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Pilgrimage in Japan (Buddhism)

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  1. Introduction
  2. While the first modern Western works on Japanese pilgrimage were published in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, scholarship on Japanese pilgrimage has flourished since the end of World War II, particularly from the 1970s onward. There are multiple reasons for this development. In the postwar era, Japanese studies became a popular discipline spurred on by the Cold War and Japan’s booming economy. Simultaneously, nostalgic interest in local traditions grew along with the theory of Japanese uniqueness (nihonjinron). Yet as Japan became more affluent and urbanized as a whole, rural areas saw a population decline. Rural pilgrimage sites and communities eagerly embraced opportunities for revitalization. As a result, heritage tourism in Japan grew exponentially, leading to a revival, even the creation, of pilgrimage sites and routes. Japanese folklore studies and local history also gained popularity in the postwar era, resulting in the proliferation of Japanese scholarship on national and regional pilgrimages. Furthermore, the publication of Victor Turner’s essay titled “The Center Out There: Pilgrims’ Goal” (History of Religion 12.3 [1973]; republished in Dramas, Fields, and Metaphors, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1974), in which Turner articulated his theory of pilgrimage as a liminal journey allowing pilgrims to experience anti-structure and communitas, led to an increased anthropological interest in pilgrimage. Turner’s influence reverberated strongly in the study of Japanese pilgrimage for the next twenty-five years as scholars applied Turner’s theory or used the Japanese case to disprove it. Since the new millennium, Turner’s influence has waned. Scholars have turned to other, more recent theories of pilgrimage and explored issues such as gender, economic contexts, and the relationship with heritage tourism, cultural identity, and nostalgia. Several aspects of Japanese pilgrimage are especially worth noting. One, which has been explored extensively by Allan Grapard, is the mandalization of sacred sites or landscapes, especially in the Shugendō tradition. Another is the (largely premodern) practice of excluding women from mountain sites, which has been explained variously as the result of the Buddhist monastic precepts regarding celibacy, medieval notions of uterine blood pollution, or economic motivations. Another common theme that runs through the scholarship on Japanese religious travel is the relationship between premodern pilgrimage infrastructure and modern tourism. Many scholars have noted that the Japanese penchant for package tours may be related to the custom of traveling in pilgrimage confraternities. It should be noted, however, that the correspondences between premodern pilgrimage and modern tourism are not completely consistent.
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  4. General Overviews
  5. The works in this section introduce the topic of pilgrimage in Japan by establishing a typology and/or by surveying of the state of the field. There are three major typologies of pilgrimage in Japan. The first typology distinguishes between Shinto and Buddhist pilgrimages (Lowell 1895 and Sakai 1960), but as more recent studies of Japanese religions have complicated the demarcations between Shinto and Buddhism, this typology has become less useful. Furthermore, pilgrimages in Shugendō and in many new religious movements do not fit this dichotomy. A second typology distinguishes between pilgrimages to individual sacred centers and pilgrimage circuits, which combined a set number of religious sites into a circular route (Reader and Swanson 1997, cited under Anthologies, Ambros 2006). This typology is reflected in Japanese, which has different terms for these two types of pilgrimage. Visiting an individual, primary pilgrimage center is called mairi, mōde, or sanpai, all of which express movement toward a revered entity. The scholarly term for this type of pilgrimage combines the Chinese characters for mairi and mōde into sankei. In contrast, pilgrimage along a circuit of several, equally important sites is referred to as meguri, junrei, or junpai. In the case of the Shikoku circuit, the term henro is used, designating both the pilgrimage and pilgrims. These terms imply visiting a circuit of sacred sites. The connection to the ancient Buddhist practice of circumambulation is clear in the term kaihōgyō (literally, “the practice of circumambulating the peak”), which describes the circumambulation of Mt. Hiei by Tendai ascetics. However, it should also be noted that the term junrei often functions as the generic translation of the English term “pilgrimage.” In addition, a third category of pilgrimage exists, namely mountain-entry pilgrimages by the anchorites of Shugendō. These pilgrimages are called mineiri or nyūbu, literally, “entering the peaks,” and involve on a set course of sites in mountain ranges, but the motion is usually not circular. Kitagawa 1967 gives a third, tripartite typology: (1) pilgrimage to sacred mountains, (2) pilgrimages associated with specific divinities, and (3) pilgrimages associated with charismatic individuals. This typology is useful because it does not draw artificial lines between religious traditions and allows for the incorporation of pilgrimages in new religious movements. These three categories are also reiterated in much of the Japanese research on pilgrimage. Reader 2013 provides an excellent overview of Japanese scholarship on pilgrimage, coverage of which is beyond the scope of this bibliography.
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  7. Ambros, Barbara. “Geography, Environment, Pilgrimage.” In Nanzan Guide to Japanese Religions. Edited by Clark Chilson and Paul Swanson, 289–308. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 2006.
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  11. An overview of the state of the field with a focus on scholarship in Western languages. Also reviews the major terms for pilgrimage and adopts Kitagawa’s typology.
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  16. Kitagawa, Joseph. “Three Types of Pilgrimage in Japan.” In Studies in Mysticism and Religion Presented to Gershom G. Scholem on His Seventieth Birthday by Pupils, Colleagues and Friends. Edited by E. E. Urbach, R. J. Zwi Werblowsky, and Chaim Wirszubski, 155–164. Jerusalem: Magnes, 1967.
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  20. Useful typological introduction to pilgrimage in Japan. Distinguishes three basic types of pilgrimage: pilgrimage to sacred mountains, pilgrimage sites associated with specific divinities, and pilgrimage to sites associated with charismatic individuals. The essay was republished in On Understanding Japanese Religion, 127–136 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987).
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  25. Lowell, Percival. Occult Japan: An Esoteric Study of Japanese Personality and Possession. Boston and New York: Houghton, Mifflin, 1895.
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  29. First Western academic study of pilgrimage in Japan. Covers Mt. Ontake, Shugendō asceticism, and pilgrimage confraternities. Asserts that Japanese pilgrimage is of Shinto origins. Underscores the ludic aspects of religious journeys in Japan. Posits that pilgrimages by confraternities are most representative. Previously partially published as “Esoteric Shintō: Pilgrimages and Pilgrim Clubs” (Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan 23 (1893): 241–270).
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  34. Reader, Ian. Religion in Contemporary Japan. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 1991.
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  36. DOI: 10.1057/9780230375840Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
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  38. Contains several chapters dealing with issues related to pilgrimage, such as the appeal of ascetics as charismatic individuals, sacred sites as centers of power and entertainment, and amulets and this-worldly benefits. These chapters provide an accessible introduction to the topic of pilgrimage in Japan.
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  43. Reader, Ian. “Japanese Studies of Pilgrimage.” Unpublished conference paper presented at Itineraries, Gaps and Obstacles in Pilgrimage Study: Research Traditions in a Global Context. Museum of the Mediterranean, Marseille, 3 October 2013.
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  47. Survey of the seminal Japanese scholarship on pilgrimage including historical, sociological, and anthropological studies by Asakawa Yasuhiro, Gorai Shigeru, Hayami Tasuku, Hinonishi Shinjō, Hoshino Eiki, Kaneko Satoru, Kanzaki Noritake, Kojima Hiromi, Matsuzaki Kenzō, Miyake Hitoshi, Mori Masato, Numata Kenya, Oda Masayuki, Osada Kōichi, Satō Hisamitsu, Shinjō Tsunezō, Shinno Toshikazu, Takeda Akira, Tanaka Hiroshi, and Yamaori Tetsuo.
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  52. Sakai, Usaku. “Les pèlerinages au Japon.” In Les pèlerinages: Égypte ancienne, Israël, Islam, Perse, Inde, Tibet, Indonésie, Madagascar, Chine, Japon. Edited by Jean Yoyotte, 343–366. Paris: Éditions du Seuil, 1960.
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  56. Distinguishes between two broad types of pilgrimage in Japan: Shinto and Buddhist. Contends that Shinto pilgrimage, though influenced by concepts introduced from the Asian continent, is by far more important and pervasive. Gives two examples for Buddhist pilgrimage circuits: the Shikoku circuit and Saikoku Kannon circuit. The pilgrimage to the Ise Shrines serves as an example for Shinto pilgrimage.
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  61. Anthologies
  62. The anthologies included here are either edited volumes or special issues of journals, including the Japanese Journal of Religious Studies, Proceedings of the Association for Japanese Literary Studies, and Senri Ethnological Studies. All feature useful introductions and offer concise treatment of various aspects and types of pilgrimage in Japan. Einarsen 1995 brings together a variety of approaches (scholarly articles, non-academic, autobiographical essays, poetry, and literary prose). Guichard-Anguis and Okpyo 2009 discusses pilgrimage in the context of anthropological studies of travel and tourism. Similarly, Rodriguez, et al. 2007 and Umesao, et al. 1995 take an anthropological approach. The majority of essays in Reader and Swanson 1997 study pilgrimage from a historical perspective, whereas Sekine 2007 examines pilgrimage and travel in the context of Japanese literature.
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  64. Einarsen, John, ed. The Sacred Mountains of Asia. Boston: Shambala, 1995.
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  67.  
  68. Contains a variety of essays on pilgrimage to sacred mountains in Japan. Of particular note are a reprint of Allan Grapard’s article on the mandalization of sacred mountains, John Steven’s chapter on Mt. Hiei’s kaihōgyō practitioners, Bruce Caron’s analysis of Tokyo Disneyland as a sacred place, and an account by the American Beat poet Gary Snyder of his pilgrimage along the Yoshino-Kumano trail.
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  73. Guichard-Anguis, Sylvie, and Okpyo Moon, eds. Japanese Tourism and Travel Culture. London and New York: Routedge, 2009.
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  76.  
  77. Contains several chapters that deal with the relationship between pilgrimage and domestic heritage tourism in contemporary Japan. Addresses diverse issues including history, nostalgia, identity, domesticated foreignness, the search for authenticity, and the invention of tradition. In addition to the editors’ introduction, Creighton’s, Graburn’s, Guichard-Anguis’s, and Oedewald’s chapters are of particular note.
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  82. Reader, Ian, and Paul Swanson, eds. Special Issue: Pilgrimage in the Japanese Religious Tradition. Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 24.3–4 (1997).
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  85.  
  86. Covers pilgrimage in Japan from the Heian period to the contemporary era. Articles use historical and anthropological approaches to pilgrimage in Japan. The editors’ introduction provides an excellent overview of the state of the field and a detailed introduction to the rich Japanese terminology for pilgrimage. The volume features articles by Ambros, Hoshino, Kouamé, MacWilliams, Moerman, and Smyers, most of whom have published extensively on pilgrimage in Japan. Available online.
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  91. Rodriguez, Maria del Alisal, Peter Ackerman, and Dolores Martinez, eds. Pilgrimages and Spiritual Quests in Japan. London and New York: Routledge, 2007.
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  94.  
  95. A collection of essays covering a wide range of topics: the historical origins of pilgrimage in ancient Japan; contemporary forms of pilgrimage involving both traditional sites and secular destinations; pilgrimages in the Japanese peripheries; comparative studies on Japanese and Spanish pilgrimage sites; and vocational journeys.
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  100. Sekine, Eiji, ed. Travel in Japanese Representational Culture: Its Past, Present, and Future. Proceedings of the Association for Japanese Literary Studies 8. West Lafayette, IN: Association for Japanese Literary Studies, Purdue University, 2007.
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  103.  
  104. Contains several essays on premodern travel literature that largely deal with religious themes, most notably the chapters by Dix, Foster, Inouye, Kimbrough, Kimura, Laffin, Marra, Naito, Plutschow, and Watson.
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  109. Umesao, Tadao, Harumi Befu, and Shuzo Ishimori, eds. Japanese Civilization in the Modern World. Vol. 10, Tourism. Senri Ethnological Studies 38. Osaka, Japan: National Museum of Ethnology, 1995.
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  112.  
  113. Includes several articles on the relationship between religious travel and domestic tourism in Japan. The essays by Ishimori, Vaporis, Kanzaki, and Robertson are of particular note.
