ariane Bourgeois. 2001. Recherches archéologiques franco-tunisiennes à Acholla: Les mosaïques des maisons du quartier central et les mosaïques éparses. Collection de l’École Française de Rome 277. Rome: École Française de Rome.
  614. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  615. Publication of the mosaics from the central quarter and various other sites at Acholla.
  616. Find this resource:
  617. Tripolitania and Algeria
  618.  
  619. There are no national corpora of mosaics for Libya and Algeria, but Aurigemma 1960 lists and illustrates a substantial number of mosaics found in Tripolitania in the early 20th century, and a few key sites in Algeria are covered by systematic catalogues, notably for Timgad (Germain 1969) and Cherchel (Ferdi 2005); further references to individual sites can be found in chapter 7 of Dunbabin 1999 (cited under General Overviews).
  620.  
  621. Aurigemma, Salvatore. 1960. L’Italia in Africa: Le scoperte archeologiche (a. 1911–a. 1943). Tripolitania. Vol. 1, I monumenti d’arte decorativa, part 1, I mosaici. Rome: Istituto Poligrafico dello Stato.
  622. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  623. Catalogue of mosaics found during the Italian occupation of Libya (1911–1943).
  624. Find this resource:
  625. Ferdi, Sabah. 2005. Corpus des mosaïques de Cherchel. Paris: CNRS.
  626. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  627. Catalogue of the mosaics from Cherchel (Caesarea).
  628. Find this resource:
  629. Germain, Suzanne. 1969. Les mosaïques de Timgad: Étude descriptif et analytique. Paris: CNRS.
  630. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  631. Catalogue of the mosaics of Timgad (Thamugadi), with a brief survey of their decoration.
  632. Find this resource:
  633. Spain and Portugal
  634.  
  635. There are ongoing projects to document the Roman mosaics of both Spain and Portugal: the Corpus de mosaicos romanos de España provides relatively brief listings and is well advanced; the Corpus dos mosaicos romanos de Portugal is much more detailed but still at an early stage, although it does cover two of the most spectacular Roman houses in the region. Dunbabin 1999, chapter 9 (cited under General Overviews) gives a concise introduction to the mosaics of the Iberian peninsula, with references to various catalogues for sites and regions that are not yet included in the national corpora. More recent regional studies include León 2010, a survey of mosaics in Andalusia with good illustrations and up-to-date bibliography, and Mañas Romero 2010, which analyzes the use of mosaics at Italica, one of the richest sites in Spain. Guardia Pons 1992 and Durán Penedo 1993 are wider studies of the iconography and meaning of late Roman mosaics in Spain and Portugal.
  636.  
  637. Corpus de mosaicos romanos de España. 1978–. 13 vols. Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaziones Científicas.
  638. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  639. Multivolume catalogue of Roman mosaics in Spain; each volume covers a different region or site.
  640. Find this resource:
  641. Corpus dos mosaicos romanos de Portugal. 1992–. 3 vols. Conímbriga/Lisbon, Portugal: Instituto Português de Museus.
  642. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  643. Multivolume catalogue of Roman mosaics in Portugal; three volumes have appeared so far, covering the House of the Fountains at Conímbriga, the villa at Torre de Palma, and the eastern Algarve.
  644. Find this resource:
  645. Durán Penedo, Mercedes. 1993. Iconografía de los mosaicos romanos en la Hispania alto-imperial. Barcelona: Universitat Rovira i Virgili.
  646. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  647. Examines the main themes depicted in Roman mosaics of the High Empire in Spain and Portugal, and the iconographic programs of various houses.
  648. Find this resource:
  649. Guardia Pons, Milagros. 1992. Los mosaicos de la antigüedad tardía en Hispania: Estudios de iconografía. Barcelona: Promociones y Publicaciones Universitarias.
  650. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  651. Study of late Imperial mosaics in Spain and Portugal, which examines the mosaic ensembles of a selection of houses and considers how their themes relate to their settings.
