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Jesuits (Renaissance and Reformation)

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. The Jesuits, or the Society of Jesus, is a Roman Catholic order of men religious founded in 1540 by Ignatius of Loyola (b. c. 1491–d. 1556), a Spanish nobleman of Basque origins (see Oxford Bibliographies article on Renaissance and Reformation “Saint Ignatius of Loyola”). Although the initial purpose of the founding group of companions from the University of Paris, who offered their services to the Roman pontiff, was to engage in the traditional apostolic Ministries for the progress of souls in life and in Christian doctrine—such as preaching, lecturing, teaching catechism, and hearing confessions—the Jesuits soon became known for their work as missionaries in Asia and the Americas, educators, and agents of so-called Counter-Reformation. The order expanded rapidly, and by the time it was suppressed in 1773 by Pope Clement XIV, the Jesuits were present in almost every aspect of early modern culture, Sciences, and the Arts in all parts of the world. Their radical innovations to the traditional religious life; special vow of being ready to be sent out on missions; role as confessors and counselors to sovereigns; and support of controversial theological, missionary, and political doctrines produced both animosity and admiration not only among Protestants but also Catholics, as the following bibliography makes clear. Restored by Pope Pius VII in 1814, the Jesuits, for better or worse, continued to play a prominent role in the history of the modern world. The following division into thematic sections is somewhat artificial, for many fields of Jesuit activities overlapped: the scientific activity of the Jesuits was, for example, often connected to their missionary endeavors, while their Ministries were affected by their Spirituality. Only all titles considered in their unity give a more balanced overview of the scholarship on the pre-suppression Society of Jesus that is being here proposed. Because Oxford Bibliographies on Renaissance and Reformation already contains an article on Schooling and Literacy by Paul Grendler and another one on Mission by Luke Clossey, and these articles offer an abundant bibliography on the contributions of the Jesuits to these fields, the present overview does not include such sections.
  4.  
  5. General Overviews
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  7. Surprisingly, there is no comprehensive scholarly history of the Jesuits in any language. The best attempts to present their history in the format of handbooks of varying sizes, helpful for a novice in the field, are Bangert 1972 in English, García Villoslada 1954 in Spanish, and Pavone 2004 in Italian (both Bangert and Pavone have been translated into other languages). Pollen 1912, as outdated as it is, is still a good article to start with in order to have a general historic orientation. The most recent edition of Worcester 2008 indicates numerous new directions of scholarship on the Jesuits, which has recently flourished. Both Lacouture 1991–1992 and Wright 2004 complement any handbook with their selective narratives of the impact of the Society of Jesus on modernity in terms of their contributions to philosophy, sciences, political thought, and law, among others. Haub 2007 is a flawed attempt—yet one representative of certain scholarship—to write about an international institution based on a limited national historiography and an arbitrary choice of fields of Jesuit activities.
  8.  
  9. Bangert, William V. A History of the Society of Jesus. Saint Louis, MO: Institute of Jesuit Sources, 1972.
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  11. A good general introduction to the history of the order. The first seven chapters deal with the pre-suppression period. The division of the material is chronological and follows the tenures of important superior generals of the order. Succinct footnotes and bibliography.
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  13. García Villoslada, Ricardo. Manual de historia de la Compañía de Jesús. Madrid: Compañía Bibliográfica Española, 1954.
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  15. Even though quite outdated, the only handbook of Jesuit history by one of the major Jesuit historians who had a deep knowledge of primary sources and of the historical context in which the Society of Jesus was born.
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  17. Haub, Rita. Die Geschichte der Jesuiten. Darmstadt, Germany: Wiss. Buchges, 2007.
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  19. A perfunctory history of the Society from its foundation up to 2007. The first four chapters discuss the pre-suppression Society, concentrating on the Jesuit pedagogical and missionary enterprises, but excluding arts, architecture, or music. There are no footnotes and the bibliography is surprisingly limited to German titles.
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  21. Lacouture, Jean. Jésuites: Une multibiographie. 2 vols. Paris: Seuil, 1991–1992.
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  23. Tells the story of certain individual Jesuits, mostly French, arbitrarily chosen, without addressing certain themes, people, and events central to Jesuit history. Contains a table of parallel Jesuit and world chronology. The English one-volume translation by Jeremy Leggatt (Washington, DC: Counterpoint, 1995) is condensed from the two-volume original work.
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  25. Pavone, Sabina. I gesuiti: Dalle origini alla soppressione, 1540–1773. Rome: Laterza, 2004.
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  27. A very succinct history of the order from its origins until the suppression. This booklet highlights how the Society was in the center of the formation of modern Western scientific, philosophical, and political identity. Thus there are chapters dedicated to various controversies, from de auxiliis to the Chinese rites to Molinism and to conflicts with European state authorities.
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  29. Pollen, John Hungerford. “History of the Jesuits before the 1773 Suppression.” In The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 14. Edited by Charles Herbermann, Edward Pace, Conde B. Pallen, et al. Transcribed by Michal Donahue. New York: Robert Appleton, 1912.
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  31. Encyclopedic account of the Jesuit history by countries: from Italy, Spain, Portugal, France, Germany, Poland, Belgium, England, Ireland, and Scotland to the missionary regions of India, Japan, China, Central and South America, Paraguay, Mexico, the United States, and the French missions. Provides a basic yet useful survey of primary and secondary sources. Available online
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  33. Worcester, Thomas. The Cambridge Companion to the Jesuits. Cambridge Companions to Religion. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2008.
  34. DOI: 10.1017/CCOL9780521857314Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  35. A collection of eighteen essays exploring the religious and cultural significance of the Society, especially before 1773. Topics include Ignatius of Loyola, European Foundations of the Jesuits, Geographic and Ethnic Frontiers, and Art and Sciences. Far from being exhaustive, it nonetheless shows the breadth of recent scholarship in Jesuit studies.
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  37. Wright, Jonathan. The Jesuits: Missions, Myth and Histories. London: HarperCollins, 2004.
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  39. Well-researched, elegantly written and balanced account. Shows the centrality of the Jesuits in molding the history of Western modernity in arts and sciences told through a series of intelligently chosen key incidents and figures representing myths and counter-myths of the Society of Jesus. Six out of eight chapters deal with the pre-suppression Society.
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  41. Regional Histories
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  43. General Congregation 24 of the Jesuits that met in Spain in 1892 in its decree 21 recommended to the newly elected superior general that the writing of the history of the Society, in tandem with the Monumenta Historica Societatis Iesu (cited under Primary Sources) project, be pursued. Consequently, Superior General Luis Martín appointed a group of historians, many of whom were trained in the new 19th-century-methods of historical criticism, to begin combing local archives and writing histories of their respective assistancies (larger administrative entities of the Society, grouping several provinces) or provinces. The selected titles below are examples of the results of this multiyear enterprise: Astrain 1902–1925 for Spain, Duhr 1907–1928 for German-speaking lands, Fouqueray 1910–1925 for France, Kroess 1910–1938 for Bohemia, Poncelet 1927 for Low Countries, Rodrigues 1931–1950 for Portugal, Tacchi Venturi and Scaduto 1950–1992 for Italy, and Załęski 1900–1906 for Poland-Lithuania. In spite of their narrow institutional and political—and often nationalistic—approach to history, they all contain a wealth of helpful material that any scholar studying a specific geographic region should take into account. Most of them provide very helpful detailed thematic and onomastic indexes and bibliographies.
  44.  
  45. Astrain, Antonio. Historia de la Compañía de Jesús en la asistencia de España. 7 vols. Madrid: Sucesores de Rivadeneyra, 1902–1925.
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  47. A detailed history of the Spanish provinces of the Society of Jesus from the foundation of the Society up to 1758, divided into generalates. The first volume contains a helpful introduction to archival and printed sources. See also a separate imprint for Vols. 3–7 (Madrid: Razón y fe, 1909–1925).
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  49. Duhr, Bernhard. Geschichte der Jesuiten in den Ländern deutscher Zunge. 4 vols. Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany: Verlag Herder, 1907–1928.
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  51. A history of the Society of Jesus in German-speaking lands from the foundation of the first colleges in Austria up to the suppression of the order. The first volume covers the 16th century, the second the first half of the 17th century, the third the latter half of the 17th century, and the fourth the 18th century. Also published by Manz, 1921–1928. Text available online.
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  53. Fouqueray, Henri. Histoire de la Compagnie de Jésus en France des origines á la suppression (1528–1762). 5 vols. Paris: A. Picard et Fils, 1910–1925.
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  55. A history of the Jesuits in France from the Parisian years of the first companions up to the mid-17th century (despite the title), divided into the following periods: 1528–1575, 1575–1604, 1604–1623, 1624–1634, and 1634–1645. Text available online.