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  118. Ancient Japan
  119. Historical research on pilgrimage in Japan is very prolific, largely due to the groundwork laid by Japanese historians. Early scholars debated whether the origins of pilgrimage were indigenous or whether it was introduced from the Asian mainland. In the absence of clear evidence for pre-Buddhist practices, this debate is difficult to settle, but it is undeniable that Buddhism and other forms of continental culture have greatly influenced pilgrimage in Japan. Evidence of pilgrimage rituals among the socioeconomic elite dates to the earliest extant Japanese records from the Nara period (710–784) and includes practices such as climbing elevations to view the land to ensure the sovereign’s territorial authority and the fertility of the soil. Processions and sending emissaries to sacred sites are also reflected in historic records. More extensive documentation remains of aristocratic pilgrimages to shrine-temple complexes during the Heian period (794–1185). Reischauer 1955 and Drummond 2007 discuss the pilgrimage activities of elite Buddhist clerics. Chung 2001 discusses the pilgrimages of Heian noblewomen as a gendered practice. Blair 2008 and Lindsay 2012 examine two sacred mountains, Mt. Kinpusen and Mt. Kōya respectively, as emerging pilgrimage centers for the monastic and aristocratic elites of the late Heian period. Goodwin 2007 is the only work to incorporate material on pilgrimage beyond the aristocratic elites.
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  121. Blair, Heather. “Peak of Gold: Trace, Place, and Religion in Heian Japan.” PhD diss., Harvard University, 2008.
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  124.  
  125. Examines Mt. Kinpusen as a pilgrimage destination for the aristocracy during the late 11th and early 12th centuries. Draws on courtier diaries and foundation myths of the temple complex on the mountain to reconstruct Mt. Kinpusen as a sacred place and place of ritual practice.
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  130. Chung, Young-Ah. “Heian Noblewomen’s Pilgrimage: the Language of Gendered Discontent and (Re)construction of the Self.” West Virginia University Philological Papers 48 (2001): 1–8.
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  134. Argues that pilgrimage offered Heian noblewomen an opportunity to voice their discontent and liberation from the emotional distress caused by the institution of polygyny. For another essay on noblewomen’s pilgrimages, see Ambros in Reader and Swanson 1997 (cited under Anthologies).
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  139. Drummond, Donald Craig, Sr. “Negotiating Influence: The Pilgrimage Diary of Monastic Imperial Prince Kakuho, Omurogosho koyasan gosanro nikki.” PhD diss., Graduate Theological Union, 2007.
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  143. Examines the pilgrimage diary of Kakuho Hoshinno, an imperial abbot of the Buddhist temple Ninnaji and fourth son of Late Retired Emperor Shirakawa. The diary chronicles five pilgrimages undertaken by Kakuho on behalf of Senior Retired Emperor Toba between 1147 and 1150 and shows Mt. Kōya as it was emerging as an important Buddhist pilgrimage center.
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  148. Goodwin, Janet. Selling Songs and Smiles: The Sex Trade in Heian and Kamakura Japan. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 2007.
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  152. Contains some discussion of the encounters between courtesans, female religious performers, and aristocrats on pilgrimage during the mid- to late Heian and early Kamakura periods.
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  157. Lindsay, Ethan Claude. “Pilgrimage to the Sacred Traces of Kōyasan: Place and Devotion in Late Heian Japan.” PhD diss., Princeton University, 2012.
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  161. Analyzes the emergence of Mt. Kōya as a significant pilgrimage center in the late Heian period. Examines the myths that shaped the public perceptions of the site (including liturgical prayers, Buddhist tales, shrine and temple legends, and pilgrimage diaries) in order to assess how they influenced pilgrimage practices at the time.
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  166. Reischauer, Edwin O. Ennin’s Travels in T’ang China. New York: Ronald, 1955.
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  170. Provides a historical analysis of the Buddhist monk Ennin’s Nittō guhō junreiki (Record of a Pilgrimage to China in Search of the Law), an account of his journey from Japan to Tang China between 838 and 847. Companion volume to Reischauer’s Ennin’s Diary: The Record of a Pilgrimage to China in Search of the Law (New York: Ronald, 1955), which contains a translation of the travelogue.
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  175. Medieval Japan
  176. In the medieval period (late 12th to the late 16th century), religious institutions began to promote pilgrimage more widely as imperial and aristocratic patronage of temples and shrines declined. Consequently, people from all walks of life made pilgrimages in greater numbers. There is a rich record of literary travel diaries, Buddhist narrative tales, and visual and material objects that speak to the growing popularity of pilgrimage during this time. It is also during the medieval period that mendicants, performers, proselytizers, and Shugendō practitioners engaged in religious peregrination throughout Japan. Religious Itinerancy and Mendicancy, Pilgrimage and Visual Culture, and Sacred Mountains and the Exclusion of Women are topics that have received considerable scholarly attention and are treated under separate subheadings. The relationship between Shugendō and Pilgrimage—from the medieval through the contemporary periods—has also received so much scholarly attention that it warrants its own section, which appears below toward the end of this bibliography. Gorai 1994 introduces some general features of medieval Japanese pilgrimage. The other works discuss important pilgrimage sites during the medieval period—Zenkōji (McCallum 1994), Hokkeji (Meeks 2010), and Kumano (Moerman 2005).
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  178. Gorai, Shigeru. “The Cult of Pilgrimage in Japan.” Dharma World (March–April 1994): 19–24.
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  182. Posits that in medieval Japan pilgrimage functioned as a ritual of atonement. Uses the example of the pilgrimage to Kumano and the religious travel of itinerant ascetics. Gorai is one of the most prolific Japanese scholars to have published on pilgrimage and Shugendō. Specialists are encouraged explore his Japanese scholarship.
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  187. McCallum, Donald. Zenkōji and Its Icon: A Study of Medieval Japanese Religious Art. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994.
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  191. Art-historical study of the Amida triad associated with the Zenkōji cult and its proliferation as a cultic prototype throughout medieval and early modern Japan. Sections of the book address the Zenkōji pilgrimage cult and public displays of the Zenkōji icon in the medieval and early modern periods.
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  196. Meeks, Lori Rachelle. “Pilgrimage, Popular Devotion, and the Reemergence of Hokkeji.” In Hokkeji and the Reemergence of Female Monastic Orders in Premodern Japan. By Lori Rachelle Meeks, 27–58. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 2010.
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  199.  
  200. Discusses the convent Hokkeji’s revival in the Kamakura period through its development into a popular pilgrimage destination.
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  205. Moerman, David Max. Localizing Paradise: Kumano Pilgrimage and the Religious Landscape of Premodern Japan. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center, 2005.
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  209. Situates the Kumano pilgrimage in the context of medieval literature and visual culture, most prominently the Kumano pilgrimage mandala and the Kumano kanjin jikkai mandara, both of which were used by female proselytizers linked with Kumano, known as Kumano bikuni in the early modern period.
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  214. Religious Itinerancy and Mendicancy
  215. During the medieval period, religious professionals traveled widely in order to visit religious sites, proselytize, and raise funds for religious institutions. Much of the extant scholarship examines the relationship between literature, the performing arts, and religious itinerancy (Heldt 1997, Kimbrough 2006, Kimbrough 2008, Plutschow 1981, Ruch 1977). Female itinerant performers and preachers have received particular attention and allowed scholars to raise important questions about gender (Faure 2003, Griffiths 2010, Kimbrough 2008). Among wayfaring mendicants, Ippen (b. 1234–d. 1289), the itinerant founder of the Ji sect of Pure Land Buddhism, has received the greatest amount of scholarly attention. Therefore, this subject appears under a separate subheading titled Ippen as a Peripatetic Mendicant.
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  217. Faure, Bernard. “Women on the Move.” In The Power of Denial: Buddhism, Purity, and Gender. By Bernard Faure, 250–286. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003.
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  220.  
  221. Covers various kinds of female performers and religious itinerants (Kumano bikuni, miko, yūjo, asobime, ukareme, kugutsu, and shirabyōshi) in medieval Japan.
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  226. Goodwin, Janet. Alms and Vagabonds: Buddhist Temples and Popular Patronage in Medieval Japan. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 1994.
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  229.  
  230. Discusses the activities of fundraising preachers (kanjin hijiri) who traveled across Japan to collect alms in the late Heian and Kamakura periods.
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  235. Griffiths, Caitlin J. “Tracing the Itinerant Path: Jishū Nuns of Medieval Japan.” PhD diss., University of Toronto, 2010.
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  238.  
  239. Studies the medieval history of the nuns of the Ji sect, a school founded by Ippen in the 13th century. Shows that the nuns initially held leadership roles in this itinerant religious order but were increasingly marginalized as the sect became more institutionalized.
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  243.  
  244. Heldt, Gustav. “Saigyō’s Traveling Tale: A Translation of Saigyō Monogatari.” Monumenta Nipponica 52.4 (1997): 467–521.
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  246. DOI: 10.2307/2385697Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  247.  
  248. Introduces his translation of Saigyō monogatari, a medieval tale dramatizing the travels and pilgrimages of the poet-monk Saigyō (b. 1118–d. 1190). Includes Heldt’s translation of the tale.
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  251.  
  252.  
  253. Kimbrough, Keller R. “Tourists in Paradise: Writing the Pure Land in Medieval Japanese Fiction.” Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 33.2 (2006): 269–296.
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  256.  
  257. Examines medieval narratives of journeys to other realms (pure lands and the underworld), which were performed by itinerant blind minstrels (zatō) and female preachers (etoki bikuni) and functioned as virtual pilgrimages. Kimbrough’s translation of The Tale of Fuji Cave (Fuji no hitoana zōshi) is appended in the online supplement of the Japanese Journal of Religious Studies (33.2 [2006]: 1–22).
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  261.  
  262. Kimbrough, Keller R. Preachers, Poets, Women, and the Way: Izumi Shikibu and the Buddhist Literature of Medieval Japan. Ann Arbor: Center for Japanese Studies, University of Michigan, 2008.
  263.  
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  265.  
  266. Several chapters deal with the tradition of the Kumano nuns, female itinerant proselytizers who helped spread the popularity of Kumano as a sacred site and pilgrimage destination from the late medieval through the early modern periods. Partially published as “Voices from the Feminine Margin: Izumi Shikibu and the Nuns of Kumano and Seiganji” (Women & Performance: A Journal of Feminist Theory 12.1 (2001): 59–78).
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  270.  
  271. Plutschow, Herbert. Four Japanese Travel Diaries of the Middle Ages. Ithaca, NY: China-Japan Program, Cornell University, 1981.
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  274.  
  275. Introduction to medieval poetic travel diaries that includes full translations of four accounts: Takakura-in Itsukushima gokō ki (1180), Shinshō hōshi nikki (1225), Miyako no tsuto (1350–1352), and Zenkōji kikō (1465). Each of these journeys was conducted by religious figures and/or led to sacred sites.
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  279.  
  280. Ruch, Barbara. “Medieval Jongleurs and the Making of a National Literature.” In Japan in the Muromachi Age. Edited by John W. Hall and Toyoda Takeshi, 279–309. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1977.
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  283.  
  284. A useful overview article that reassesses the development of medieval literature through the propagation activities of male and female religious itinerants. Stresses the role of performance, in particular preaching from pictures (etoki) in the emergence of vocal literature.
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  288.  
  289. Ippen as a Peripatetic Mendicant
  290. Ippen’s travels were recorded and widely disseminated within the Ji school in the form of an illustrated scroll, the Ippen hijiri-e. Foard 1977 and Foard 1992 discuss the scroll as an example of Buddhist hagiography. Kaufman 1992 places the scroll in the context of medieval literature and art. Hirota 1986 includes a short introduction summarizing Ippen’s life and travels but consists primarily of translations of Ippen’s extant writings and sayings.
  291.  
  292. Foard, James H. “Ippen Shōnin and Popular Buddhism in Kamakura Japan.” PhD diss., Stanford University, 1977.
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  295.  
  296. Based on hagiographies of Ippen Shōnin. Devotes a lot of attention to Ippen’s itinerancy and pilgrimages to Zenkōji, Kumano, Mt. Kōya, and other sacred sites. It provides concrete insight into the emergence of popular pilgrimage centers during the Kamakura period.
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  300.  
  301. Foard, James H. “Prefiguration and Narrative in Medieval Hagiography: The Ippen hijire-e.” In Flowing Traces: Buddhism in the Literary and Visual Arts of Japan. Edited by James H. Sanford, William R. LaFleur, and Masatoshi Nagatomi, 76–92. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1992.
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  304.  
  305. Interprets the Ippen hijiri-e as Buddhist hagiography. Analyzes the textual form as a compilation of chronologies, didactic tales, temple and shrine legends, poetry, stylized itineraries (michiyuki), Buddhist hymns, Ippen’s teachings and pithy sayings, and biographical narratives.
  306.  
  307. Find this resource:
  308.  
  309.  