  652. Find this resource:
  653. León, Pilar, ed. 2010. Arte romano de la Bética. Vol. 3, Mosaico, pintura, manufacturas. Seville, Spain: Fundación Focus-Abengoa.
  654. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  655. Part of a three-volume set on Roman art in Baetica (Andalusia), including a chapter surveying the mosaics of the region and their themes, with excellent color photos; includes a bibliography but no references.
  656. Find this resource:
  657. Mañas Romero, Irene. 2010. Pavimentos decorativos de Itálica (Santiponce, Sevilla): Un estudio arqueológico. BAR International Series 2081. Oxford: John and Erica Hedges.
  658. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  659. Study of the mosaics that remain in situ in the Roman houses at Italica, considering their decoration, technique, meaning, and relationship to the use of space.
  660. Find this resource:
  661. Northwestern Provinces
  662.  
  663. Dunbabin 1999, chapter 5 (cited under General Overviews) provides a concise introduction to mosaics in France, Belgium, Germany, and Switzerland. Darmon 1981 is a wider survey of mosaics in the Western Empire, and is particularly useful as a guide to the modern literature and its controversies.
  664.  
  665. Darmon, Jean P. 1981. Les mosaïques en Occident I. In Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II: Principat. Vol. 12, part 2, Künste. Edited by Hildegard Temporini, 266–319. Berlin: De Gruyter.
  666. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  667. Survey and literature review covering the Western Empire (Italy, Gaul, Germany, Britain, North Africa, and the Iberian peninsula), from the Republic to the 3rd century CE.
  668. Find this resource:
  669. France, Belgium, and Switzerland
  670.  
  671. The ongoing series Recueil général des mosaïques de la Gaule aims to catalogue all the ancient and medieval mosaics from Roman Gaul, covering modern France, Belgium, and Luxembourg. Stern 1965 identifies a “Rhône school” of mosaics, whose repertoire derived from Italy and whose influence encompassed northern Gaul and Switzerland. Lancha 1977 examines the mosaics from Vienne, which was one of the main centers of this style. Gonzenbach 1961 is a comprehensive survey of the mosaics of Switzerland, which are closely related to those of Gaul. Schmid 1993 is a more up-to-date study of the pavements from the Roman colony at Augst, using them as evidence for wider questions about the social structure of the town, the use of space, and the organization of mosaic production.
  672.  
  673. Gonzenbach, Victorine von. 1961. Die römischen Mosaiken der Schweiz. Basel, Switzerland: Birkhäuser.
  674. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  675. Catalogue of Roman mosaics in Switzerland, 1st to 3rd centuries CE, accompanied by a detailed study of their chronology, technique, materials, designs, and function; many illustrations, but few in color.
  676. Find this resource:
  677. Lancha, Janine. 1977. Mosaïques géometriques: Les ateliers de Vienne (Isère). Rome: “L’Erma” di Bretschneider.
  678. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  679. Analysis of the geometric frameworks used by the mosaic workshops of Vienne (1st to 3rd centuries CE), which are used to construct a chronological sequence.
  680. Find this resource:
  681. Recueil général des mosaïques de la Gaule. 1957–. 13 vols. Gallia Supplement 10. Paris: CNRS.
  682. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  683. Multivolume catalogue of mosaics in Gaul, in four parts corresponding to the Roman provinces: I, Gallia Belgica (northeastern France, Belgium, and Luxembourg, but not Trier in Germany); II, Gallia Lugdunensis (northwestern and central France); III, Gallia Narbonensis (southern France); IV, Gallia Aquitania (southwestern France).
  684. Find this resource:
  685. Schmid, Debora. 1993. Die römischen Mosaiken aus Augst und Kaiseraugst. Forschungen in Augst 17. Augst, Switzerland: Römermuseum.