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  57. Kroess, Alois. Geschichte der böhmischen Provinz der Gesellschaft Jesu. 2 vols. Vienna: Opitz, 1910–1938.
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  59. A history of the Bohemian Province of the Society of Jesus. The first volume covers the period from the foundation of the college in Prague (1556) up to the expulsion of 1619; the second covers the activities of the Jesuits under the reign of Ferdinand III (1637–1657).
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  61. Poncelet, Alfred. Histoire de la Compagnie de Jésus dans les anciens Pays-Bas: Établissement de la Compagnie de Jésus en Belgique et ses développments jusqu’a la fin du règne d’Albert et d’Isabelle. 2 vols. Brussels, Belgium: Marcel Hayez, 1927.
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  63. A history of the Jesuits in what used to be called Habsburg Netherlands from the foundation of the first college there in Leuven up to the end of the reign of Albert and Isabella in 1621. The first volume covers a general history; the second deals with specific ministries of the Society.
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  65. Rodrigues, Francisco. História da Companhia de Jesus na assistência de Portugal. 4 vols. Oporto, Portugal: Livraria Apostolado da Imprensa, 1931–1950.
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  67. A history of the Society in Portugal from the foundation of the province in 1540 up to the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1759. The first volume covers the first two decades, the second the period up to 1615, the third up to the end of the 17th century, and the fourth the 18th century.
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  69. Tacchi Venturi, Pietro, and Mario Scaduto. Storia della Compagnia di Gesù in Italia. 5 vols. Rome: Civiltà Cattolica, 1950–1992.
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  71. Originally published as a journal series from 1910 to 1951 with Tacchi Venturi as the sole author, this is a history of the Jesuits in Italy from the foundation of the order up to the death of Ignatius of Loyola in 1556. The first volume, by Tacchi Venturi, is a history of the religious life in Italy in the 16th century, with the second part containing numerous archival documents. Decades later, another Jesuit historian, Mario Scaduto, continued this series by adding two volumes on the period of the Jesuit order under Superior General Diego Laínez, and another one on the tenure of Francisco de Borja.
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  73. Załęski, Stanisław. Jezuici w Polsce. 5 vols. Kraków, Poland: W. L. Anczyc, 1900–1906.
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  75. Published in different formats, it has an abridged more accessible edition combining all original five volumes in one (Kraków: W. L. Anczyc, 1908). Covers the history of the Jesuits in Poland-Lithuania in the period from the foundation of the Society there in 1564 up to 1905, when the country was under the Russian, Prussian, and Austrian occupation as the result of the late-18th-century partitions.
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  77. Reference Sources
  78.  
  79. No major reference work on the Jesuits has been yet produced in the English language. The most comprehensive dictionary is O’Neill and Domínguez 2001, which is in Spanish. Much more concise yet quite complete is Koch 1962, which is in German. Grzebień 1996 is wide-ranging but geographically limited to Polish Jesuits. The most monumental bibliographical reference tool to the corpus of Jesuit writings is Sommervogel 1890–1932. Institutum Societatis Iesu is the most comprehensive collection of legal documents. Excellent sources for the philological study of Loyola’s writings and of his Spirituality are Echarte 1996 and García de Castro Valdés and Cebollada 2007, respectively. McCoog 2001 is the only practical guide through the Jesuit archives.
  80.  
  81. Echarte, Ignacio. Concordancia ignaciana. Bilbao, Spain: Ediciones Mensajero, 1996.
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  83. A concordance of the terms in the main writings of Loyola in the original languages of use (Spanish, Latin, and Italian) and based on the critical editions of the Monumenta Historica Societatis Iesu (see Primary Sources). There is an English introduction. Fundamental for any analysis of the thought and language of Ignatius.
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  85. García de Castro Valdés, José, and Pascual Cebollada. Diccionario de espiritualidad ignaciana. 2 vols. Santander, Spain: Sal Terrae, 2007.
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  87. This Spanish dictionary complements the Diccionario histórico (see below in this section) for researchers interested specifically in Ignatian or Jesuit spirituality. Each article is followed by the most recent bibliography in the field.
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  89. Grzebień, Ludwik. Encyklopedia wiedzy o jezuitach na ziemiach Polski i Litwy, 1564–1995. Kraków, Poland: Wydział Filozoficzny Towarzystwa Jezusowego, 1996.
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  91. There is no more comprehensive collection of data in any region of Jesuit presence in the world than this encyclopedia of the Jesuits in Poland-Lithuania. Edited by the best specialists in studies on Polish Jesuits. Partially available online.
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  93. Institutum Societatis Iesu. 3 vols. Florence: Ex Typographia a SS. Conceptione, 1882–1893.
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  95. A compendium of official documents, mostly by the Holy See, concerning the rules, laws, and privileges of the Society of Jesus, what is collectively called the “Institute” of the Jesuits. Fundamental for the legal history of the Jesuits and their place within the broader Catholic church.
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  97. Koch, Ludwig. Jesuiten-Lexicon: Die Gesellschaft Jesu einst und jetzt (Paderborn 1934). 2 vols. Leuven-Heverlee, Belgium: Verlag der Bibliothek S.J., 1962.
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  99. Outdated yet still useful encyclopedia of knowledge about the Jesuits. It contains information pertaining to the Society’s history, geography, events, important figures, terms, and concepts.
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  101. McCoog, Thomas M. A Guide to Jesuit Archives. Saint Louis, MO: Institute of Jesuit Sources, 2001.
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  103. Written by a Jesuit archivist and historian, it contains multilingual information on the location, historical background, conditions of use, acquisitions policy, and contents of Jesuit archives around the world. Very helpful for orienting any scholar engaged in archival research, although it does not include state national archives or other ecclesiastical archives, which became repositories of much Jesuit material after the suppression of the Society in the 18th century.
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  105. O’Neill, Charles E., and Joaquín María Domínguez, eds. Diccionario histórico de la Compañía de Jesús: Biográfico-temático. Rome: Institutum Historicum, 2001.
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  107. Presents 5637 biographies of the Jesuits and of people associated with their history, plus 366 thematic articles, including 138 geographical articles describing Jesuit activities. Every biographical article includes a short list of the works written on the subject. Despite its many defects, it is an obligatory reference source.
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  109. Sommervogel, Carlos. Bibliothèque de la Compagnie de Jésus: Nouvelle édition. Brussels, Belgium: Oscar Schepens, 1890–1932.
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  111. Based on the Bibliothèque des éscrivains de la Compagnie de Jésus by Pères Augustin et Aloys de Backer (Liege, Belgium: Grandmont-Donders: 1st ed., 1853–1861; 2d ed., 1869–1876) and the Bibliographie historique de la Compagnie de Jésus by Auguste Carayon (Paris: A Durand, 1864), this work is a monumental bibliography of Jesuit publications from 1540 until the early 1900s, organized by fields of Jesuit activities. Twelve folio volumes are supplemented by a helpful list of anonymous authors and a geographical index of authors’ birthplaces.
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  113. Primary Sources
  114.  
  115. Probably no other religious order has such significant a body of published primary sources. Major critical editions had been printed in the late 19th century, starting with Braunsberger 1896–1926 and with the multivolume collection of the Monumenta Historica Societatis Iesu, which still continues to be published. Important for the understanding of early modern Jesuit historiography—and used thus as primary sources—are Ribadeneyra 2009 (a modern critical edition); Bartoli 1650; and Orlandini, et al. 1615–1750. The fundamental writings by the founder of the order Ignatius of Loyola—most of them in Castilian—have been excellently edited by three major Spanish Jesuit historians Iparraguirre, Dalmases, and Ruiz Jurado (Iparraguirre, et al. 1977). Only a small part of this enormous quantity of Jesuit documents, mostly in Latin, Spanish, Italian, and Portuguese, has been translated into English. The most important effort to fill this gap is the current series Jesuit Primary Sources in English Translations, published by the Institute of Jesuit Sources at St. Louis (now at Boston College). Another attempt at translating the basic primary sources into English, limited in scope but useful in the classroom, has been made in Donnelly 2006.
  116.  
  117. Bartoli, Daniello. Della vita e dell’instituto di s. Ignatio fondatore della Compagnia di Giesù libri cinque. Rome: Manelfi, 1650.
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  119. Written by an Italian Jesuit, the first part of a larger uncompleted history of the Society, focusing on the founder. Other parts principally discuss the Jesuit missions in Asia, England, and Italy. Influential because of its many translations and reprints well into the 19th century.
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  121. Braunsberger, Otto, ed. Beati Petri Canisii, Societatis Iesu, epistulae et acta. 8 vols. Freiburg, Germany: Herder, 1896–1926.