  310. Hirota, Dennis. No Abode: The Record of Ippen. Kyoto: Ryukoku University, 1986.
  311.  
  312. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  313.  
  314. Comprises several articles previously published in Eastern Buddhist. Reprinted by University Of Hawai’i Press (Honolulu, 1997). Excerpts from Hirota’s translation of the Ippen hijiri-e were also published as “The Illustrated Biography of Ippen.” In Buddhism in Practice. Edited by Donald S. Lopez, 563–577 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995).
  315.  
  316. Find this resource:
  317.  
  318.  
  319. Kaufman, Laura S. “Nature, Courtly Imagery, and Sacred Meaning in the Ippen hijiri-e.” In Flowing Traces: Buddhism in the Literary and Visual Arts of Japan. Edited by James H. Sanford, William R. LaFleur, and Masatoshi Nagatomi, 47–75. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1992.
  320.  
  321. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  322.  
  323. Explores the Ippen hijiri-e in the context of illustrated narrative scrolls, illustrated Buddhist sūtra scrolls, and landscape poetry while paying special attention to Ippen’s religious itinerancy and the depictions of pilgrimage sites.
  324.  
  325. Find this resource:
  326.  
  327.  
  328. Pilgrimage and Visual Culture
  329. There is a rich visual record of pilgrimage practices during the medieval period, including pilgrimage mandalas and illustrated picture scrolls. These have been treated extensively in art-historical scholarship. TenGrotenhuis 1999, Moerman 2010, and Hirasawa 2013 provide richly illustrated analyses of pilgrimage mandalas. Kaminishi 2006, Knecht 2006, Nakano 2009, Seidel 1992–1993, and Zitterbart 2008 explain the use of such imagery in the religious and sociohistorical contexts of medieval Japan.
  330.  
  331. Hirasawa, Caroline. Hellbent on Heaven in Tateyama Mandara: Painting and Religious Practice at a Japanese Mountain. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2013.
  332.  
  333. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  334.  
  335. An in-depth study of Tateyama, an important pilgrimage site during the late medieval and early modern periods. Explores the visual culture associated with this site, especially the many pilgrimage mandalas of Tateyama (Tateyama mandara). Pays particular attention to gender and the discourse on women’s salvation.
  336.  
  337. Find this resource:
  338.  
  339.  
  340. Kaminishi, Ikumi. Explaining Pictures: Buddhist Propaganda and Etoki Storytelling in Japan. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 2006.
  341.  
  342. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  343.  
  344. Examines the medieval and early modern Buddhist practice of sermonizing from pictures (etoki). Covers medieval itinerant etoki performers, early modern Kumano nuns (Kumano bikuni), the cult of Tateyama, and the discourse on women’s salvation at both sites.
  345.  
  346. Find this resource:
  347.  
  348.  
  349. Knecht, Peter. “Ise sankei mandara and the Image of the Pure Land.” Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 33.2 (2006): 223–248.
  350.  
  351. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  352.  
  353. Argues that late-medieval pilgrimage mandalas of the Ise Shrines were not just visual representations of the sacred site used to advertise the shrines to potential pilgrims but also symbolic representations of the Pure Land of Amida and a means by which the audience could visit the site vicariously.
  354.  
  355. Find this resource:
  356.  
  357.  
  358. Moerman, D. Max. “Mandalas and the Mapping of Japanese Buddhist Pilgrimage.” Orientations 41.2 (2010): 95–101.
  359.  
  360. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  361.  
  362. A concise reading of the Kumano pilgrimage mandala. Includes detailed illustrations.
  363.  
  364. Find this resource:
  365.  
  366.  
  367. Nakano, Chieko. “‘Kechien’ as Religious Praxis in Medieval Japan: Picture Scrolls as the Means and Sites of Salvation.” PhD diss., University of Arizona, 2009.
  368.  
  369. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  370.  
  371. Analyzes medieval picture scrolls on religious themes as soteriological devices that allowed their viewers to form karmic bonds with divinities and famous religious figures. Discusses medieval shrine mandalas and hagiographic picture scrolls depicting the life and travels of famous religious figures as virtual pilgrimages.
  372.  
  373. Find this resource:
  374.  
  375.  
  376. Seidel, Anna. “Mountains and Hells: Religious Geography in Japanese Mandara Paintings.” Studies in Central and East Asian Religions 5–6 (1992–1993): 122–133.
  377.  
  378. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  379.  
  380. Seidel’s seminal article, published posthumously, discusses medieval pilgrimage mandalas associated with Tateyama.
  381.  
  382. Find this resource:
  383.  
  384.  
  385. TenGrotenhuis, Elizabeth. Japanese Mandalas: Representation of Sacred Geography. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 1999.
  386.  
  387. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  388.  
  389. A study of Japanese mandala includes shrine and pilgrimage mandalas of the Kasuga Shrine and Kumano. The chapter “The Kami-Worshipping Tradition: Kumano” is of particular interest as it deals with the visual representations of Kumano and their connections with pilgrimage practices.
  390.  
  391. Find this resource:
  392.  
  393.  
  394. Zitterbart, Susan Jean. “Kumano mandara: Portraits, Power, and Lineage in Medieval Japan.” PhD diss., University of Pittsburgh, 2008.
  395.  
  396. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  397.  
  398. Reinterprets the origins of two Kumano shrine mandalas, which are commonly understood as visual proselytization tools that allowed viewers to make virtual pilgrimages of these sites. Argues instead that they were produced to promote the legitimacy of the Tendai Onjōji lineage over its rival Enryakuji.
  399.  
  400. Find this resource:
  401.  
  402.  
  403. Sacred Mountains and the Exclusion of Women
  404. From the Heian period until the end of the early modern period, women were denied access to the summits of and religious complexes on many sacred mountains. The reasons for this exclusion are complex. At some sites, the primary reason may have lain in the (nominal) maintenance of monastic celibacy for male clerics. In other cases, the pollution of uterine blood shed during childbirth and menstruation was emphasized. Yet other sites chose a combination of these two reasons. Whatever the case, the prohibition was often linked to economic motivations, allowing one group over another to assert authority over a religious site. Despite the prohibition, women found ways to worship at sites in the margins of sacred complexes or frequented alternative sites that welcomed them. Ushiyama 2009 and Katsuura 2009 represent two sides of the debate about the reasons behind the exclusion of women—monastic precepts of celibacy or notions of female pollution. Faure 2003 supports the pollution argument in his examination of legends associated with such exclusive sites. Matisoff 2002 studies a seminal legend associated with Mt. Kōya that stresses female pollution. Sekimori 2006 traces the history of the prohibition and considers economic factors in addition to ritual and doctrinal ones. Fowler 1997 shows that women found less exclusive, alternative pilgrimage destinations.
  405.  
  406. Faure, Bernard. “Crossing the Line.” In The Power of Denial: Buddhism, Purity, and Gender. By Bernard Faure, 219–249. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003.
  407.  
  408. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  409.  
  410. Analyzes the exclusion of women from sacred mountains as reflected in the medieval legend of the shamaness Toran.
  411.  
  412. Find this resource:
  413.  
  414.  
  415. Fowler, Sherry. “Setting Foot on the Mountain: Mt. Murō as a Women’s Alternative to Mt. Kōya.” Asian Journal of Women’s Studies 3.4 (1997): 52–73.
  416.  
  417. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  418.  
  419. Discusses the development of medieval and early modern Mt. Murō into an alternative pilgrimage site for women, who were barred from ascending Mt. Kōya. The mountain became known as “Women’s Mt. Kōya” (Nyonin Kōya).
  420.  
  421. Find this resource:
  422.  
  423.  
  424. Katsuura, Noriko. “Women and Views of Pollution.” Acta Asiatica 97 (2009): 17–37.
  425.  
  426. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  427.  
  428. Explores the notion of female ritual pollution and its links to the exclusion of women from sacred sites. Locates the origins of such notions in religious traditions (Buddhism, Daoism, and Confucianism) introduced to Japan from the Asian continent and posits that they became the fundamental basis from the exclusion of women from sacred mountains.
  429.  
  430. Find this resource:
  431.  
  432.  
  433. Matisoff, Susan. “Barred from Paradise? Mount Kōya and the Karukaya Legend.” In Engendering Faith: Women and Buddhism in Premodern Japan. Edited by Barbara Ruch, 463–500. Ann Arbor, MI: Center for Japanese Studies, University of Michigan, 2002.
  434.  
  435. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  436.  
  437. Interprets the medieval tale, Karakuya, which dramatizes the exclusion of women from Mt. Kōya. The tale includes the story of Kūkai’s octogenarian mother who resumes menstruating as she attempts to ascend Mt. Kōya. The tale his been translated by Keller Kimbrough in Wondrous Brutal Fictions: Eight Buddhist Tales from the Early Japanese Puppet Theater, 60–95 (New York: Columbia University Press, 2013).
  438.  
  439. Find this resource:
  440.  
  441.  
  442. Sekimori, Gaynor. “Sacralizing the Border: The Engendering of Liminal Space.” Transactions of the Asiatic Society, 4th ser., 20 (2006): 53–69.
  443.  
  444. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  445.  
  446. Traces the historical development of the exclusion of women from sacred mountains and its relationship with the belief in the pollution of menstrual blood from the Heian to the contemporary period.
  447.  
  448. Find this resource:
  449.  
  450.  
  451. Ushiyama, Yoshiyuki. “The Historical Development of the Exclusion of Women from Sacred Places (Nyonin Kinzei) in Japan.” Acta Asiatica 97 (2009): 39–55.
  452.  
  453. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  454.  
  455. Argues that the primary reason for the exclusion of women from sacred mountains did not lie in notions of female pollution but in an attempt to ensure the observance of monastic celibacy within temple complexes located at these sites.
  456.  
  457. Find this resource:
  458.  
  459.  
  460. Early Modern Japan
  461. The early modern period (1600–1868) is known as the “golden age” of pilgrimage in Japan. From the end of 17th century onward, large numbers of villagers and townspeople engaged in religious travel, made easier by an improved highway system, the continued peace, and greater prosperity among a wider segment of society. Villages, neighborhoods, and professional groups formed pilgrimage confraternities, and pilgrimage circuits became routinized. Pilgrimage afforded commoners, who otherwise had difficulties securing travel permits, an opportunity to travel widely. Since pilgrimage was such a popular practice during this period, scholarship is prolific. Therefore, this section is divided into the following subheadings: Leisure Travel and Pilgrimage, the Saikoku and Other Kannon Circuits, the Shikoku Pilgrimage Circuit, Pilgrimage to Individual Buddhist Temples, Pilgrimage to the Ise Shrines, Pilgrimage to Mt. Fuji, Other Sacred Mountains as Pilgrimage Sites, Religious Itinerancy and Mendicancy, and Literary Travelogues and Pilgrimage.
  462.  
  463. Leisure Travel and Pilgrimage
  464. Travel for pleasure and pilgrimage were closely interrelated in this period. The following works focus on this connection Shinno is one of the most prolific scholars to have published on pilgrimage in Japanese. Shinno 2002 is an accessible translation of a sample of his Japanese scholarship, which specialists are encouraged to explore further. Vaporis 1994 examines early modern travel culture, including religious journeys. Nenzi 2004 and Nenzi 2008 expand on Vaporis’s work; however, Nenzi pays greater attention to gender issues.
  465.  
  466. Nenzi, Laura. “Cultured Travelers and Consumer Tourists in Edo-Period Sagami.” Monumenta Nipponica 59.3 (2004): 285–319.
  467.  
  468. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  469.  
  470. Explores the confluence of religious and leisure travel in early modern Japan by focusing on Sagami Province in the western environs of Edo. This region was home to several important pilgrimage destinations in Kamakura, on the island of Enoshima, and at Ōyama.
  471.  
  472. Find this resource:
  473.  
  474.  
  475. Nenzi, Laura. Excursions in Identity: Travel and the Intersection of Place, Gender and Status in Edo Japan. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 2008.
  476.  
  477. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  478.  
  479. Examines the intersection of gender and status in early modern travel culture. As Nenzi notes, religious and leisurely travel are impossible to separate in Edo Japan and must be regarded as an integral whole.
  480.  
  481. Find this resource:
  482.  
  483.  
  484. Shinno, Toshikazu. “Journeys, Pilgrimages, Excursions: Religious Travels in the Early Modern Period.” Monumenta Nipponica 57.4 (2002): 447–471.
  485.  
  486. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  487.  