  686. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  687. Catalogue of the 1st- to 3rd-century CE mosaics at Augst and Kaiseraugst in Switzerland (Augusta Rauricorum), with an analysis of their distribution, techniques, materials, and designs; includes summaries in English, Italian, and French.
  688. Find this resource:
  689. Stern, Henri. 1965. Ateliers des mosaïques rhodaniens d’époque gallo-romaine. In La mosaïque gréco-romaine, Paris, 29 août–3 septembre 1963. Edited by Gilbert Picard and Henri Stern, 233–243. Paris: CNRS.
  690. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  691. Identifies certain geometric frameworks (grids of squares, all-over swastika-meanders, and “multiple decor” designs) as characteristic of a “Rhône school” of mosaicists operating in Gaul and Switzerland.
  692. Find this resource:
  693. Germany, Austria, and Hungary
  694.  
  695. Parlasca 1959 is the standard work on Roman mosaics in Germany, although many new finds have appeared since it was published; additional discoveries up to 1980 are listed in Hellenkemper Salies 1984. Much material omitted by Parlasca is also listed in Hoffman, et al. 1999, which catalogues all the known mosaics from Trier, the richest site for mosaics in Germany, and one of the richest in the northwestern provinces as a whole. Jobst 1985 is a compact introduction to the Roman mosaics of Austria, while Kiss 1973 lists all the mosaics known from Hungary at the time of publication.
  696.  
  697. Hellenkemper Salies, Gisela. 1984. Neue römische Mosaiken in Deutschland: Beiträge zur Chronologie des 3. Jahrhunderts. In Il mosaico antico: Terzo colloquio internazionale sul mosaico antico, Ravenna, 6–10 settembre 1980. Vol. 2. Edited by Raffaela Farioli Campanati, 335–356. Ravenna, Italy: Girasole.
  698. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  699. Lists new finds of Roman mosaics in Germany since the publication of Parlasca 1959, and reflects on their implications for the chronology of 3rd-century mosaics.
  700. Find this resource:
  701. Hoffman, Peter, Joachim Hupe, and Karin Goethert. 1999. Katalog der römischen Mosaike aus Trier und dem Umland. Trierer Grabungen und Forschungen 16. Trier, Germany: Rheinisches Landesmuseum.
  702. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  703. Comprehensive catalogue of Roman mosaics from Trier and nearby sites, 1st to 4th centuries CE, including wall mosaics as well as floor mosaics, with discussion of their function and chronology, a catalogue of motifs, and numerous illustrations, many in color.
  704. Find this resource:
  705. Jobst, Werner. 1985. Antike Mosaikkunst in Österreich. Vienna: Österreichischer Bundesverlag.
  706. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  707. Short, well-illustrated survey of Roman mosaics in Austria, aimed at the general reader.
  708. Find this resource:
  709. Kiss, Ákos. 1973. Roman mosaics in Hungary. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó.
  710. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  711. Catalogue and discussion of Roman mosaics in Hungary, 2nd to 5th centuries CE.
  712. Find this resource:
  713. Parlasca, Klaus. 1959. Die römischen Mosaiken in Deutschland. Berlin: de Gruyter.
  714. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  715. Survey of Roman mosaics in Germany and Luxembourg, from the 1st to the 4th century CE, with numerous illustrations, but few in color. Primarily concerned with chronology and stylistic development.
  716. Find this resource:
  717. Southeastern Europe
  718.  
  719. Documentation of mosaics from Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, and the former Yugoslav states is still patchy. Meder 2003 catalogues the Roman mosaics of Croatia; Buzov 2005 summarizes the material in English. Northwestern Croatia is also covered in Donderer 1986, cited under Northern Italy. The Roman mosaics of Bosnia and Herzegovina are described in Čremošnik 1984, and those of Slovenia in Djurić 1976. Anamali and Adhami 1974 is still the only published survey of mosaics in Albania. There is no general catalogue of mosaics from Bulgaria, but Koranda 1991–1992 includes a reasonably full list of mosaics from the early Christian period, when about two-thirds of the mosaics in the country were produced.