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  123. Critical edition of documents, mostly letters, related to one of the most important 16th-century Jesuits who operated in German-speaking lands; supplemented with detailed footnotes and indexes. Text available online.
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  125. Donnelly, John Patrick, S.J. Jesuit Writings of the Early Modern Period, 1540–1640. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett, 2006.
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  127. Divided into eight chapters—writings of Loyola, Jesuit education, foreign missions, opposition to Protestantism, spirituality, pastoral ministries, politics, and enemies—it provides annotated excerpts of important texts in English translation by early Jesuits from Loyola to Xavier, Polanco, Ricci, Campion, de Nobili, Bellarmine, and Mariana.
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  129. Iparraguirre, Ignacio, Candido de Dalmases, and Manuel Ruiz Jurado, eds. Obras completas de san Ignacio de Loyola. Madrid: Biblioteca de Autores Cristianos, 1977.
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  131. Best handbook critical edition of the original texts of Loyola in Spanish, including the so-called Autobiography, the Spiritual Exercises, the Constitutions, the Spiritual Diary, letters and instructions, and other documents related to the foundation of the order. Helpful historiographical introduction with a selected bibliography and detailed indexes of subjects.
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  133. Jesuit Primary Sources in English Translations series. Saint Louis, MO: Institute of Jesuit Sources, 1985–.
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  135. This series includes a range of important texts by Loyola and his first companions, devotional and missionary treatises, and legal and pedagogical documents including Ignatius’s so-called Autobiography and a selection of his and Xavier’s letters and instructions, the decrees of general congregations, and so forth. The same publisher has also issued a CD-ROM containing original texts by Loyola and images related to the Jesuit history.
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  137. Monumenta Historica Societatis Iesu. Rome: Institutum Historicum Societatis Iesu, 1894–.
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  139. The most important documentary series providing mainly critical editions of primary sources from the Roman Archives of the Jesuits in Rome. The most recent catalog lists 157 volumes. In 2005, a new series was established that also includes critical editions, reprints, and translations. Available online.
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  141. Orlandini, Niccolò, Francesco Sacchini, Anton Hierat, et al. Historia Societatis Iesu. 8 vols. Cologne, Germany: Sumptibus Antonij Hierat, 1615–1750.
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  143. A history of the Society based on archival research up to the death of Ignatius of Loyola. Continued by Francesco Sacchini up to 1590 and by other Jesuits up to 1632; it ultimately comprised eight volumes that were published through 1750. Important source of information on how major Jesuit historians narrated the history of their own order.
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  145. Ribadeneyra, Pedro de. Historias de la contrarreforma. Madrid: Biblioteca Autores Cristianos, 2009.
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  147. In spite of the title, which reflects a sort of Jesuit historiography that portrayed the Society as the main anti-Protestant force, Rey’s edition of writings by one of the most important Jesuits of the first generation contains biographies of the first three superiors general and of Alfonso Salmerón, an early companion of Ignatius.
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  149. Catalogues and Bibliographies
  150.  
  151. An obligatory place to start exploring the Jesuit bibliography of the 20th century is Polgár 1981–1990. Iparraguirre 1961 and Dimler 2005 are examples of bibliographies dedicated to a specific field of Jesuit work. There are a number of catalogues of Jesuits that are basic yet helpful sources of information on the Jesuits either in general (Fejér 1982) or in specific geographical areas: Audenaert 2000 for the Jesuit provinces of the Low Countries, Lukács 1987–1988 for Austria, and McCoog 1992 for England. Wernz, et al. 1950 is a useful tool in getting oriented in studying Jesuit history and Tabulae Exhibentes Sedes Antiquae Societatis Jesu is an old but useful regional atlas. The Boston College Jesuit Bibliography: The New Sommervogel (NSO) promises to be the most comprehensive online database of Jesuitica.
  152.  
  153. Audenaert, Willem. Prosopographia Iesuitica Belgica antiqua (PIBA): A Biographical Dictionary of the Jesuits in the Low Countries, 1572–1773. Leuven-Heverlee, Belgium: Filosofisch en Theologisch College S.J., 2000.
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  155. Offers basic biographical data concerning eleven thousand Jesuits who operated in the Low Countries between the founding of the province and its suppression. The fourth volume contains a valuable index of names. An indispensable research tool on the Jesuits in this region.
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  157. Boston College Jesuit Bibliography: The New Sommervogel Online (NSO).
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  159. A comprehensive online bibliography covering books, book chapters, journal articles, and book reviews pertaining to the exponentially growing field of Jesuit studies. In addition to basic bibliographic information, entries include (English) abstracts, detailed subject headings, direct links to items available in electronic format where available, and a link to an item’s WorldCat entry, which shows where it may be located. The database covers more than 1600 periodicals and is updated regularly. Available online.
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  161. Dimler, G. Richard. The Jesuit Emblem: Bibliography of Secondary Literature with Select Commentary and Descriptions. Brooklyn, NY: AMS, 2005.
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  163. A useful tool for emblem scholars. Includes various studies on Jesuit emblem books and their authors, both those written by individual Jesuits as well as those produced by Jesuit institutions.
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  165. Fejér, Josephus. Defuncti primi saeculi Societatis Jesu, 1540–1640. 2 vols. Rome: Curia Generalitia Societatis Iesu, 1982.
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  167. A concise collection of biographies of the deceased Jesuits during the 1st century of the Society’s history organized by Jesuit administrative regions (assistancies) of Italy, Germany, France, Spain, and Portugal. In 1985–1990 the Jesuit Historical Institute published five volumes continuing the collection through the years 1641–1740 but organized alphabetically.
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  169. Iparraguirre, Ignacio. Répertoire de spiritualité ignatienne de la mort de S. Ignace à celle du P. Aquaviva, 1556–1615. Rome: Institutum Historicum, 1961.
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  171. Contains some 979 bibliographic references divided into four historical periods from the death of Loyola up to the death of the fourth superior general, Claudio Acquaviva. Contains a useful catalogue of authors and an index of subject matters.
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  173. Lukács, Ladislaus. Catalogus generalis, seu Nomenclator biographicus personarum provinciae Austriae Societatis Iesu (1551–1773). 3 vols. Rome: Institutum Historicum, 1987–1988.
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  175. A biographical catalogue of the Jesuits who belonged to the Austrian province from the establishment of this administrative unit until the suppression of the order.
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  177. McCoog, Thomas M. English and Welsh Jesuits: Catalogues. Monumenta Angliae 1–2. Rome: Institutum Historicum Societatis Iesu, 1992.
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  179. Part of Monumenta Angliae by McCoog and Lukács (Rome: Institutum Historicum Societatis Iesu, 1992–2000), these catalogues of the Jesuits who worked in Tudor to Stuart England are divided into two time spans: 1555–1629 and 1630–1640. They supersede Henry Foley’s eight-volume Records of the English Province of the Society of Jesus (London: Burns, 1875–1883). A helpful historiographical introduction to the Jesuit mission to England is provided.
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  181. Polgár, László. Bibliographie sur l’histoire de la Compagnie de Jésus: 1901–1980. 3 vols. Rome: Institutum Historicum S.I., 1981–1990.
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  183. The most comprehensive Jesuit bibliography for the 20th century. Divided into three volumes: The Entire Society; Countries; People. The latter is split alphabetically into three parts. Since 1982, it has annual updates in every second volume of the Archivum Historicum Societatis Iesu (cited under Journals).
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  185. Tabulae exhibentes sedes antiquae Societatis Jesu, missionum stationes et collegia, 1556–1773, provinciae Bohemiae et Silesiacae. Vienna: Sumptibus Monasterium Societatis Jesu, 1899.
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  187. An example of a sort of atlas of the Jesuit communities in Bohemia and Silesia, useful for mapping the strategy of the order in this important Protestant-influenced region.
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  189. Wernz, Franz Xavier, Ludwig Schmitt, and J. B. Goetstouwers. Synopsis historiae Societatis Jesu. Leuven, Belgium: Typis ad Sancti Alphonsi, 1950.
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  191. A detailed synopsis of the history of the Jesuits in 1540–1914 divided into two parts: the first contains synchronized tables with three helpful appendixes; the second includes an explanation of the Jesuit Institute and portrayals of famous Jesuits. Text available online.
  192. Find this resource:
  193. Journals
  194.  
  195. Even though there are many journals run by the Jesuits around the world, which occasionally publish articles dedicated to the study of the Jesuits in the period of our consideration, Archivum Historicum Societatis Iesu and the Journal of Jesuit Studies are the only two periodicals specifically devoted to Jesuit history. Manresa and Ignaziana. Rivista di ricerca teologica are dedicated to Ignatian and Jesuit Spirituality.
  196.  