  488. Presents an overview of pilgrimage during the Edo period. Includes a survey of pilgrimage memorial stones in three locations in western and central Japan, a survey of pilgrimage motivations, and an examination of pilgrimage diaries of journeys to the Ise Shrines and Zenkōji. Stresses the combination of religious devotion and pleasure.
  489.  
  490. Find this resource:
  491.  
  492.  
  493. Vaporis, Constatine Nomikos. Breaking Barriers: Travel and the State in Early Modern Japan. Cambridge, MA: Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University, 1994.
  494.  
  495. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  496.  
  497. Stresses that leisurely travel and pilgrimage were closely intertwined during this era. Argues that pilgrimages provided commoners with opportunities to obtain travel permits and discusses the authorities’ attempts to regulate pilgrimage. Contends that the development of the travel industry was linked to pilgrimage activities that became increasingly secularized and presents a comprehensive overview of major pilgrimage sites.
  498.  
  499. Find this resource:
  500.  
  501.  
  502. The Saikoku and Other Kannon Circuits
  503. The Kyoto-Osaka-Nara-Kumano region is home to one of Japan’s oldest pilgrimage circuits, the Pilgrimage of the Thirty-Three Sacred Places of Kannon. The circuit includes many famous ancient temples dedicated to this bodhisattva. Although evidence exists of travel to Kannon temples in this region during the Heian and Kamakura periods, it is likely that the circuit only became fully routinized in the late medieval period. Travel along the route flourished in the early modern period. Because of its popularity, other regions copied the concept, and other Thirty-Three Kannon circuits emerged elsewhere in Japan. The Bandō and Chichibu circuits in eastern Japan were the most well known of these circuits. Foard 1982 is the most theoretically oriented of the following works and draws heavily on Turner’s theory of pilgrimage. MacWilliams is the most prolific Western-language scholar to have published on Kannon pilgrimage circuits in Japan. The works MacWilliams 1990a, MacWilliams 1990b, MacWilliams 2000, MacWilliams 2004 showcase his scholarship on temple myths associated with the circuits. Gump 2005 also engages with the legends associated with the Kannon circuits. Carton 2000 examines the material culture and architecture of miniature replicas of the circuits. Brownstein 2006 analyzes the literary influence of the Kannon circuits on early modern puppet theater.
  504.  
  505. Brownstein, Michael. “The Osaka Kannon Pilgrimage and Chikamatsu’s ‘Love Suicides at Sonezaki.’” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 66.1 (2006): 7–41.
  506.  
  507. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  508.  
  509. Analyzes references to a Kannon circuit in Ōsaka in the prelude to one of Chikamatsu’s jōruri puppet plays. The circuit was a miniature version of the Saikoku circuit and, like others of its kind, popular among women for whom completion of the larger circuit would have been more difficult. The appendix includes a translation of the pilgrimage sequence.
  510.  
  511. Find this resource:
  512.  
  513.  
  514. Carton, Martine. “Un labyrinthe japonais: Le sazaedô—Une présentation des temples-coquillage de l’époque d’Edo.” Ebisu 23 (2000): 95–116.
  515.  
  516. DOI: 10.3406/ebisu.2000.1041Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  517.  
  518. Gives five examples of sazaedō (literally, “sea-snail halls”) built in the shape of a three-story spiraling staircase. The halls were built during the Edo period and housed Kannon statues replicating the Saikoku, Bandō, and Chichibu pilgrimage circuits. These buildings provided visitors with miniature versions of these routes.
  519.  
  520. Find this resource:
  521.  
  522.  
  523. Foard, James. “The Boundaries of Compassion: Buddhism and the National Tradition in Japanese Pilgrimage.” Journal of Asian Studies 41.2 (1982): 231–252.
  524.  
  525. DOI: 10.2307/2054941Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  526.  
  527. Applies Turner’s theory of pilgrimage to the Saikoku Kannon circuit during the Edo period. Defines pilgrims as religious travelers on a long journey to sacred sites during which they enter a marginal state that is distinct from “normal life.” Sees evidence of communitas among early modern Saikoku pilgrims and argues that communitas fostered and was facilitated by a growing sense of belonging to the wider national Japanese community.
  528.  
  529. Find this resource:
  530.  
  531.  
  532. Gump, Steven E. “Mythologies and Miracles: The Saikoku Kannon and Peregrinogenesis.” Southeast Review of Asian Studies 27 (2005): 141–158.
  533.  
  534. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  535.  
  536. Assesses the historicity of legends associated with the Saikoku Kannon circuit that place the origins of the pilgrimage in the Heian period. Concludes that they are not verifiable and that the pilgrimage was formalized and popularized centuries later.
  537.  
  538. Find this resource:
  539.  
  540.  
  541. MacWilliams, Mark. “Kannon-engi: The Reijō and the Concept of Kechien as Strategies of Indigenization in Buddhist Sacred Narratives.” Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan, 4th ser., 5 (1990a): 53–70.
  542.  
  543. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  544.  
  545. Analyzes foundational tales of temples on pilgrimage circuits dedicated to the bodhisattva Kannon in order to show how these pilgrimage practices had the effect of indigenizing the Buddhist tradition in Japan.
  546.  
  547. Find this resource:
  548.  
  549.  
  550. MacWilliams, Mark. “Strategies of Indigenization in Kannon Temple Myths of the ‘Saikoku Sanjūsansho Kannon Reijōki’ and the ‘Sanjūsansho Bandō Kannon Reijōki.’” PhD diss., University of Chicago, 1990b.
  551.  
  552. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  553.  
  554. Examines the Kannon cult in the context of the foundational tales of temples along the Saikoku and the Bandō circuits. Includes an overview of the historical development of the circuits from the Heian through the early modern periods. Argues that the pilgrimage circuits played a seminal role in the indigenization of Buddhism by means of linking the bodhisattva Kannon to local sites.
  555.  
  556. Find this resource:
  557.  
  558.  
  559. MacWilliams, Mark. “The Holy Man’s Hut as a Symbol of Stability in Japanese Buddhist Pilgrimage.” Numen 47.4 (2000): 387–416.
  560.  
  561. DOI: 10.1163/156852700511603Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  562.  
  563. Analyzes the motif of the holy man’s hut in 18th-century foundational tales of temples along the Saikoku and Bandō pilgrimage circuits. The tales usually depict an itinerant ascetic, who produces or encounters a sacred image of Kannon. The image then displays unusual powers leading the ascetic to halt his travels and install the image in a hut, which later becomes the temple on the pilgrimage route.
  564.  
  565. Find this resource:
  566.  
  567.  
  568. MacWilliams, Mark. “Living Icons: ‘Reizō’ Myths of the Saikoku Kannon Pilgrimage.” Monumenta Nipponica 59.1 (2004): 35–82.
  569.  
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  571.  
  572. Discusses legends of living images of the bodhisattva Kannon along the Saikoku pilgrimage circuit. He argues that pilgrims’ perceptions of these sacred statues, which were usually hidden from view, were shaped largely by myths told in early modern pilgrimage guidebooks. He identifies several tropes such as images being made from sacred materials, miraculous appearance of images, or their creation by divine carpenters.
  573.  
  574. Find this resource:
  575.  
  576.  
  577. The Shikoku Pilgrimage Circuit
  578. The pilgrimage of the Eighty-Eight Sacred Places of Shikoku is another important Japanese pilgrimage circuit. It circles the entire island of Shikoku, and the sacred places are linked through their connection with the figure of Kōbō Daishi, the savior-monk Kūkai (773–838), who was a Shikoku native. Again, this pilgrimage circuit seems to have been fully routinized in the late medieval and early modern periods. Hoshino Eiki has published widely in Japanese on the Shikoku pilgrimage circuit. Hoshino 1983 represents an English sample of his prolific work. Specialists are encouraged to explore his Japanese scholarship. Kouamé 2001 is a meticulous historical study of the pilgrimage circuit during the early modern period. Barbaro 2013 focuses on the early modern pilgrimage but also includes modern materials. Reader 1999 provides an accessible sample of early modern legends associated with the circuit.
  579.  
  580. Barbaro, Paolo. “La mise en discours des pèlerinages au Japon depuis l’époque d’Edo: Pour une théorie de l’interversion réciproque entre expérience et récit.” PhD diss., École Pratique des Hautes Études, 2013.
  581.  
  582. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  583.  
  584. Examines the nature and development of pilgrimage in Japan from the Edo period to the present, focuses on pilgrimage literature such as guidebooks and pilgrim accounts, and traces the rise in ludic themes in pilgrimage.
  585.  
  586. Find this resource:
  587.  
  588.  
  589. Hoshino, Eiki. “The Historical Significance of Pilgrimages in Japan, with Special Reference to the Shikoku Pilgrimage.” Young East 9.3 (1983): 3–14.
  590.  
  591. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  592.  
  593. A brief overview of the Shikoku pilgrimage with a focus on its early modern history. Hoshino has published extensively on this pilgrimage in Japanese. This is one of a few articles that appeared in English. For other examples of Hoshino’s English scholarship on this topic, see his essays in Reader and Swanson 1997 and Rodriguez, et al. 2007 (both cited under Anthologies).
  594.  
  595. Find this resource:
  596.  
  597.  
  598. Kouamé, Natalie. Pèlerinage et société dans le Japon des Tokugawa: Le pèlerinage de Shikoku entre 1598 et 1868. Paris: École Française d’Etrême-Orient, 2001.
  599.  
  600. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  601.  
  602. Examines pilgrimage patterns and the socioeconomic conditions of the Shikoku circuit. Focuses on the pilgrims’ relationships with the islanders and the authorities. Disproves that Shikoku pilgrims were always akin to beggars and despised by the authorities. Demonstrates instead that the pilgrimage was an important economic asset for this underdeveloped peripheral region. For an English-language essay by Kouamé on this topic, see Reader and Swanson 1997 (cited under Anthologies).
  603.  
  604. Find this resource:
  605.  
  606.  
  607. Reader, Ian. “Legends, Miracles, and Faith in Kōbō Daishi and the Shikoku Pilgrimage.” In Religions of Japan in Practice. Edited by George Tanabe, 360–369. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999.
  608.  
  609. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  610.  
  611. Commentary and partial translation of the monk Shinnen’s Shikoku henro kudokuki (1690), a collection of miracle tales regarding the Shikoku circuit.
  612.  
  613. Find this resource:
  614.  
  615.  
  616. Pilgrimage to Individual Buddhist Temples
  617. Zenkōji in Shinano Province was an important regional pilgrimage site during the early modern period, but its cult was also spread nationwide by public displays of its sacred icon in other urban areas (Ambros 2004, Hur 2009). Another important pilgrimage site was Asakusa Kannon, also known as Sensōji. Unlike many other pilgrimage destinations, Sensōji in Edo is an example of an urban pilgrimage site. Like Zenkōji, the temple also relied on periodic public displays of its sacred icon in order to attract pilgrims (Hur 2000).
  618.  
  619. Ambros, Barbara. “The Display of Hidden Treasures: Zenkōji’s Kaichō at Ekōin in Edo.” Asian Cultural Studies 30 (Spring 2004): 1–26.
  620.  
  621. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  622.  
  623. Studies Zenkōji’s public displays (kaichō) of its hidden image and other treasures at Ekōin in the city of Edo. Large numbers of pilgrims visited Zenkōji during years in which the temple publicly displayed its sacred image. Occasionally, the image was also displayed in major urban centers. Such displays attracted pilgrims and curiosity seekers and raised funds for construction projects at Zenkōji.
  624.  
  625. Find this resource:
  626.  
  627.  
  628. Hur, Nam-lin. Prayer and Play in Late Tokugawa Japan: Asakusa Sensōji and Edo Society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Asia Center, Harvard University Press, 2000.
  629.  
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  631.  
  632. Investigates the combination of devotional and ludic elements that marked the cult of Sensōji, which became a major pilgrimage attraction in Edo over the course of the early modern period.
  633.  
  634. Find this resource:
  635.  
  636.  
  637. Hur, Nam-lin. “Invitation to the Secret Buddha of Zenkōji kaichō and Religious Culture in Early Modern Japan.” Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 36.1 (2009): 45–64.
  638.  
  639. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  640.  
  641. Hur links the public displays of Zenkōji’s secret statuary with concepts such as yorishiro (lodging places of the divine), saijitsu (festival days), and marebito (visiting deities) in order to explain why these activities resonated with their audiences and became such lucrative fundraising events that drew large numbers of visitors.
  642.  
  643. Find this resource:
  644.  
  645.  