  720.  
  721. Anamali, Skendër, and Stilian Adhami. 1974. Mosaïques de l’Albanie/Mozaikë të Shqipërise. Tirana, Albania: “8 Nëntori”.
  722. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  723. Short illustrated pamphlet on ancient and medieval mosaics in Albania, with text in French and Albanian.
  724. Find this resource:
  725. Buzov, Marija. 2005. The Roman mosaics of Dalmatia, Histria and Pannonia. In La mosaïque gréco-romaine IX. Vol. 2. Edited by Hélène Morlier, 683–693. Collection de l’École Française de Rome 352. Paris: École Française de Rome.
  726. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  727. Survey of the Roman mosaics of Croatia, 1st to 4th centuries CE.
  728. Find this resource:
  729. Čremošnik, Irma. 1984. Mozaici i zidno slikarstvo rimskog doba u Bosni i Hercegovini. Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina: Veselin Masleša.
  730. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  731. Descriptive catalogue of Roman mosaics and wall paintings in Bosnia and Herzegovina, from the 2nd to the 6th century CE; in Croatian, with summary in German.
  732. Find this resource:
  733. Djurić, Bojan. 1976. Antični mozaiki na ozemlju sr Slovenije. Arheološki Vestnik 27:537–625.
  734. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  735. Catalogue of ancient mosaics in Slovenia, 1st to 5th centuries CE, with a brief introduction and chronological survey, and numerous illustrations; in Slovenian, but includes a French translation of the introductory discussion and captions.
  736. Find this resource:
  737. Koranda, Christian. 1991–1992. Geometrische Gliederungsschemata frühchristlicher Mosaiken in Bulgarien. Jahreshefte des Österreichischen Archäologischen Instituts in Wien 61:83–111.
  738. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  739. Analysis of the geometric frameworks of early Christian (4th to 6th century CE) mosaics in Bulgaria, with references to primary reports.
  740. Find this resource:
  741. Meder, Jagoda. 2003. Podni mozaici u Hrvatskoj od 1. do 6. stoljeća. Zagreb: Croatian Ministry of Culture.
  742. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  743. Catalogue of floor mosaics in Croatia from the 1st to 6th centuries CE; in Croatian and English.
  744. Find this resource:
  745. Britain
  746.  
  747. Neal and Cosh 2002–2010 is the definitive reference work on the mosaics of Roman Britain: it includes a detailed description and bibliography for every known decorated mosaic, with lavish color illustrations, including tessera-by-tessera paintings of many mosaics, which give a better impression of the original colors than a photograph. For a shorter, more accessible introduction, see Johnson 1995, which outlines the development of mosaics in Britain. Johnson’s account is also a good introduction to David J. Smith’s influential theory, proposed in Smith 1965, Smith 1975, and Smith 1984, that many Romano-British mosaics can be attributed to regional “schools” or “workshops,” based in major towns, that can be identified by their distinctive designs and motifs. This theory has shaped much recent research on Romano-British mosaics, although it is now generally recognized that the patterns Smith observed were probably the product of a more complex scenario than his concept of “schools” implies, with more fluid groupings of craftsmen. Work building on, modifying, or challenging Smith’s ideas is summarized in Ling 1997, which also reviews recent developments in research on the iconography, symbolism, technique, chronology, and social aspects of Romano-British mosaics, and lists important new finds; this is an essential starting-point for research on the subject. New discoveries are also chronicled in the journal Mosaic (cited under Journals), produced by the Association for the Study and Preservation of Roman Mosaics (ASPROM), along with many short articles on Romano-British mosaics. Witts 2005 is a guide to the most popular figured themes depicted on British mosaics, intended to help the general reader and visitor to sites and museums to identify the stories depicted and understand the meanings behind them. Scott 2000 moves away from the traditional focus on style, attribution, and chronology, and turns attention instead to the patrons who commissioned the mosaics. Scott considers the mosaics in their local and social context, as artifacts designed for a specific setting and shaped by particular social needs. Another new direction in Romano-British mosaic research is the scientific analysis of materials, represented by Allen and Fulford 2004 (cited under Materials).