  197. Archivum Historicum Societatis Iesu. 1932–.
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  199. A semiannual journal with articles on different aspects of the history and culture of the Jesuits. Translated into Spanish, English, French, German, Italian, and Portuguese. Produced at the Jesuit Roman Archives, it includes a significant number of critical editions of primary sources from these and other archives. While contents are available online, current issues are only available in print.
  200. Find this resource:
  201. Ignaziana. Rivista di ricerca teologica. 2006–.
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  203. Created originally at the Center of Ignatian Spirituality in Naples, an online biannual published by the Ignatian Spirituality Center of the Institute of Spirituality at the Pontifical Gregorian University (Rome).
  204. Find this resource:
  205. The Journal of Jesuit Studies. 2014–.
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  207. A peer-reviewed quarterly journal in English dedicated to the study of Jesuit history from the 16th to the 21st century. In its themed issues the JJS highlights studies with a given topical, chronological, or geographical focus. Publishes a significant number of book reviews as well. One of its key features is relating episodes in Jesuit history, particularly those which have suffered from scholarly neglect, to broader trends in global history since the 16th century. Available online.
  208. Find this resource:
  209. Manresa. 1925–.
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  211. Published three times a year by the Spanish Jesuits, its goal is to study the history of Ignatian spirituality, especially the Spiritual Exercises within their theological and cultural context.
  212. Find this resource:
  213. Foundation
  214.  
  215. This section is important to the understanding of the charisma of the Jesuit order and how it evolved within a broader context of the religious history of early modern Europe and beyond. An obligatory place to start is O’Malley 1993, which challenges some important aspects of the traditional historiography, represented among others in Brodrick 1986 and Brodrick 1997. McCoog 2004 is an important chronological sequel to Brodrick and O’Malley. Bataillon and Fabre 2009 and Maryks 2010 offer a complementary picture of the period with an analysis of archival material that had been little known or not known at all. García Villoslada 1986 is a meticulous biography of the Jesuit founder helpful in grasping his identity within the context of the complex Spanish milieu. Schurhammer 1955–1973 is a detailed biography of Francis Xavier, the Jesuit missionary par excellence with an excellent historical background for his life. For complementary titles, the reader should consult Oxford Bibliographies article on Renaissance and Reformation “Ignatius of Loyola”.
  216.  
  217. Bataillon, Marcel, and Pierre-Antoine Fabre. Les jésuites dans l’Espagne du XVIe siècle. Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 2009.
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  219. A posthumous edition of Bataillon’s 1946 series of lectures at the Collège de France on the Spanish Jesuits in the 16th century, published by the Jesuit historian Pierre-Antoine Fabre, which highlights Jesuits’ contributions to the reform of Spanish Catholicism and the role Jesuits of Jewish ancestry played in that process.
  220. Find this resource:
  221. Brodrick, James. The Progress of the Jesuits (1556–79). Chicago: Loyola, 1986.
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  223. A sequel to Brodrick 1997, which covers the period up to the end of the tenure of Superior General Everard Mercurian (1580). This title has been translated into other languages. Originally published in 1947.
  224. Find this resource:
  225. Brodrick, James. The Origin of the Jesuits. Chicago: Loyola, 1997.
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  227. An erudite yet lively account of the foundation of the Jesuits, which—together with the next title—became a classic. Written by a Jesuit yet far from being apologetic. This redesigned version of the original has a new foreword by the Jesuit Joseph N. Tylenda. Originally published in 1940.
  228. Find this resource:
  229. García Villoslada, Ricardo. San Ignacio de Loyola: Nueva biografía. Madrid: Biblioteca de Autores Cristianos, 1986.
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  231. Although focused on the life of Ignatius, a scrupulously detailed narrative of the religious history of Europe that serves as a historical background to the foundation of the Society of Jesus by Loyola. Translated into Italian.
  232. Find this resource:
  233. Maryks, Robert A. The Jesuit Order as a Synagogue of Jews: Jesuits of Jewish Ancestry and Purity-of-Blood Laws in the Early Society of Jesus. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2010.
  234. DOI: 10.1163/ej.9789004179813.i-282Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  235. Explains how Jesuits with Jewish family backgrounds went within less than forty years from having a leading role in the foundation of the Society and its development to being prohibited from membership in it. An analysis of the copious archival material advances our understanding of racial politics in early modern institutional Catholicism.
  236. Find this resource:
  237. McCoog, Thomas M., ed. The Mercurian Project: Forming Jesuit Culture, 1573–1580. Rome: Institutum Historicum, 2004.
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  239. The short tenure of the third superior general, Everard Mercurian—the first non-Spaniard to lead the Jesuits after a manipulated election—is the focus of this collection of some thirty essays devoted to multifaceted developments of the order, including the expansion in Asia under Alessandro Valignano.
  240. Find this resource:
  241. O’Malley, John W. The First Jesuits. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993.
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  243. The most comprehensive and masterly account of the first generation of the Jesuits, showing how the mission of the order underwent continuous adjustments. It departs from the traditional histories of institution and analyzes the Jesuit identity through the prism of their own ministries as they developed under Loyola and Laínez.
  244. Find this resource:
  245. Schurhammer, Georg. Franz Xaver: Sein Leben und seine Zeit. 2 vols. Freiburg, Germany: Herder, 1955–1973.
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  247. Based on an impressive amount of archival documents, the most comprehensive, authoritative biography of Loyola’s first companion Francisco Javier (Francis Xavier), who became the first Jesuit to be sent overseas. The second volume, in three parts, is practically a history of the foundations of the Jesuit missions in the East. Translated into English (Rome: Jesuit Historical Institute, 1973–1982).
  248. Find this resource:
  249. Spirituality
  250.  
  251. There is no comprehensive history of Jesuit spirituality in the English language. Guibert 1994, originally in French, is quite comprehensive but somewhat outdated and questionable. More concise, also in French, is Iparraguirre’s article in Baumgartner, et al. 1932–1995. Their edited work Dictionnaire de spiritualité is an excellent but fragmented source of knowledge about different aspects of Jesuit spirituality, which is supplemented by numerous issues of Studies in the Spirituality of Jesuits, published in English since 1969. The main primary sources in this field are Loyola’s Spiritual Exercises and the Constitutions (see Iparraguirre, et al. 1977, cited under Primary Sources). Hence the importance of studies dedicated to them, such as Ganss 1992 and Iparraguirre 1946–1955. Complementary to those works is Rahner 1956, which sheds light on Loyola’s application of his spiritual ideals regarding women whom he directed. While Leturia 1953 offers a glimpse into Jesuit spiritual readings of the first Jesuits, O’Malley 2013 shows the influence of Renaissance humanism not only on their mission but also on their spiritual doctrine.
  252.  
  253. Baumgartner, Charles, Marcel Viller, and André Rayez, eds. Dictionnaire de spiritualité ascétique et mystique: Doctrine et histoire. Paris: G. Beauchesne, 1932–1995.
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  255. Contains a significant number of articles dedicated to Jesuit spirituality and to those Jesuits who had been significant authors in the history of asceticism and mysticism, including an article “Jésuites” by André Derville (Vol. 8, col. 958) and “Ignace de Loyola” by Ignacio Iparraguirre (Vol. 7, col. 1266).
  256. Find this resource:
  257. Ganss, George E. The Spiritual Exercises of Saint Ignatius: A Translation and Commentary. Saint Louis, MO: Institute of Jesuit Sources, 1992.
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  259. A translation and an authoritative commentary (with an introduction) of the most important Jesuit spiritual text. Contains selected bibliography and appendices.
  260. Find this resource:
  261. Guibert, Joseph de. The Jesuits: Their Spiritual Doctrine and Practice: A Historical Study. Saint Louis, MO: Institute of Jesuit Sources, 1994.
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  263. The original French title expresses better the volume’s content: a historical sketch of the spirituality of the Society of Jesus. Posthumous edition commissioned by Superior General Włodzimierz Ledóchowski. Shortcomings explained in the preface by Edmond Lamalle, the editor of the French version (Rome: Institutum Historicum, 1953). Based mostly on published primary sources and not on manuscripts. A useful thematic index is included. Originally published in 1964.
  264. Find this resource:
  265. Iparraguirre, Ignacio. Historia de la práctica de los Ejercicios Espirituales de San Ignacio de Loyola. 2 vols. Bilbao, Spain: El Mensajero del Corazón de Jesús, 1946–1955.
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  267. Comprises Volume 1: Práctica de los Ejercicios espirituales de San Ignacio de Loyola en vida de su autor (1522–1556), and Volume 2: Desde la muerte de San Ignacio hasta la promulgación del directorio oficial (1556–1599). The first volume covers the period from the creation of the text until the death of Ignatius. The second volume deals with the period between the death of Loyola and the promulgation of the first official directory to the Exercises. A masterly account of how Loyola’s Spiritual Exercises had been practiced.