  646. Pilgrimage to the Ise Shrines
  647. Once linked exclusively to the imperial cult, the Ise Shrines gained popularity as a pilgrimage site in the medieval period and became the focus of mass pilgrimage during the early modern period. The pilgrimage to the shrines was variously known as Isemairi (pilgrimage to Ise), okagemairi (thanksgiving pilgrimage), and sangū (shrine pilgrimage). When pilgrims left their villages, employers, or families without permission, the term nukemairi (absconding pilgrimage) was also used. Bohner 1941, Davis 1984, and Nenzi 2006 represent a useful sample of shifting interpretations of the pilgrimage.
  648.  
  649. Bohner, Hermann. “Massen-Nukemairi.” Monumenta Nipponica 4.2 (1941): 160–170.
  650.  
  651. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  652.  
  653. The first Western study on early modern pilgrimage to Ise. Examines mass pilgrimages in 1705, 1771, and 1830–1831. Contends that absconding pilgrimages (nukemairi) provided a socially acceptable excuse for people on the lower end of the social hierarchy to engage in travel and that toward the end of the period, mass pilgrimages served as a means to cope with foreign pressure and social change.
  654.  
  655. Find this resource:
  656.  
  657.  
  658. Davis, Winston. “Pilgrimage and World Renewal.” History of Religion 23.2 (1984): 97–116.
  659.  
  660. DOI: 10.1086/462942Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  661.  
  662. Challenges the common perception of mass pilgrimages to Ise as revolutionary, politically subversive activities and argues instead that they provided a bounded, carnivalesque, socially acceptable means of release. Article continues in History of Religion 23.3 (1984): 197–221. The entire two-part article was revised and republished in Winston Davis’s Japanese Religion and Society (Albany: SUNY, 1992).
  663.  
  664. Find this resource:
  665.  
  666.  
  667. Nenzi, Laura. “To Ise at All Costs: Religious and Economic Implications of Early Modern Nukemairi.” Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 33.1 (2006): 75–114.
  668.  
  669. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  670.  
  671. Studies the waves of absconding pilgrimage (nukemairi) to the Ise Shrines as sites of contestation that pinned the interests of the individual against those of the community. Discusses how this practice and public perceptions of the pilgrims changed over the course of the early modern period.
  672.  
  673. Find this resource:
  674.  
  675.  
  676. Pilgrimage to Mt. Fuji
  677. In the early modern period, Mt. Fuji transformed from a secluded site of practice for Shugendō adepts to a popular pilgrimage destination. This transformation was aided by the site’s relative proximity to the city of Edo and the Tōkaidō, a major thoroughfare between Edo and Kyoto. The activities of Fuji ascetics, innkeeper-proselytizers (oshi), and pilgrimage confraternities also were crucial factors. Tyler 1984 and Collcutt 1988 provide useful overviews of the Fuji cult. Miyazaki 2005 and Sawada 2006 discuss the gender aspects of the Fuji cult.
  678.  
  679. Collcutt, Martin. “Mt. Fuji as the Realm of Miroku: The Transformation of Maitreya in the Cult of Mt. Fuji in Early Modern Japan.” In Maitreya. Edited by Helen Hardacre and Alan Sponberg, 248–269. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1988.
  680.  
  681. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  682.  
  683. Chronicles how Fuji’s association with Dainichi (Mahāvairocana) diminished as the mountain no longer functioned primarily as the Shugendō training ground but became linked to Hasegawa Kakugyō (b. 1541?–d. 1646?) and Jikigyō Miroku (b. 1671–d. 1733), whose teachings led to the growth of Fuji pilgrimage confraternities.
  684.  
  685. Find this resource:
  686.  
  687.  
  688. Miyazaki, Fumiko. “Female Pilgrims and Mt. Fuji: Changing Perspectives on the Exclusion of Women.” Monumenta Nipponica 60.3 (2005): 339–391.
  689.  
  690. DOI: 10.1353/mni.2005.0034Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  691.  
  692. Examines how the innkeepers (oshi) managed to loosen the restrictions against women climbing to the summit of Mt. Fuji toward the end of the Edo period. Economic interests and unorthodox teachings on gender relations promoted by Fuji confraternities led the oshi to demand that women should be allowed to ascend the mountain.
  693.  
  694. Find this resource:
  695.  
  696.  
  697. Sawada, Janine. “Sexual Relations as Religious Practice in the Late Tokugawa Period: Fujidō.” Journal of Japanese Studies 32.2 (2006): 341–366.
  698.  
  699. DOI: 10.1353/jjs.2006.0063Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  700.  
  701. Analyzes the doctrines that provided the underpinnings for Fuji pilgrimage confraternities. Beginning with Jikigyō Miroku, successive leaders of the Fuji confraternity movement promoted teachings that turned received gender relations upside down.
  702.  
  703. Find this resource:
  704.  
  705.  
  706. Tyler, Royall. “The Tokugawa Peace and Popular Religion: Suzuki Shōsan, Kakugyō Tōbutsu, Jikigyō Miroku.” In Confucianism and Tokugawa Culture. Edited by Peter Nosco, 92–119. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1984.
  707.  
  708. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  709.  
  710. Study of the lives of Hasegawa Kakugyō (b. 1541?–d. 1646?), also known as Kakugyō Tōbutsu, and Jikigyō Miroku (b. 1671–d. 1733), whose teachings and activities led to the formation of Fuji pilgrimage confraternities. Tyler also translated and annotated an 18th-century biography of Kakugyō in “‘The Book of Great Practice’: The Life of the Mt. Fuji Ascetic Kakugyō Tōbutsu Kū” (Asian Folklore Studies. 52.2 (1993): 251–331).
  711.  
  712. Find this resource:
  713.  
  714.  
  715. Other Sacred Mountains as Pilgrimage Sites
  716. During this period, many sacred mountains transformed from remote places of practice for adepts of mountain asceticism into to popular pilgrimage destinations. Hardacre 2002, Williams 2005, and Ambros 2008 discuss sacred mountains in the Kantō region that were primarily of regional importance. The mountains discussed in Formanek 1998, Miyazaki and Williams 2001, and Thal 2005 were of greater national renown but still served as regional focal points of pilgrimage.
  717.  
  718. Ambros, Barbara. Emplacing a Pilgrimage: The Ōyama Cult and Regional Religion in Early Modern Japan. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008.
  719.  
  720. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  721.  
  722. A study of Ōyama as a regional pilgrimage destination from the late medieval through the early Meiji periods. Traces the development of the site’s sacred geography, its religious institutions, innkeeper-proselytizers (oshi), and pilgrimage networks. Shows that regional pilgrimages were not always suppressed by the authorities nor were all pilgrims regarded as marginals.
  723.  
  724. Find this resource:
  725.  
  726.  
  727. Formanek, Susanne. “Pilgrimage in the Edo Period: Forerunner of Modern Domestic Tourism? The Example of Pilgrimage to Mount Tateyama.” In The Culture of Japan as Seen through Its Leisure. Edited by Sepp Linhart and Sabine Frühstück, 165–193. Albany: SUNY, 1998.
  728.  
  729. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  730.  
  731. Examines Tateyama as an early modern pilgrimage site and raises the question whether religious travel to this mountain was a precursor to modern tourism in Japan. Concludes that there is some continuity but also finds significant differences.
  732.  
  733. Find this resource:
  734.  
  735.  
  736. Hardacre, Helen. Religion and Society in Nineteenth-Century Japan: A Study of the Southern Kanto Region, Using Late Edo and Early Meiji Gazetteers. By Helen Hardacre. Center for Japanese Studies. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 2002.
  737.  
  738. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  739.  
  740. Survey of religious institutions in Sagami and Musashi Provinces that includes case studies of several regional pilgrimage sites (Mitakesan, Takaosan, Enoshima, and Ōyama) as well as local manifestations of national pilgrimage cults (Ise, Mt. Kōya, and the Shikoku circuit).
  741.  
  742. Find this resource:
  743.  
  744.  
  745. Miyazaki, Fumiko, and Duncan Williams. “The Intersection of the Local and the Translocal at a Sacred Site: The Case of Osorezan in Tokugawa Japan.” Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 28.3–4 (2001): 399–440.
  746.  
  747. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  748.  
  749. Examines the early modern transformation of Osorezan in northeastern Japan into a major pilgrimage destination. In the late Edo period, Osorezan’s main attraction was the cult of Jizō rather than the oracles of blind female mediums (itako) for which the site became after World War II.
  750.  
  751. Find this resource:
  752.  
  753.  
  754. Thal, Sarah E. Rearranging the Landscape of the Gods: The Politics of a Pilgrimage Site in Japan, 1573–1912. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005.
  755.  
  756. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  757.  
  758. Traces the transformation of the combinative Shinto-Buddhist cult of Konpira in the early modern period into a Shinto one during the Meiji period. During this time Mt. Konpira was a popular pilgrimage destination on the island of Shikoku, though not officially linked with the Shikoku circuit.
  759.  
  760. Find this resource:
  761.  
  762.  
  763. Williams, Duncan Ryūken. “The Cult of Dōryō Daigongen: Daiyūzan and Sōtō Zen Prayer Temples.” In The Other Side of Zen: A Social History of Sōtō Zen Buddhism in Tokugawa Japan. By Duncan Ryūken Williams, 59–85. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005.
  764.  
  765. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  766.  
  767. Examines the pilgrimage cult of early modern Daiyūzan in the western Kantō region, including pilgrimage confraternities associated the site.
  768.  
  769. Find this resource:
  770.  
  771.  
  772. Religious Itinerancy and Mendicancy
  773. Religious itinerancy and mendicancy remained important during the early modern period. Blacker 1984 argues that the archetypal early modern pilgrim was the traveling mendicant. Ambros 2001, Groemer 1999, and Groemer 2000 examine the early modern professionalization of religious mendicancy. Ruch 2002 discusses the activities of early modern female religious itinerants.
  774.  
  775. Ambros, Barbara. “Localized Religious Specialists in Early Modern Japan: The Development of the Ōyama Oshi System.” Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 28.3–4 (2001): 329–372.
  776.  
  777. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  778.  
  779. Investigates the early modern institution of the Ōyama oshi, innkeeper-proselytizers who popularized the Ōyama pilgrimage cult in the Kantō region by conducting yearly rounds to fundraise and distribute talismans.
  780.  
  781. Find this resource:
  782.  
  783.  
  784. Blacker, Carmen. “Religious Travellers in the Edo Period.” Modern Asian Studies 18.4 (1984): 593–608.
  785.  
  786. DOI: 10.1017/S0026749X00016310Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  787.  
  788. Contends that the archetypal traveler of early modern Japan was not the casual pilgrim who traveled leisurely in a confraternity but the ascetic traveler, a social outsider and awe-inspiring holy person, and that this archetypal image of travelers explains the negative attitude of the authorities toward pilgrims. Gives three examples: Tansei Shōnin (b. 1570–d. 1613), Enkū (b. 1632–d. 1695), and Jitsukaga Gyōja (b. 1843–d. 1883).
  789.  
  790. Find this resource:
  791.  
  792.  
  793. Groemer, Gerald. “The Arts of the Gannin.” Asian Folklore Studies 58.2 (1999): 275–320.
  794.  
  795. DOI: 10.2307/1179098Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  796.  
  797. Discusses the various activities of these religious mendicant performers, including proxy pilgrimages and the manufacture of votive objects for pilgrims.
  798.  
  799. Find this resource:
  800.  
  801.  
  802. Groemer, Gerald. “A Short History of Gannin: Popular Religious Performers in Tokugawa Japan.” Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 27.2 (2000): 41–72.
  803.  
  804. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  805.  
  806. Traces the history and institutional framework of the gannin bōzu, religious itinerant performers who also conducted proxy pilgrimages for hire.
  807.  
  808. Find this resource:
  809.  
  810.  
  811. Ruch, Barbara. “Woman to Woman: Kumano bikuni Proselytizers in Medieval and Early Modern Japan.” In Engendering Faith: Women and Buddhism in Premodern Japan. Edited by Barbara Ruch, 537–580. Ann Arbor: Center for Japanese Studies, University of Michigan, 2002.
  812.  
  813. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  814.  
  815. Discusses the proselytizing of the Kumano bikuni, religious itinerants who emerged in the late medieval period and remained active through the Edo period.
  816.  
  817. Find this resource:
  818.  
  819.  
  820. Literary Travelogues and Pilgrimage
  821. Beginning in the medieval period, poetic travel journals constituted an important genre of Japanese literature. This trend continued into the early modern period. The most acclaimed early modern writer in this genre was Matsuo Bashō (b. 1644–d. 1694). Matsu Bashō’s work has been translated multiple times and received much commentary. The essays Barnhill 1986, Barnhill 1990, and Heyd 2005 discuss his poetic travelogues as records of religious journeys
  822.  