  748.  
  749. Johnson, Peter. 1995. Romano-British mosaics. 2d rev. ed. Princes Risborough, UK: Shire.
  750. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  751. Concise, well-illustrated introduction aimed at the general reader.
  752. Find this resource:
  753. Ling, Roger. 1997. Mosaics in Roman Britain: discoveries and research since 1945. Britannia 28:259–295.
  754. DOI: 10.2307/526769Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  755. Thorough review of recent work and new finds, with a rich bibliography of almost three hundred items.
  756. Find this resource:
  757. Neal, David S., and Stephen R. Cosh. 2002–2010. The Roman mosaics of Britain. 4 vols. London: Society of Antiquaries.
  758. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  759. Complete catalogue of decorated mosaics from Roman Britain, including those known only from reports by early antiquarians; extensively illustrated with the authors’ paintings and drawings of the mosaics, plus photographs, plans, and reproductions of old illustrations. Volume I, Northern Britain, Incorporating the Midlands and East Anglia; Volume II, Southwest Britain; Volume III, Southeast Britain, Including London; Volume IV, Western Britain, Including Wales.
  760. Find this resource:
  761. Scott, Sarah. 2000. Art and society in fourth-century Britain: Villa mosaics in context. Oxford University School of Archaeology Monograph 53. Oxford: Oxford Univ. School of Archaeology.
  762. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  763. Study of mosaics in their local, architectural, and social contexts, which interprets their mythological themes as expressions of the power, religious beliefs, and education of the elite.
  764. Find this resource:
  765. Smith, David J. 1965. Three fourth-century schools of mosaic in Roman Britain. In La mosaïque gréco-romaine, Paris, 29 août–3 septembre 1963. Edited by Gilbert Picard and Henri Stern, 95–115. Paris: CNRS.
  766. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  767. Identifies three regional “schools” of mosaic on the basis of similarities in themes, motifs, and overall layout: the Petuarian, centered on Brough-on-Humber; the Durnovarian, based at Dorchester; and the Corinian, operating in and around Cirencester.
  768. Find this resource:
  769. Smith, David J. 1975. Roman mosaics in Britain before the fourth century. In La mosaïque gréco-romaine II, Vienne, 30 août–4 septembre 1971. Edited by Henri Stern and Marcel Le Glay, 269–290. Paris: CNRS.
  770. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  771. Proposes a chronology for mosaics of the 1st to 3rd centuries CE, based on the evolution of characteristic motifs, and identifies a 2nd-century “school” of mosaicists working in Verulamium and Colchester.
  772. Find this resource:
  773. Smith, David J. 1984. Roman mosaics in Britain: A synthesis. In Il mosaico antico: III colloquio internazionale sul mosaico antico, Ravenna, 6–10 settembre 1980. Vol. 2. Edited by Raffaella Farioli Campanati, 357–380. Ravenna, Italy: Edizioni del Girasole.
  774. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  775. Updated summary of Smith’s ideas on the development and attribution of Romano-British mosaics; postulates two broad regional “traditions,” eastern and western, in the 2nd century CE, and refines his model of 4th-century “schools” by dividing the Corinian school into two, the “Orpheus” and “Saltire” groups.
  776. Find this resource:
  777. Witts, Patricia. 2005. Mosaics in Roman Britain: Stories in stone. Stroud, UK: Tempus.
  778. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  779. Introduction to Romano-British mosaics for students and general readers, focusing on common figured motifs, such as mythological lovers and heroes, gods and goddesses, personifications of time, images of prosperity and good fortune, and scenes from the hunt and the arena.
  780. Find this resource:
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