  268. Find this resource:
  269. Leturia, Pedro. Lecturas ascéticas y lecturas místicas entre los jesuítas del siglo XVI. Rome: Edizioni di storia e letteratura, 1953.
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  271. A survey of readings on asceticism and mysticism popular among the Jesuits in the 16th century, showing their influence on the formation of the Jesuit spiritual doctrine.
  272. Find this resource:
  273. O’Malley, John W. “Renaissance Humanism and the Religious Culture of the First Jesuits.” In Saints or Devils Incarnate? Studies in Jesuit History. By John W. O’Malley, 181–198. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2013.
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  275. Sketches the basic contours of a neglected topic: how Renaissance humanism had a profound and determinative impact on the Jesuits by the time of the founder’s death in 1556.
  276. Find this resource:
  277. Rahner, Hugo. Briefwechsel mit Frauen. Freiburg, Germany: Herder, 1956.
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  279. An important, although gender-biased, work on Loyola’s spiritual direction of women translated and commented upon by the Jesuit historian Hugo Rahner. Translated into English (New York: Herder, 1960).
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Studies in the Spirituality of Jesuits. 1969–.
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  283. A journal in the form of a series of studies pertaining to the spiritual doctrine and practice of Jesuits. Many topics deal with the history of Jesuit spirituality in early modern times. Published four times a year since 1969.
  284. Find this resource:
  285. Ministries
  286.  
  287. Ministries or pastoral activities that the Jesuits performed are of paramount importance to an understanding who they were and how their ministries shaped their identity. Many ministries were combined in what the Jesuits dubbed their missions, whether these were overseas missions that are analyzed with different methodologies in the works of Broggio 2004 and Clossey 2008, or civilizing missions and rural/urban missions that Selwyn 2004 and Rico Callado 2006 focus on in specific regional contexts. Other studies concentrate on the Jesuit ministries among specific social or religious/ethnic groups: Lazar 2005 analyzes the Italian confraternities that supported the Jesuits’ work among prostitutes and Jews; Colombo 2007 discusses Jesuit programs of the apostolate to Muslims; Châtellier 1987 studies Marian Congregations; and Borja de Medina 1998 offers a narrative of the Jesuit dealings with moriscos.
  288.  
  289. Borja de Medina, Francisco. “La Compañía de Jesús y la minoría morisca (1545–1614).” Archivum historicum Societatis Iesu 57 (1998): 3–136.
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  291. The most comprehensive overview of the Society’s apostolate to the Spanish moriscos, starting with the unsuccessful founding of the morisco college in Gandía in 1545, and of the role of the minority of Jesuits of Muslim ancestry, written by the leading Jesuit historian in the field.
  292. Find this resource:
  293. Broggio, Paolo. Evangelizzare il mondo: Le missioni della Compagnia di Gesù tra Europa e America: secoli XVI–XVII. Rome: Carocci, 2004.
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  295. Analyzes the concept of the Jesuit mission and its practical accommodation to the local religious, cultural, and cultural circumstances in Europe and around the world in the 16th and 17th centuries. Intuitive comparisons between the missions in Europe and overseas, like the one between moriscos (converted Muslims in Spain and their descendants) and indios.
  296. Find this resource:
  297. Châtellier, Louis. L’Europe des dévots. Paris: Flammarion, 1987.
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  299. A classic dealing with the laymen communities known as Marian Congregations across important European urban centers, including Paris, Anvers, Cologne, Munich, Lucerne, and Fribourg. Translated into English (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989).
  300. Find this resource:
  301. Clossey, Luke. Salvation and Globalization in the Early Jesuit Missions. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008.
  302. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511497278Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  303. Resulting from extensive archival research, this account portrays the Jesuit missionary culture through the lives of fifty-three Jesuits who were active in at least two out of the three regions of Mexico, China, and Germany in 1582–1701. Transcends the traditional study of missions by geographical areas.
  304. Find this resource:
  305. Colombo, Emanuele. Convertire i musulmani: L’esperienza di un gesuita spagnolo del Seicento. Milan: Bruno Mondadori, 2007.
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  307. An insightful analysis of the successful Manual for Converting Muslims by the future Jesuit superior general, Tirso González de Santalla, which was produced in the aftermath of the defeat of the Ottomans at Vienna in 1683, and of his extensive epistolography.
  308. Find this resource:
  309. Lazar, Lance Gabriel. Working in the Vineyard of the Lord: Jesuit Confraternities in Early Modern Italy. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2005.
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  311. A significant narrative of how the Jesuits interacted with other clergy and lay elite, especially women, to find moral and financial support for their ministries among Jews and prostitutes, for whom they founded several confraternities, starting in Rome.
  312. Find this resource:
  313. Rico Callado, Francisco Luis. Misiones populares en España entre el Barroco y la Ilustración. Valencia, Spain: Institució Alfons el Magnànim, 2006.
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  315. An account of the popular missions (i.e., rural and urban missions in Catholic Europe) that became one of the most prominent ministries of the Society in Europe, with a focus on the missionary methods employed in the context of the Spanish culture between the Baroque and Enlightenment periods.
  316. Find this resource:
  317. Selwyn, Jennifer D. A Paradise Inhabited by Devils: The Jesuits’ Civilizing Mission in Early Modern Naples. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2004.
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  319. Based on archival material, an examination of the Jesuits’ missionary work in southern Italy in the context of the region’s religious, political, and cultural milieu. The Society’s mission conceived as a civilizing one implementing various methods, including theater and dramatic penitential rituals that are here insightfully discussed.
  320. Find this resource:
  321. Political Thought
  322.  
  323. Recent growing scholarship on Jesuit political thought, especially Clancy 2001, Höpfl 2004, and Höpfl 2012, has persuasively argued that there was no particular collective political doctrine of the Society of Jesus. Indeed, major Jesuit thinkers of the early modern period differed in their analysis of government and society, as Braun 2007 shows, for example, in the case of Mariana, Tutino 2013 for Bellarmine, and Firpo 1987 for Molina, Suárez, and Vázquez. Nelson 2005 narrates how these different Jesuit political theories were at play in contending loyalties to both pope and monarch. Alas, there is still little or no scholarship on Jesuit political thinkers outside Western Europe, for example in the Poland-Lithuania Commonwealth, where Jesuits were often supporters of the republican system. Calafate 1997 is an example of the continuous fascination with the famous thinker António Vieira, and Eisenberg 2000 points out the importance of missionary epistolography for the development of European political concepts.
  324.  
  325. Braun, Harald. Juan de Mariana and Early Modern Spanish Political Thought. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2007.
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  327. An excellent study of Mariana’s 1599 treatise De rege et regis institutione (On the king and the education of the king), famous for its doctrine of regicide, that provides a new reading of the text as an expression of Mariana’s desire for a moral reform of the Spanish monarchy under the leadership of the church.
  328. Find this resource:
  329. Calafate, Pedro. “Ética, política e razão de estado em António Vieira.” Revista portuguesa de filosofia 53.3 (1997): 375–392.
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  331. Analyzes the tension between politics and ethics in the writings of a famous 17th-century missionary in Brazil and diplomat. It focuses especially on the notion of dissimulation as exemplified in the political virtue of King John IV, revered by Vieira. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  332. Find this resource:
  333. Clancy, Thomas H. “Política.” In Diccionario histórico de la Compañía de Jesús biográfico-temático. Vol. 4. Edited by Charles E. O’Neill and Joaquín María Domínguez, 3169–3172. Rome: Institutum Historicum, 2001.
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  335. Arguing that there is no particular political doctrine of the Society of Jesus, this article provides a historical survey of major political theories—such as anti-Machiavellism, popular sovereignty, and indirect power of the papacy—with which the Jesuits have been associated, while pointing out, however, the differences among important Jesuit thinkers, such as Ribadeneyra, Possevino, Bellarmine, and Suárez.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. Eisenberg, José. As missões Jesuíticas e o pensamento político moderno: Encontros culturais, aventuras teóricas. Belo Horizonte, Brazil: Editora UFMG, 2000.
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  339. Based on the author’s dissertation in English, it argues that certain political concepts discussed in the correspondence of the first Jesuit missionaries in Brazil, starting with Manuel da Nóbrega, anticipated the formulation of political theories by the European Jesuits, such as Molina and Mariana.
  340. Find this resource:
  341. Firpo, Luigi. Storia delle idee politiche economiche e sociali. Vol. 3, Humanism and Renaissance. Turin, Italy: Unione Tipografico-Editrice Torinese, 1987.