  823. Barnhill, David. “Impermanence, Fate, and the Journey: Bashō and the Problem of Meaning.” Religion 16 (1986): 323–341.
  824.  
  825. DOI: 10.1016/0048-721X(86)90018-7Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  826.  
  827. Applies Geertz’s notion that religion serves to give meaning to human suffering to Bashō’s poetic travel journals. Rather than dismiss Bashō’s attitude toward the suffering of fellow pilgrims and travelers as cruel, Barnhill suggests that the poet seeks to underscore human frailty as a lesson in the Buddhist concept of impermanence.
  828.  
  829. Find this resource:
  830.  
  831.  
  832. Barnhill, David L. “Bashō as Bat: Wayfaring and Antistructure in the Journals of Matsuo Bashō.” Journal of Asian Studies 49.2 (1990): 274–290.
  833.  
  834. DOI: 10.2307/2057297Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  835.  
  836. Applies Turner’s concept of anti-structure to Matsuo Bashō’s poetic travel journals and argues that Bashō depicted himself as a liminal religious itinerant who used his travels as a metaphor for the transience of human life.
  837.  
  838. Find this resource:
  839.  
  840.  
  841. Heyd, Thomas. “The Unity of Bashō’s Narrow Road to the Interior: Vision Quest and Pilgrimage.” Poetica: An International Journal of Linguistic-Literary Studies 63 (2005): 83–98.
  842.  
  843. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  844.  
  845. Interprets Bashō’s diary of his journey to Dewa Sanzan, Oku no hosomichi, as a poetic account of a visionary pilgrimage in search for buddhahood.
  846.  
  847. Find this resource:
  848.  
  849.  
  850. Modern Japan
  851. During the transition to the modern era in the mid-19th century, pilgrimage, along with other folk practices, was portrayed as antithetic to modernization, but from the early 20th century, religious travel experienced a revival as heritage tourism grew. This trend became particularly prominent in the postwar era, when greater prosperity, modern transportation, and mass media became ever more efficient in easing the logistics of travel and promoting rural pilgrimage sites as embodiments of authentic Japanese tradition. Reader 1994 provided a useful overview of the economic factors that led to a revival of pilgrimage in the postwar era. Reader 2007 and Reader 2013 examine the process of secularization and revitalization of pilgrimage in contemporary Japan and in a global context. Because of the great variety of scholarship on modern pilgrimage in Japan, this section is divided into the following subheadings: the Saikoku and Other Kannon Circuits, the Shikoku Circuit, Mt. Hiei and kaihōgyō, Other Sacred Mountains as Pilgrimage Sites, Pilgrimage and Heritage Tourism, Media Portrayals of Pilgrimage and Pilgrimage Sites, the Art and Material Culture of Pilgrimage, Pilgrimage and Modern Literature, and Modern Pilgrimage Accounts. As is apparent from the works in these sections, anthropological approaches dominate the study of pilgrimage in modern Japan.
  852.  
  853. Reader, Ian. “Creating Pilgrimages: Buddhist Priests and Popular Religion in Contemporary Japan.” Kyoto Conference on Japanese Studies 3 (1994): 311–324.
  854.  
  855. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  856.  
  857. Discusses the reasons behind the revival of older pilgrimage circuits and the invention of new ones in the postwar era. Cites as reasons for these developments the promotion of pilgrimage in the media, the loss of income from funeral parishes and the search for new sources of income for temples, the revitalization of rural communities, and regional rivalries.
  858.  
  859. Find this resource:
  860.  
  861.  
  862. Reader, Ian. “Pilgrimage Growth in the Modern World: Meanings and Implications.” Religion 37 (2007): 210–229.
  863.  
  864. DOI: 10.1016/j.religion.2007.06.009Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  865.  
  866. Examines pilgrimage in a global context with examples from Japan, India, the United States, and Europe to draw attention to a worldwide growth in pilgrim numbers at major sites. Analyzes potential reasons for this increase—including better transport but also a decline in institutional religion, which has weakened control of many major sites and opened them up to non-religious pilgrims.
  867.  
  868. Find this resource:
  869.  
  870.  
  871. Reader, Ian. “Promotions, Inventions and Exhibitions: Strategies for Renewal or Evidence of the Secularisation of Pilgrimage and the Decline of Religion in Contemporary Japan?” Beiträge des Arbeitskreises Japanische Religionen 6 (2013).
  872.  
  873. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  874.  
  875. Examines contemporary methods used by Buddhist institutions to promote pilgrimages. Discusses examples such as exhibits related to a nearby pilgrimage in a secular space, the display of hidden icons, and designation as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Argues that these activities contribute to the commodification and secularization of contemporary pilgrimage.
  876.  
  877. Find this resource:
  878.  
  879.  
  880. The Saikoku and Other Kannon Circuits
  881. The modern Saikoku circuit has not received as much scholarly attention as the Shikoku circuit. One potential reason is that many visitors on this route are not clearly identifiable as “pilgrims” since many casually visit individual temples on the circuit as tourists rather than pilgrims aiming to complete the entire circuit. The circuit also does not seem to have generated as extensive a modern pilgrimage infrastructure as the Shikoku circuit. As a result, it has been the subject of far fewer studies, with the notable exceptions of Leavell and Reader 1988 and MacWilliams 1995.
  882.  
  883. Leavell, James, and Ian Reader. “Research Report on the Saikoku Pilgrimage.” Studies in Central and East Asian Religions 1.1 (1988): 116–118.
  884.  
  885. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  886.  
  887. A brief but valuable statistical report on contemporary pilgrims on the Saikoku circuit, based on the authors’ survey administered in 1987, the purported 1,000th anniversary of the founding of the circuit.
  888.  
  889. Find this resource:
  890.  
  891.  
  892. MacWilliams, Mark. “Buddhist Pilgrim/Buddhist Exile: Old and New Images of Retired Emperor Kazan in the Saigoku Kannon Temple Guidebooks.” History of Religions 34.4 (1995): 303–328.
  893.  
  894. DOI: 10.1086/463402Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  895.  
  896. MacWilliams, who has published extensively on early modern narrative literature associated with the Kannon circuits, expands his analysis to contemporary comic-book (manga) about the Retired Emperor Kazan, the purported founder of the Saikoku circuit in the 10th century.
  897.  
  898. Find this resource:
  899.  
  900.  
  901. The Shikoku Circuit
  902. The Shikoku circuit is the most studied pilgrimage in modern Japan. Given the wide variety of scholarship on this subject, this section is divided into several subsections on Changing Traditions and Miniaturization, Kōbō Daishi Cult, Sacred Geography, and Pilgrimage and the Internet. Of particular note are the works of Ian Reader and Tanaka Hiroshi, both of whom have written extensively on the circuit. This section contains introductory works on the circuit. Several of Reader’s essays (Reader 1992, Reader 1996, Reader 2003a, and Reader 2005) are included here to showcase his changing understanding of and the breadth of his scholarship on the pilgrimage. Though dated, Bohner 2011 (originally published in 1931) provides useful material on the Shikoku circuit in the early 20th century. LaFleur 1979 analyzes the circuit using Turner’s pilgrimage theory. Reader 2003b is a useful resource for those who cannot read Japanese or French.
  903.  
  904. Bohner, Alfred. Two on a Pilgrimage: The 88 Holy Places of Shikoku. Translated by Katharine Merill, edited by David C. Moreton. Bremen, Germany: Europäischer Hochschulverlag, 2011.
  905.  
  906. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  907.  
  908. English translation of the first Western scholarly study of the Shikoku pilgrimage. Surveys the history of and the customs associated with the pilgrimage route. First published in German as Wallfahrt zu Zweien: Die 88 heiligen Stätten von Shikoku (Tokyo: Deutschen Gesellschaft für Natur und Völkerkunde Ostasiens, 1931).
  909.  
  910. Find this resource:
  911.  
  912.  
  913. LaFleur, William. “Points of Departure: Comments on Religious Pilgrimage in Sri Lanka and Japan.” Journal of Asian Studies 38.2 (1979): 271–281.
  914.  
  915. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  916.  
  917. Applies Turner’s concept of communitas to the Shikoku pilgrimage. Largely based on Hoshino Eiki’s extensive work on the Shikoku circuit. Critiques Brian Pfaffenberger’s study of pilgrimage in Sri Lanka, in which Pfaffenberger argued that the concept of communitas was inapplicable to his case study. See Pfaffenberger, Bryan. “The Kataragama Pilgrimage: Hindu Buddhist Interaction and its Significance in Sri Lanka’s Polyethnic Social System.” Journal of Asian Studies 39.2 (1979): 253–270.
  918.  
  919. Find this resource:
  920.  
  921.  
  922. Reader, Ian. “Dead to the World: Pilgrims in Shikoku.” In Pilgrimage in Popular Culture. Edited by Ian Reader and Tony Walter, 107–136. Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan, 1992.
  923.  
  924. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  925.  
  926. Surveys the history of, major practices on, and changes to the pilgrimage in the postwar era. In this article, it is clear that Reader has revised his earlier critical stance regarding the modern transformation of the pilgrimage and instead offers a more positive assessment of contemporary pilgrims who take bus tours rather than walk. Compare Reader 1987.
  927.  
  928. Find this resource:
  929.  
  930.  
  931. Reader, Ian. “Pilgrimage as Cult: The Shikoku Pilgrimage as a Window on Japanese Religion.” In Religion in Japan: Arrows to Heaven and Earth. Edited by Ian Reader and Peter Kornicki, 267–287. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
  932.  
  933. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  934.  
  935. Employs the example of the Shikoku pilgrimage in order to demonstrate the basic features of Japanese religion such as attitudes toward this-worldly benefits, miracles, and charismatic figures.
  936.  
  937. Find this resource:
  938.  
  939.  
  940. Reader, Ian. “Chance, Fate, and Undisciplined Meanderings: A Pilgrimage through the Fieldwork Maze.” In Doing Fieldwork in Japan. Edited by Theodore C. Bestor, Patricia G. Steinhoff, and Victoria Lyon Bestor, 89–105. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 2003a.
  941.  
  942. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  943.  
  944. Reader uses his experiences during fieldwork on the Shikoku pilgrimage for this methodological essay on ethnography. Contrary to many other scholars in the field, who rely heavily on formal third-party introductions to research subjects, Reader advocates informal, spontaneous engagement with institutions and informants.
  945.  
  946. Find this resource:
  947.  
  948.  
  949. Reader, Ian. “Local Histories, Anthropological Interpretations, and the Study of a Japanese Pilgrimage.” Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 30.1–2 (2003b): 119–132.
  950.  
  951. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  952.  
  953. A detailed review article of Hoshino Eiki’s important study on Shikoku titled Shikoku henro no shükyōgakuteki kenkyū (2001) and Natalie Kouamé’s Pèlerinage et société dans le Japon des Tokugawa (2001).
  954.  
  955. Find this resource:
  956.  
  957.  
  958. Reader, Ian. Making Pilgrimages: Meaning and Practice in Shikoku. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 2005.
  959.  
  960. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  961.  
  962. Reader’s most extensive and sophisticated study of the Shikoku pilgrimage circuit. Covers the history, geography, pilgrimage practices, and contemporary developments. Equal attention is given to walking and bus pilgrims. Also discusses the pilgrimage as a way of life—in contrast to Turner’s assertion that pilgrimage belongs to the realm of anti-structure.
  963.  
  964. Find this resource:
  965.  
  966.  
  967. Changing Traditions and Miniaturization
  968. During the modern era, the Shikoku circuit has undergone considerable changes including a shift from walking pilgrims toward bus pilgrims and the construction of small halls dedicated to Kōbo Daishi as standard features of temple precincts. These changes initially generated a “discourse of the vanishing” (to borrow Marilyn Ivy’s parlance), that is, much lamenting about the disappearing authentic traditions of the pilgrimage, but in recent years, scholars have evaluated the changes more positively. The most important works on this topic have been published by Reader (Reader 1987, Reader 1988, Reader 1993) and Tanaka (Tanaka 1976, Tanaka 1980). Baba 2000 examines contemporary transformations of almsgiving practices along the pilgrimage route. Shultz 2009 examines contemporary pilgrimage accounts.
  969.  
  970. Baba, Junko. “Settai Practice in the Shikoku Pilgrimage: Maintenance and Change of Tradition in the Modern Context.” Virginia Review of Asian Studies 2 (2000): 91–109.