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  343. The third volume of this important Italian history of political, economic, and social ideas contains articles on major Jesuit political thinkers of the period, such as Mariana, Molina, Suárez, and Vázquez, as well as thematic articles, such as the one on tyrannicide.
  344. Find this resource:
  345. Höpfl, Harro. Jesuit Political Thought: The Society of Jesus and the State, c.1540–1640. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004.
  346. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511490569Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  347. An important work that demonstrates the diversity and complexity of Jesuit political thought, which was not a collective doctrine, and the wide controversy it produced in both Catholic and Protestant circles. Much attention is given to the impact of Jesuit political theories in the English context.
  348. Find this resource:
  349. Höpfl, Harro. “The Political Thought of the Jesuits in the Low Countries until 1630.” In The Jesuits of the Low Countries: Identity and Impact (1540–1773): Proceedings of the International Congress at the Faculty of Theology and Religious Studies, KU Leuven (3–5 December 2009). Edited by Rob Faesen and Leo Kenis, 43–64. Bibliotheca Ephemeridum theologicarum Lovaniensium. Leuven, Belgium: Peeters, 2012.
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  351. Building on his earlier work (see Höpfl 2004), examines the subject matter in the Low Countries in the late 16th and early 17th centuries.
  352. Find this resource:
  353. Nelson, Eric. The Jesuits and the Monarchy: Catholic Reform and Political Authority in France (1590–1615). Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2005.
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  355. A fresh study of the relationship of the Society of Jesus with the authority of the French monarchy, especially under Henri IV, showing complex tensions between ultramontanism, on the one hand, and the Jesuit support of royal authority that helped build Bourbon absolutism, on the other hand.
  356. Find this resource:
  357. Tutino, Stefania. “Cardinal Bellarmine.” In Oxford Bibliographies: Renaissance and Reformation. Edited by Margaret King, 2013.
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  359. See especially the section on “Bellarmine’s Political Theory.” Provides an updated annotated bibliography of eight major works on the Jesuit cardinal’s political theory, including the author’s own 2010 book, Empire of Souls: Robert Bellarmine and the Christian Commonwealth (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010).
  360. Find this resource:
  361. Philosophy
  362.  
  363. Scholarship on early modern Jesuit philosophical thought had been relatively underdeveloped until the early 21st century. Scholars of different backgrounds are currently more willing to recognize the originality of so-called Jesuit neo-Scholasticism and its impact on modern philosophy, as the works of Ariew 2011 and Blum 2012 have recently shown. Of special interest now is Francisco Suárez, arguably one of the most important thinkers of his time, who is the central subject in Doyle 2010 and Schwartz 2012. Good starting points for attaining a wider view of Jesuit philosophy, including the period of our interest, are Lotz 2001, an encyclopedia article, and Stone 2006, a book chapter specifically dedicated to Jesuit philosophy in the early modern period. Lapierre 1999 is an example of a study of a specific philosophical aspect of an important Jesuit philosopher, Gabriel Vázquez, while Darowski 1999 is a survey of Jesuit approaches to philosophy in a specific geographical region—the Commonwealth of Poland-Lithuania. Schloesser 2014 is a review of recent works on the subject.
  364.  
  365. Ariew, Roger. Descartes among the Scholastics. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2011.
  366. DOI: 10.1163/ej.9789004207240.i-358Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  367. Analyzes Cartesian philosophy in its intellectual context within the 17th century by studying it as both reacting against but owing a debt to late Scholastic philosophy, including the Jesuit adaptation of that school of thought by Francisco Toledo (corpuscularianism) and the Jesuits of the Parisian College La Flèche (Eucharist).
  368. Find this resource:
  369. Blum, Paul Richard. Studies on Early Modern Aristotelianism. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2012.
  370. DOI: 10.1163/9789004232198Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  371. Sustaining the view of Aristotle’s thought as the touchstone of modern philosophy, the first part of this book discusses the concept of philosophy at Jesuit schools, with special attention given to the integration of humanism into the Jesuit educational program and the relationship between religion and science. It studies the philosophical thought of a number of eminent Jesuits, including the Hungarian cardinal Péter Pázmány.
  372. Find this resource:
  373. Darowski, Roman. Studies in the Philosophy of the Jesuits in Poland in the 16th to 18th Centuries. Kraków, Poland: Ignatianum, School of Philosophy and Education, 1999.
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  375. A collection of the author’s previously published articles dedicated to the history of Polish Jesuit philosophy in the Commonwealth of Poland-Lithuania. Also includes a discussion of several foreign Jesuits who taught at various Jesuit schools, including the University of Vilnius, and who oscillated between Aristotelianism and Thomism, on the one hand, and Suárezianism, on the other.
  376. Find this resource:
  377. Doyle, John P. Collected Studies on Francisco Suárez, S.J. (1548–1617). Edited by Victor M. Salas. Leuven, Belgium: Leuven University Press, 2010.
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  379. An expression of a recent surge of scholarly interest in the philosophy of Suárez, this collection of essays studies the highly original system of Scholasticism in the fields of metaphysics, ethics, and legal philosophy developed by one of the most important Jesuit thinkers of the early modern period. A biographical context is provided in the introduction.
  380. Find this resource:
  381. Lapierre, Michael J. The Noetical Theory of Gabriel Vásquez, Jesuit Philosopher and Theologian (1549–1604): His View of the Objective Concept. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen, 1999.
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  383. Shows the possible impact of this Jesuit—known more for his contribution to the development of Probabilism—on the philosophy of Descartes and Kant. Includes a presentation of Vázquez’s thought on the formal and objective concept, truth, and intellectual knowledge.
  384. Find this resource:
  385. Lotz, Johannes Baptist. “Filosofía.” In Diccionario histórico de la Compañía de Jesús: Biográfico-temático. Vol. 2. Edited by Charles E. O’Neill and Joaquin María Domínguez, 1430–1460. Rome: Institutum Historicum, 2001.
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  387. A dictionary article surveying the historical development of the Jesuit approaches to philosophy, including the following sections that are of interest to scholars of the early modern period: historic evolution of Jesuit teaching of philosophy; relationship between philosophy and science; Jesuit contributions to cosmology and to theoretical esthetics; and Jesuits vis-à-vis Cartesianism, eclecticism, empiricism, and rationalism.
  388. Find this resource:
  389. Schloesser, Stephen. “Recent Works in Jesuit Philosophy: Vicissitudes of Rhetorical Accommodation.” Journal of Jesuit Studies 1.1 (2014): 105–126.
  390. DOI: 10.1163/22141332-00101007Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  391. This review essay traces the vicissitudes of Jesuit particularism and reflects broader changes in intellectual and cultural history in recent decades (1993–2013) by analyzing selected works on early modern Jesuit philosophy, with a special attention to Francisco Suárez.
  392. Find this resource:
  393. Schwartz, Daniel, ed. Interpreting Suárez: Critical Essays. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2012.
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  395. Suárez’s neo-Scholasticism studied by leading specialists as a vital link in the chain between medieval philosophy and that of the Renaissance and the Enlightenment. The topics include God, metaphysics, meta-ethics, the human soul, action, ethics and law, and justice and war.
  396. Find this resource:
  397. Stone, M. W. F. “Scholastic Schools and Early Modern Philosophy.” In The Cambridge Companion to Early Modern Philosophy. Edited by Donald Rutherford, 299–327. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
  398. DOI: 10.1017/CCOL0521822424Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  399. Examines the contributions of the Jesuit philosophers to innovations in logic, natural philosophy, metaphysics, ethics, jurisprudence, political philosophy, and philosophical theology. Suggests that, unlike the Dominicans, the Jesuits, and especially Suárez, were more open to adapt rather than simply adopt medieval Scholasticism.
  400. Find this resource:
  401. Theology
  402.  
  403. Scholarship on Jesuit theology in the early modern period still lacks a comprehensive monographic study. Most of the following titles rotate around major theological controversies, in which the Jesuits were involved, and often their political consequences, including Molinism (Flint 1998), Jansenism (van Kley 1975), and Probabilism (Gay 2012), to which the work of Jonsen and Toulmin 1988 provides a broader historical perspective of the origins and its applicability in the present. Dictionnaire de Théologie Catholique is a great source, even though with an outdated bibliography, of encyclopedic information not only about these controversies but also about their Jesuit representatives as well. Tutino 2013 (also cited under Political Thought) provides a selected bibliography on Cardinal Bellarmine updated to the early 21st century, while Rahner 1964 puts the entire Jesuit engagement with theology within its spiritual context in relation to the Society’s founder.
  404.  
  405. Flint, Thomas P. Divine Providence: The Molinist Account. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998.
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  407. Examines in much detail the idea of divine providence advanced by Luis Molina, a prominent Jesuit theologian of the 16th century, which claimed that God is the omniscient governor of the universe and that individual freedom can exist only in a universe free of absolute determinism.
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  409. Gay, Jean-Pascal. Jesuit Civil Wars: Theology, Politics, and Government under Tirso González (1687–1705). Farnham, UK: Ashgate, 2012.
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  411. Offers an interesting glimpse into how intertwined Jesuit politics and theology during the late 17th century were, examining Jesuit internal tensions regarding the political doctrine of Gallicanism and the theologico-ethical doctrine of Probabilism.
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  413. Jonsen, Albert R., and Stephen Toulmin. The Abuse of Casuistry: A History of Moral Reasoning. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988.
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  415. Offers a historical background to the ethical reasoning known as casuistry. Of paramount importance is the link between early modern casuistry, a field in which the Jesuits became most prominent, and the rhetoric of Roman antiquity.
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  417. O’Neill, Charles E., and Joaquín María Domínguez, eds. Diccionario histórico de la Compañía de Jesús: Biográfico-temático. Rome: Institutum Historicum, 2001.
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  419. Its article “Teología,” written by various Jesuit authors, surveys the contributions of the Society of Jesus to theology (Vol. 4, pp. 3720–3777). It is divided into the following sections: Apologetics, Biblical, Positive, Patristic, Dogmatic (Trinity, Christology, Grace, Ecclesiology, Mariology, Oriental), Moral (Probabilism, Casuistry), Spiritual, Pastoral, and History, which includes early modern theological controversies. Other articles in the same dictionary on particular theologians complement the picture of the Jesuit contributions to the field. See also Reference Sources.
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  421. Rahner, Hugo. Ignatius von Loyola als Mensch und Theologe. Freiburg, Germany: Herder, 1964.
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  423. A collection of articles (all but two previously published) by a prominent Jesuit historian dedicated to the study of Loyola’s life and spirituality, including pieces on Ignatius as theologian—the author of the Spiritual Exercises and of the Constitutions. (English translation, New York: Herder and Herder, 1968).
  424. Find this resource:
  425. Tutino, Stefania. “Cardinal Bellarmine.” In Oxford Bibliographies: Renaissance and Reformation. Edited by Margaret King, 2013.
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  427. See especially the section “Bellarmine’s Theology.” Provides an updated annotated bibliography of major works on the Jesuit cardinal’s theology.
  428. Find this resource:
  429. Vacant, Alfred, Eugène Mangenot, Emile Amann, et al., eds. Dictionnaire de théologie Catholique. Paris: Letouzey et Ané, 1967.
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  431. An authoritative dictionary of Catholic theology, containing several exhaustive articles discussing the contributions of Jesuit thinkers to early modern theology (letters A–S are available online), including “Bellarmin François-Robert-Romulus” by X. Le Bachelet, “Jansénisme” by J. Carreyre, “Molina, Louis” by E. Vansteenberghe, “Molinisme” (a.u.) “Probabilisme” by Th. Deman, “Súarez, François” by É. Amann, and so forth.
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  433. van Kley, Dale K. The Jansenists and the Expulsion of the Jesuits from France, 1757–1765. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1975.
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  435. Eloquently argues that the mid-17th-century theological conflict between Jansenists and Jesuits influenced the orchestrated political decision of expelling the Jesuits from France a century later, even though it could have eventually happened even without the Jansenists’ campaign against Jesuits who were also enemies of the philosophes.
  436. Find this resource:
  437. Arts
  438.  
  439. The most updated panorama of studies on the Jesuit multifaceted approaches to the arts are the collection of essays presented in O’Malley, et al. 1999 and O’Malley, et al. 2006. While Bailey 2001 is a monograph analyzing the role the Jesuits played in the visual arts and architecture in the Society’s enterprises overseas, O’Malley, et al. 2005 has more of the format of an album that surveys Jesuit art worldwide. Levy 2004 looks at the European late Baroque while Bösel and Karner 1985– concentrates on the Jesuit architecture in Italy and Smith 2002 explores early Jesuit arts in German-speaking lands. Kennedy 1982 is a thorough study of the European Jesuits’ approaches to music.
  440.  
  441. Bailey, Gauvin A. Art on the Jesuit Missions in Asia and Latin America, 1542–1773. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2001.
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  443. A fascinating narrative of how the European Jesuits, influenced by the artistic styles of the Renaissance and Baroque, were unusually tolerant of the autochthonous artistic styles in Asia and Latin America, where they promoted hybrid artistic practices.
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  445. Bösel, Richard, and Herbert Karner. Jesuitenarchitektur in Italien. 2 vols. Vienna: Verlag der Österr, Akad. D. Wiss, 1985–.
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  447. A monumental but slowly progressing project of cataloging all churches in the five Jesuit provinces of Italy. As of the early 21st century two volumes have been published: on the Roman and Italian provinces and on the province of Milan. Alas, another two (Venice and Sicily) are not expected to see the light of day very soon.
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  449. Dimler, G. Richard. Studies in the Jesuit Emblem. Brooklyn, NY: AMS, 2007.
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  451. No other group of scholars had produced more studies on emblems than the Jesuits, which resulted in a significant impact of the Society in this field. This collection of essays studies the early modern Jesuit emblem from a multidisciplinary perspective, including Jesuit theory and practice.
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  453. Kennedy, Thomas Frank. “Jesuits and Music: The European Tradition 1547–1622.” PhD diss, University of California, Santa Barbara, 1982.
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  455. This unpublished dissertation traces the rather formidable contribution made by pre-suppression Jesuits to the history of Western music. It distinguishes between Ignatius’s view on the role of music and choir in the order, and his personal attitude toward music.
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  457. Levy, Evonne. Propaganda and the Jesuit Baroque. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004.
  458. DOI: 10.1525/california/9780520233577.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  459. A provocative work discussing fresh theoretical perspectives on the study of the role of propaganda, and not only rhetoric, in the art and architecture of the Jesuits as represented by Roman church interiors, especially those by Andrea Pozzo, and in other central-European churches of late Baroque.
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  461. O’Malley, John W., Gauvin Alexander Bailey, Steven J. Harris, and T. Frank Kennedy, eds. The Jesuits: Cultures, Sciences, and the Arts, 1540–1773. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999.
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  463. The fruit of an international conference at Boston College in May 1997, this volume catalyzed the redefinition of the field of studies on Jesuit contributions to early modern cultures, sciences, and the arts. Global in scope, it covers a wide range of topics that are approached with new methods and questions, reassessing the role the Society of Jesus had played in dialogue with modernity before its general suppression in 1773.
  464. Find this resource:
  465. O’Malley, John W., Gauvin Alexander Bailey, Steven J. Harris, and T. Frank Kennedy, eds. The Jesuits II: Cultures, Sciences, and the Arts, 1540–1773. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2006.
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  467. The result of the second international conference on the “Old Society of Jesus” at Boston College (June 2002), this second volume enriches the picture of the previous volume (O’Malley, et al. 1999) of recent studies on the Jesuit contributions to early modern cultures, sciences, and the arts. Interdisciplinary in scope, this collection deepens our understanding to what extent the Jesuit corporate culture had a distinctive approach to issues both in Europe and overseas.
  468. Find this resource:
  469. O’Malley, John W., Gauvin A. Bailey, and Giovanni Sale, eds. The Jesuits and the Arts, 1540–1773. Philadelphia: Saint Joseph’s University Press, 2005.
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  471. Beautifully illustrated with 476 images. Surveys the Jesuit global engagement with the arts from architecture to paintings to sculpture to theatrical sets. Radically different from its first edition in Italian by Giovanni Sale (Milan: Jaca Book, 2003), it contains twelve updated essays by leading scholars in the field.
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  473. Smith, Jeffrey Chipps. Sensuous Worship: Jesuits and the Art of the Early Catholic Reformation in Germany. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002.
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  475. A richly illustrated study exploring contributions to the restoration of Catholic religious art within the Holy Roman Empire by the Jesuits, who employed art in their missionary and pedagogical enterprise as a means of reforming Christian society. The focus on the link between the art promoted by the Society art and Ignatian spirituality is particularly insightful.
  476. Find this resource:
  477. Literature and Theater
  478.  
  479. Jesuit theater has been a popular subject of many studies in various languages. A good point to start for an overview in English is McCabe and Oldani 1983. While Müller 1930 is a classic survey of the subject in German-speaking lands, Valentin 2001 studies the role of the Jesuit theater in a broader context of Catholic culture in the same region and period. Zanlonghi 2002 highlights the link between the Jesuit scene and rhetoric and Kallendorf 2007 shows its connection to casuistry. Rock 1996 discusses ballet as an important part of the school theater. In contrast, there are relatively few studies on Jesuit literature in the early modern period. Haskell 2003 is a commendable exception of good scholarship in this field, while Mertz, et al. 1989 is an example of an anthology of Jesuit poetry. Haskell 2014 is a review of recent scholarship on Jesuit Latin poetry and theater production.