  971.  
  972. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  973.  
  974. Based on fieldwork conducted in 1999. Studies changes in the modern Shikoku pilgrimage in regards to the practice of almsgiving (settai) as a site of potential conflict between the rural population of Shikoku, who considers almsgiving a practice of spiritual reciprocity, and visiting urbanites, who may be accustomed to entirely different, commercialized gift-giving customs.
  975.  
  976. Find this resource:
  977.  
  978.  
  979. Reader, Ian. “From Asceticism to Package Tour: The Pilgrims’ Progress in Japan.” Religion 17.2 (1987): 133–148.
  980.  
  981. DOI: 10.1016/0048-721X(87)90053-4Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  982.  
  983. One of Reader’s earliest publications on the Shikoku pilgrimage. Here Reader is very critical of the changes in the contemporary pilgrimage, particularly the shift from walking to bus-tour pilgrims. In later publications, Reader revised his assessment. See Reader 1992 and Reader 2005.
  984.  
  985. Find this resource:
  986.  
  987.  
  988. Reader, Ian. “Miniaturization and Proliferation: A Study of Small Scale Pilgrimages in Japan.” Studies in Central and East Asian Religions 1.1 (1988): 50–66.
  989.  
  990. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  991.  
  992. Surveys several miniature pilgrimages based on the Shikoku circuit, which date back to the Edo period. These small-scale pilgrimages can be completed in very little time. In contrast to Tanaka Hiroshi, he emphasizes that these circuits make little attempt to replicate the actual geography of the Shikoku circuit.
  993.  
  994. Find this resource:
  995.  
  996.  
  997. Reader, Ian. Sendatsu and the Development of Contemporary Japanese Pilgrimage. Nissan Occasional Papers 17. Oxford: Nissan Institute for Japanese Studies, 1993.
  998.  
  999. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1000.  
  1001. Analyzes the sendatsu (pilgrimage leader) system on the Shikoku pilgrimage. He explores the role of the sendatsu as professional participants and promoters of the Shikoku circuit.
  1002.  
  1003. Find this resource:
  1004.  
  1005.  
  1006. Shultz, John. “Characters on a Page, Characters on a Pilgrimage: Contemporary Memoirs of the Shikoku Henro.” PhD diss., University of Manchester, 2009.
  1007.  
  1008. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1009.  
  1010. Discusses sixteen pilgrimage accounts published in the first decade of the new millennium that describe the pilgrimage in terms of an epic quest.
  1011.  
  1012. Find this resource:
  1013.  
  1014.  
  1015. Tanaka, Hiroshi. “Religious Merit and Convenience, the Resolution of a Conflict within a Pilgrimage through Spatial-Temporal Adjustments.” In New Themes in Western Canadian Geography. Edited by Brenton M. Barr, 109–118. Vancouver, BC: Tantalus Research, 1976.
  1016.  
  1017. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1018.  
  1019. Suggests that the reason for changes in the geography and pilgrimage practices lie in the need for the resolution of tensions between religious ideals (merit making) and the demands of modern convenience. Tanaka’s work is significant in that he is one of the first scholars to accept recent changes in the Shikoku pilgrimage without claiming that these new practices are inauthentic.
  1020.  
  1021. Find this resource:
  1022.  
  1023.  
  1024. Tanaka, Hiroshi. “Sacredness in a Changing Buddhist Pilgrimage in Japan.” Ethnologische Zeitschrift 2 (1980): 123–136.
  1025.  
  1026. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1027.  
  1028. Reviews changes in the pilgrimage over the centuries, including the starting point, temple locations, number of temples, order of the route, means of transportation, temple compounds, pilgrimage rituals, and the development of miniature pilgrimages elsewhere. The article was also published in The Communication of Ideas (edited by J. S. Yadava and Vinayshil Gautam, 189–206. New Delhi: Concept, 1980).
  1029.  
  1030. Find this resource:
  1031.  
  1032.  
  1033. Kōbō Daishi Cult
  1034. The figure of Kōbō Daishi is central to the pilgrimage cult of Shikoku. Kanai 1980 and Pussel 2011 discuss its importance in the modern era. Reader 2003 highlights competing interpretations of Kōbō Daishi.
  1035.  
  1036. Kanai, Sachiko Misawa. “Development of the Kobo Daishi Cult and Beliefs in Japan and Their Connection with the Shikoku Pilgrimage.” Young East 6.2 (1980): 12–37.
  1037.  
  1038. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1039.  
  1040. Reviews several legends associated with Kōbō Daishi and discusses almsgiving (settai) as a devotional practice on the Shikoku circuit.
  1041.  
  1042. Find this resource:
  1043.  
  1044.  
  1045. Pussel, Ryofu. “Contemporary Pilgrims’ Understanding of the Shikoku Pilgrimage, with Particular Reference to the Roles of Kobo Daishi.” PhD diss., University of Sunderland, 2011.
  1046.  
  1047. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1048.  
  1049. Discusses how contemporary pilgrims understand the Shikoku circuit through the figure of Kōbō Daishi.
  1050.  
  1051. Find this resource:
  1052.  
  1053.  
  1054. Reader, Ian. “Weaving the Landscape: The Shikoku Pilgrimage, Kōbō Daishi and Shingon Buddhism.” Bulletin of the Research Institute of Esoteric Buddhist Culture 2 (2003): 139–164.
  1055.  
  1056. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1057.  
  1058. Examines how Shingon institutions on Mt. Kōya have used the figure of Kōbō Daishi to enhance their popular support structures, and how people focus on this wandering miracle worker as a personal guide, rather than as a symbol of Shingon Buddhism.
  1059.  
  1060. Find this resource:
  1061.  
  1062.  
  1063. Sacred Geography
  1064. As a cultural geographer, Tanaka Hiroshi is keenly interested in the sacred geography of the Shikoku circuit. The three essays Tanaka 1977, Tanaka 1981, and Tanaka 1997 examine geographic aspects of the pilgrimage.
  1065.  
  1066. Tanaka, Hiroshi. “Geographic Expression of Buddhist Pilgrim Places on Shikoku Island, Japan.” Canadian Geographer 21.2 (1977): 111–132.
  1067.  
  1068. DOI: 10.1111/j.1541-0064.1977.tb00992.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1069.  
  1070. Reviews the common geographic features of the temples along the Shikoku circuit. The article features drawings and diagrams.
  1071.  
  1072. Find this resource:
  1073.  
  1074.  
  1075. Tanaka, Hiroshi. “Evolution of a Pilgrimage as a Spatial-Symbolic System.” Canadian Geographer 25.3 (1981): 240–251.
  1076.  
  1077. DOI: 10.1111/j.1541-0064.1981.tb01644.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1078.  
  1079. A structuralist study of the symbolism of the geographic features of the Shikoku pilgrimage circuit.
  1080.  
  1081. Find this resource:
  1082.  
  1083.  
  1084. Tanaka, Hiroshi. “The Shikoku Pilgrimage: Essential Characteristics of a Japanese Buddhist Pilgrimage Complex.” In Sacred Places, Sacred Spaces: The Geography of Pilgrimages. Edited by Robert H. Stoddard and Alan Morinis, 269–297. Baton Rouge: Geoscience Publications, Louisiana State University, 1997.
  1085.  
  1086. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1087.  
  1088. Studies the symbolic geography of the Shikoku pilgrimage, including the distribution of Buddhist statuary, the spatial structure of the pilgrimage circuit, and the features of the individual temple precincts on the route.
  1089.  
  1090. Find this resource:
  1091.  
  1092.  
  1093. Pilgrimage and the Internet
  1094. The rise of the Internet has led to religious expression within this medium. The following essays explore how the Internet has been used to promote the pilgrimage: Reader 2011, Shultz 2011a, and Shultz 2011b.
  1095.  
  1096. Reader, Ian. “The Shikoku Pilgrimage Online.” In Japanese Religions on the Internet: Innovation, Representation and Authority. Edited by Erica Baffelli, Ian Reader, and Birgit Staemmler, 80–100. New York and Abingdon, UK: Routledge, 2011.
  1097.  
  1098. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1099.  
  1100. Examines the websites of organizations associated with the Shikoku pilgrimage and argues that what is online, especially from “official” sources like the Shikoku Reijōkai (Association of Shikoku Pilgrimage Temples), largely reproduces the offline content and that the online arena thus far has not brought much innovation in religious terms.
  1101.  
  1102. Find this resource:
  1103.  
  1104.  
  1105. Shultz, John. “Media Transformation, Evangelical Continuity: Enticement for a Japanese Pilgrimage from Woodblacks to Homepages.” In Japan and the Internet: Perspectives and Practices. Edited by Yutaka Tsujinaka and Leslie M. Tkach-Kawasaki, 99–113. Tsukuba, Japan: Center for International, Comparative, and Advanced Japanese Studies, University of Tsukuba, 2011a.
  1106.  
  1107. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1108.  
  1109. Discusses how the Internet is used to promote faith in the efficacy of the Shikoku pilgrimage. Argues that these websites are harkening back to the tradition of early modern miracle tales, particularly the collection published by Shinnen (d. 1691).
  1110.  
  1111. Find this resource:
  1112.  
  1113.  
  1114. Shultz, John. “Pilgrim Leadership Rendered in HTML: Bloggers and the Shikoku Henro.” In Japanese Religions on the Internet: Innovation, Representation and Authority. Edited by Erica Baffelli, Ian Reader, and Birgit Staemmler, 80–100. New York and Abingdon, UK: Routledge, 2011b.
  1115.  
  1116. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1117.  
  1118. Focuses in on a small number of pilgrims who have set up blogs and published online accounts, thus becoming pilgrimage experts.
  1119.  
  1120. Find this resource:
  1121.  
  1122.  
  1123. Mt. Hiei and Kaihōgyō
  1124. Kaihōgyō is the practice of circumambulating Mt. Hiei. Ordinarily, Tendai clerics in training perform circumambulations for one hundred consecutive days, but exceptional kaihōgyō practitioners will take a vow to circumambulate the mountain for 1,000 days over the course of seven years divided into individual sets of one hundred and two hundred consecutive days per year. The route is predetermined but varies depending on the year of practice. The length of the course increases from twenty-five kilometers during the first years to about forty or sixty kilometers during the last two, respectively. The 1,000-day practice also includes a strict nine-day fast during the fifth year. After the completion of the 1,000-day circumambulation, the practitioner is said to have transformed into a living Buddha. Most studies have focused on the ascetics (Rhodes 1987, Stevens 1988, and Covell 2004). Ludvik 2006 is an exception in that the article examines the devotees who support the ascetics.
  1125.  
  1126. Covell, Stephen. “Learning to Persevere: The Popular Teachings of Tendai Ascetics.” Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 31.2 (2004): 255–287.
  1127.  
  1128. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1129.  
  1130. Examines the teachings of contemporary 1,000-day kaihōgyō ascetics, Hagami Shōchō (b. 1903–d. 1989), Mitsunaga Kakudō (b. 1954), and Sakai Yūsai (b. 1926). Covell argues that these ascetics base their teachings on their asceticism rather than on classical Buddhist doctrine.
  1131.  
  1132. Find this resource:
  1133.  
  1134.  
  1135. Ludvik, Catherine. “In the Service of the Kaihōgyō Practitioners of Mt. Hiei: The Stopping-Obstacles Confraternity (Sokushō kō) of Kyoto.” Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 33.1 (2006): 115–142.
  1136.  
  1137. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1138.  
  1139. Studies a Kyoto confraternity dedicated to supporting kaihōgyō ascetics. She discusses the structure and offices of the confraternity as well as the practices and motivations of its members.
  1140.  
  1141. Find this resource:
  1142.  
  1143.  
  1144. Rhodes, Robert. “The Kaihōgyō Practice of Mt. Hiei.” Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 14.2–3 (1987): 185–202.
  1145.  
  1146. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1147.  
  1148. Discusses the premodern history, doctrinal foundations, and contemporary practice of kaihōgyō. A good introductory article.
  1149.  
  1150. Find this resource:
  1151.  
  1152.  
  1153. Stevens, John. The Marathon Monks of Mount Hiei. Boston: Shambhala, 1988.
  1154.  
  1155. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1156.  
  1157. A popular, richly illustrated introduction to the history and contemporary practice of kaihōgyō, including biographies of several kaihōgyō monks. Emphasizes the athleticism and physical accomplishments of the practitioners whom Stevens terms “marathon monks.” Stevens also published a short summary on this topic in Einarsen 1995 (cited under Anthologies).