  480.  
  481. Haskell, Yasmin Annabel. Loyola’s Bees: Ideology and Industry in Jesuit Latin Didactic Poetry. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
  482. DOI: 10.5871/bacad/9780197262849.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  483. The first comprehensive study of neo-Latin didactic literature in the early modern period, of which the Jesuits—engaged in an impressive array of arts and sciences—were the most prolific composers.
  484. Find this resource:
  485. Haskell, Yasmin. “The State of Scholarship on Latin Poetry of the Old Society of Jesus.” Journal of Jesuit Studies 1.1 (2014): 26–46.
  486. DOI: 10.1163/22141332-00101003Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  487. Review essay on recent historiography on Jesuit epic, didactic, and dramatic poetry; also considered is a handful of “minor” genres.
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  489. Kallendorf, Hilaire. Conscience on Stage: The Comedia as Casuistry in Early Modern Spain. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2007.
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  491. Shows the influence of casuistry (the art of ethical reasoning by cases aimed at applying rules, laws, or commandments to particular circumstances) as a fundamental process by which the early modern Spanish comedia (Lope de Vega, Calderón de la Barca, Francisco de Quevedo) as a genre completed its artistic and social function.
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  493. McCabe, William H., and Louis J. Oldani. An Introduction to the Jesuit Theater: A Posthumous Work. Saint Louis, MO: Institute of Jesuit Sources, 1983.
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  495. Most comprehensive treatment of Jesuit drama in the English tongue. Especially helpful is Part I, which shows the influence of the Jesuit school of theater in the history of drama in general.
  496. Find this resource:
  497. Mertz, James J., John P. Murphy, and Josef IJsewijn, eds. Jesuit Latin Poets of the 17th and 18th Centuries: An Anthology of Neo-Latin Poets. Wauconda, IL: Bolchazy-Carducci, 1989.
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  499. An anthology of sixty-two neo-Latin poems written by nineteen Jesuits from Sarbiewski to Galluzzi to Balde to Kreihing. A historical background for each poet and a commentary to the translated text are provided.
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  501. Müller, Johannes. Das Jesuitendrama in den Ländern deutscher Zunge vom Anfang (1555) bis zum Hochbarock (1665). 2 vols. Augsburg, Germany: B. Filser, 1930.
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  503. An outdated yet still useful bibliographical study of the subject of Jesuit drama in German-speaking lands from the establishment of the Jesuits there in 1555 until the so-called High Baroque.
  504. Find this resource:
  505. Rock, Judith. Terpsichore at Louis-Le-Grand: Baroque Dance on a Jesuit Stage in Paris. Saint Louis, MO: Institute of Jesuit Sources, 1996.
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  507. The first comprehensive study in English of the role ballet played in the Jesuit school theater in the Age of Baroque as exemplified by the Jesuit College in Paris from its foundation in 1600 until the expulsion of the Jesuits from France in 1762.
  508. Find this resource:
  509. Valentin, Jean Marie. Les Jésuites et le théâtre (1554–1680): Contribution à l‘histoire culturelle du monde Catholique dans le Saint-Empire Romain Germanique. Paris: Desjonquères, 2001.
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  511. Narrates the crucial impact of the Jesuit theater—an important means of disseminating the Word—on the Catholic culture in the Holy Roman Empire in the context of the Lutheran Reformation.
  512. Find this resource:
  513. Zanlonghi, Giovanna. Teatri di formazione: Actio, parola e immagine nella scena gesuitica del Sei-Settecento a Milano. Milan: Vita e pensiero, 2002.
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  515. Studies the pedagogic role of the Jesuit theater in Milan during the 17th and 18th centuries through an analysis of theatrical texts and ceremonial displays. Focuses on the interaction between image and word aimed to shape the conscience of the audience.
  516. Find this resource:
  517. Sciences
  518.  
  519. This section testifies to a sort of revolution that has, in the 1990s and the early 21st centuries, affected studies of the role of the sciences in Jesuit education and on the contribution of the Jesuits to what many scholars still call the Scientific Revolution, although the term has been challenged. Pioneering in these studies were several articles now collected in Wallace 1991. Feingold 2003 is a collection of the contributions in the field from the early 21st century. While MacDonnell 1989 examines a specific field of Jesuit sciences through the prism of a series of biographies, Udías 2003 is the first comprehensive history of the Jesuits’ engagement in a scientific field. Whereas Hellyer 2005 studies the Jesuit curriculum in a European milieu, Hsia 2009 and Prieto 2011 portray the figure of the missionary-scientist in two different geographical overseas contexts. De Lucca 2012 looks at the connection between architecture and science. Rabin 2014 is a historiographical review of traditional and recent literature on the subject.
  520.  
  521. De Lucca, Denis. Jesuits and Fortifications: The Contribution of the Jesuits to Military Architecture in the Baroque Age. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2012.
  522. DOI: 10.1163/9789004223783Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  523. An account of the Jesuits’ contribution to the propagation of the knowledge of military architecture in the age of the Baroque through classes on fortification theory that Jesuit mathematicians taught in their schools, which not infrequently raised the eyebrows of both their superiors and enemies.
  524. Find this resource:
  525. Feingold, Mordechai, ed. Jesuit Science and the Republic of Letters. Cambridge, MA: MIT, 2003.
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  527. This edited volume successfully reassesses the scientific dimension of the intellectual contribution of the Jesuits during the Scientific Revolution by presenting a long list of case studies by leading scholars in the field, which show the distinguished aspects of Jesuits as scientists.
  528. Find this resource:
  529. Hellyer, Marcus. Catholic Physics: Jesuit Natural Philosophy in Early Modern Germany. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 2005.
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  531. Based on new sources, this monograph discusses how science was taught in Jesuit colleges in German-speaking lands between the Protestant Reformation and the Enlightenment. It reveals the wide spectrum of Jesuit approaches to the theories of the Scientific Revolution, from Copernican cosmology to mechanical theories of matter.
  532. Find this resource:
  533. Hsia, Florence C. Sojourners in a Strange Land: Jesuits and Their Scientific Missions in Late Imperial China. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009.
  534. DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226355610.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  535. Densely written, this study reconstructs the genealogy of early modern missionary-scientists, stressing how the China Jesuits were not simply conduits of Western science but missionaries negotiating the use of human means in advancing their apostolic mission. This conciliation was critical to the Jesuit success at the court of the Chinese emperor.
  536. Find this resource:
  537. MacDonnell, Joseph. Jesuit Geometers: A Study of Fifty-Six Prominent Jesuit Geometers during the First Two Centuries of Jesuit History. Saint Louis, MO: Institute of Jesuit Sources, 1989.
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  539. A study of part of a significant body of Jesuit geometers showing the role this discipline played in Jesuit education and the specific Jesuit contribution to the field in terms of new forms of geometry and innovations in teaching the subject.
  540. Find this resource:
  541. Prieto, Andrés I. Missionary Scientists: Jesuit Science in Spanish South America, 1570–1810. Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 2011.
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  543. Highly instructive, analyzing the seminal yet neglected publications of Jesuit missionary scientists of the Spanish viceroyalty of Peru and their impact on the (natural) history of the New World. Provides a persuasive examination of the origins of the Jesuit engagement as missionaries to the native Indians.
  544. Find this resource:
  545. Rabin, Sheila J. “Early Modern Jesuit Science: A Historiographical Essay.” Journal of Jesuit Studies 1.1 (2014): 88–104.
  546. DOI: 10.1163/22141332-00101006Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  547. Shows how scholars since the mid-1980s have reconstructed science in the 16th and 17th centuries and have found that members of the Catholic church and the Jesuits in particular, despite their rejection of Copernican astronomy, contributed significantly to the advancement of science in those centuries.
  548. Find this resource:
  549. Udías, Agustín. Searching the Heavens and the Earth: The History of Jesuit Observatories. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic, 2003.
  550. DOI: 10.1007/978-94-017-0349-9Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  551. A forgotten chapter of the history of science, this is the first comprehensive history of Jesuit astronomical, geophysical, and meteorological observatories before and after the suppression of the order, including the fascinating story of the Imperial Observatory of Beijing that the Society of Jesus staffed for 150 years.
  552. Find this resource:
  553. Wallace, William A. Galileo, the Jesuits, and the Medieval Aristotle. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 1991.
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  555. A collection of fifteen of Wallace’s papers first published in the 1980s. The first half deals with the connection of Galileo to the Aristotelian Jesuit sources at the Roman College and how they influenced his science. A seminal work among new approaches examining the relationship between religion and science and specifically the Jesuits’ place within it.
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