  1158.  
  1159. Find this resource:
  1160.  
  1161.  
  1162. Other Sacred Mountains as Pilgrimage Sites in Modern Japan
  1163. Bernstein 2008 uses a historical approach, but as is apparent from the other studies in this section, sacred mountains have been fertile ground for ethnographic studies of pilgrimage. Ambros 2009, Bouchy 1987, and Hardacre 1983 examine the activities of modern pilgrimage confraternities. Averbuch 2011, Hardacre 1983, and Schattschneider 2003 discuss the role of gender in contemporary mountain cults. Hardacre 1983 also deals with the issue of ethnic identity. Ivy 1995 and Ambros 2009 address the issue of the nostalgic longing for a premodern past in contemporary Japanese religious practice.
  1164.  
  1165. Ambros, Barbara. “Researching Place, Emplacing the Researcher: Reflections on the Making of a Documentary on a Pilgrimage Confraternity.” Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 36.1 (2009): 167–197.
  1166.  
  1167. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1168.  
  1169. A self-reflexive, ethnographic study of Ohanakō, a contemporary Ōyama pilgrimage confraternity. Based on ethnographic fieldwork in 2000 and 2004, the article examines how the presence of the researcher influenced the practices of the confraternity.
  1170.  
  1171. Find this resource:
  1172.  
  1173.  
  1174. Averbuch, Irit. “Discourses of the Reappearing: The Reenactment of the ‘Cloth-Bridge Consecration Rite’ at Mt. Tateyama.” Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 38.1 (2011): 1–54.
  1175.  
  1176. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1177.  
  1178. Examines the revival of the cloth-bridge consecration rite at Tateyama in the first decade of the new millennium. Once a ritual to ensure women’s posthumous salvation, the rite was revived as a cultural event to attract tourists, but despite the secular motivations of the town officials, the female participants experienced the performance as religious.
  1179.  
  1180. Find this resource:
  1181.  
  1182.  
  1183. Bernstein, Andrew. “Whose Fuji? Religion, Region, and State in the Fight for a National Symbol.” Monumenta Nipponica 63.1 (2008): 51–99.
  1184.  
  1185. DOI: 10.1353/mni.0.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1186.  
  1187. Analyzes the modern controversy over whether the summit of Mt. Fuji, a popular pilgrimage destination since the early modern period, should be secular public land or private property belonging to a religious institution. Bernstein reveals the tensions between Mt. Fuji as a secular national symbol and Mt. Fuji as a sacred site.
  1188.  
  1189. Find this resource:
  1190.  
  1191.  
  1192. Bouchy, Anne Marie. “The Cult of Mt. Atago and the Atago Confraternities.” Journal of Asian Studies 46.2 (1987): 255–277.
  1193.  
  1194. DOI: 10.2307/2056014Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1195.  
  1196. Study of the history and contemporary activities of pilgrimage confraternities associated with Mt. Atago north of Kyoto.
  1197.  
  1198. Find this resource:
  1199.  
  1200.  
  1201. Hardacre, Helen. “The Cave and the Womb World.” Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 10.2–3 (1983): 149–176.
  1202.  
  1203. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1204.  
  1205. Hardacre’s ethnographic study of female members of an Ōmine pilgrimage confraternity from Ōsaka. Since women are barred from the main peak, they have their own place of ascetic practice on the mountain. Hardacre analyzes the ritual of rebirth in a cave and contends that the symbolism of the womb has different psychological meanings for women and men. A revised version, which focuses more on the ethnic dynamics between the Japanese and Korean members than on a psychological interpretation, appears in Hardacre’s The Religion of Japan’s Korean Minority: The Preservation of Ethnic Identity (Berkeley: University of California Institute for East Asian Studies, 1984).
  1206.  
  1207. Find this resource:
  1208.  
  1209.  
  1210. Ivy, Marilyn. “Ghostly Epiphanies: Recalling the Dead on Mount Osore.” In Discourses of the Vanishing: Modernity, Phantasm, Japan. By Marilyn Ivy, 141–191. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995.
  1211.  
  1212. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1213.  
  1214. Examines the contemporary cult of Mt. Osore, which draws pilgrims during the summer festival when blind mediums offer communication with the spirits of the dead. Based on ethnographic fieldwork conducted in 1984. Discusses the inherent tensions at the site, between tradition and modernity, various religious specialists and pilgrims, skeptics and devotees.
  1215.  
  1216. Find this resource:
  1217.  
  1218.  
  1219. Schattschneider, Ellen. Immortal Wishes: Labor and Transcendence on a Japanese Sacred Mountain. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003.
  1220.  
  1221. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1222.  
  1223. Study of the female mountain ascetics on Mt. Akakura in the Tsugaru region of northern Japan. Based on ethnographic fieldwork conducted during the early 1990s. Two chapters were previously published as “The Labor of Mountains” (Positions: East Asia Cultures Critique 4.1 (1996): 1–30) and “My Mother’s Garden” (Ethos 28.2 (2000): 147–173).
  1224.  
  1225. Find this resource:
  1226.  
  1227.  
  1228. Pilgrimage and Heritage Tourism
  1229. This topic has received increasing attention since the publication of Graburn 1983. As this scholarship has shown, pilgrimage and tourism are closely related. On the one hand, pilgrimage customs have provided models for modern domestic tourism (Kato 1994), and pilgrimage sites have attracted heritage tourism (Knight 1996, Roemer 2006). On the other hand, contemporary pilgrimage and heritage tourism are closely intertwined, making it difficult to distinguish clearly between the two (Graburn 2004). In addition, nostalgia for a non-Western, premodern past has made both pilgrimage and heritage tourism very popular (Creighton 1997).
  1230.  
  1231. Creighton, Millie. “Consuming Rural Japan: The Marketing of Tradition and Nostalgia in the Japanese Travel Industry.” Ethnology 36.3 (1997): 239–254.
  1232.  
  1233. DOI: 10.2307/3773988Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1234.  
  1235. Describes the Japanese nostalgic fascination with the rural as the locus of tradition, which is seen as the antidote to modernization and Westernization. This also discusses the marketing of travel to one’s hometown (furusato) and to traditional pilgrimage sites.
  1236.  
  1237. Find this resource:
  1238.  
  1239.  
  1240. Graburn, Nelson H. H. To Pray, Pay and Play: The Cultural Structure of Japanese Domestic Tourism. Aix-en-Provence, France: Université de droit, d’économie et des sciences, Centre des hautes études touristiques, 1983.
  1241.  
  1242. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1243.  
  1244. Graburn’s classic study of the connections between tourism (kankō), sightseeing (kenbutsu), and pilgrimage in the domestic travel industry of Japan. Pays particular attention to religious heritage tourism.
  1245.  
  1246. Find this resource:
  1247.  
  1248.  
  1249. Graburn, Nelson H. H. “The Kyoto Tax Strike: Buddhism, Shinto and Tourism in Japan.” In Intersecting Journeys: The Anthropology of Pilgrimage and Tourism. Edited by Ellen Badone and Sharon R. Roseman, 125–139. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2004.
  1250.  
  1251. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1252.  
  1253. Investigates the economic aspects of contemporary heritage tourism in Kyoto. Examines the effects of the city trying to levy a tourism tax on religious institutions despite the latter’s claims that they are tax exempt as religious pilgrimage sites.
  1254.  
  1255. Find this resource:
  1256.  
  1257.  
  1258. Kato, Akinori. “Package Tour, Pilgrimages, and Pleasure Trips.” In The Electric Geisha: Exploring Japan’s Popular Culture. Edited by Atsushi Ueda, 51–59. Tokyo: Kodansha International, 1994.
  1259.  
  1260. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1261.  
  1262. Argues that early modern pilgrimage was a precursor for contemporary package tours and heritage tourism in Japan.
  1263.  
  1264. Find this resource:
  1265.  
  1266.  
  1267. Knight, John. “Competing Hospitalities in Japanese Rural Tourism.” Annals of Tourism Research 23.1 (1996): 165–180.
  1268.  
  1269. DOI: 10.1016/0160-7383(95)00055-0Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1270.  
  1271. Discusses the confluence of heritage tourism and ecotourism in the case of the contemporary Kumano Shrines. See also McGuire 2013 (cited under Ethnographic Studies) for a more recent study of Kumano as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
  1272.  
  1273. Find this resource:
  1274.  
  1275.  
  1276. Roemer, Michael. “Religious Tourism in Japan: Kyōto’s Gion Festival.” In On the Road to Being There: Studies in Pilgrimage and Tourism in Late Modernity. Edited by William H. Swatos, 187–218. Leiden, The Netherlands, and Boston: Brill, 2006.
  1277.  
  1278. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1279.  
  1280. Explores the contemporary Gion festival, which annually attracts large numbers of visitors from all over Japan, as an example of contemporary religious tourism.
  1281.  
  1282. Find this resource:
  1283.  
  1284.  
  1285. Media Portrayals of Pilgrimage and Pilgrimage Sites
  1286. Mass media have played an important role in popularizing pilgrimage and travel to religious sites. Reader 2007 and Reynolds 2001 give examples from two important pilgrimage destinations, Shikoku and Ise.
  1287.  
  1288. Reader, Ian. “Positively Promoting Pilgrimage: Media Representations of Pilgrimage in Japan.” Nova Religio: The Journal of Alternative and Emergent Religions 10.3 (2007): 13–31.
  1289.  
  1290. DOI: 10.1525/nr.2007.10.3.13Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1291.  
  1292. Discusses the positive portrayal of the pilgrimage in Japanese mass media, despite the fact that religion in general has usually been depicted negatively. Even though pilgrimage was portrayed as antimodern and superstitious in the late 19th century, in the early 20th century more positive images began to prevail as pilgrimage was linked to Japanese identity, cultural heritage, and, more recently, environmentalism.
  1293.  
  1294. Find this resource:
  1295.  
  1296.  
  1297. Reynolds, Jonathan M. “Ise Shrine and a Modernist Construction of Japanese Tradition.” The Art Bulletin 83.2 (2001): 316–341.
  1298.  
  1299. DOI: 10.2307/3177211Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1300.  
  1301. Argues that Watanabe Yoshio’s photography of the Ise Shrines in 1953 radically changed the public perception of this popular pilgrimage site. Not only did the modernist aesthetics of Watanabe’s photography remove the stigma of State Shinto, but they also unveiled the shrines in ways that pilgrims had never before seen.
  1302.  
  1303. Find this resource:
  1304.  
  1305.  
  1306. The Art and Material Culture of Pilgrimage
  1307. Pilgrimage continues to generate visual and material objects. The following works focus on the material aspects of pilgrimage in the modern era. Michael Pye’s research on ephemera and popular object has explored the material culture of contemporary pilgrimage in Japan (Pye 1987, Pye 2009). Rugola 1986 uses an art-historical approach.
  1308.  
  1309. Pye, Michael. O-meguri, Pilgerfahrt in Japan. Marburg, Germany: Universitätsbibliothek, 1987.
  1310.  
  1311. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1312.  
  1313. A catalog of material objects associated with pilgrimage in Japan, especially the Shikoku and the Kannon pilgrimage circuits. Includes maps of the pilgrimage routes, images of icons, talismans, ema tablets, and selected pages from pilgrimage booklets and hymnals.
  1314.  
  1315. Find this resource:
  1316.  
  1317.  
  1318. Pye, Michael. “Ephemera in Japanese Religion with Special Reference to Buddhist Pilgrimage.” In Scholars of Buddhism in Japan: Buddhist Studies in the 21st century: The Ninth Annual Symposium for Scholars Resident in Japan. Edited by James Baskind, 67–78. Kyoto: International Research Center for Japanese Studies, 2009.
  1319.  
  1320. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1321.  
  1322. Giving the example of pilgrimage, Pye discusses the importance of studying Japanese religions through ephemera, such as amulets and talismans, entrance tickets and fortune-telling slips, votive pilgrimage scrolls and books, and travel guides and maps.
  1323.  
  1324. Find this resource:
  1325.  
  1326.  
  1327. Rugola, Patricia. “Japanese Buddhist Art in Context: The Saikoku Kannon Pilgrimage Route.” PhD diss., The Ohio State University, 1986.
  1328.  
  1329. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1330.  
  1331. Useful encyclopedic overview of the legends, history, iconography, and temples along the Saikoku pilgrimage circuit.
  1332.  
  1333. Find this resource:
  1334.  
  1335.  
  1336. Pilgrimage and Modern Literature
  1337. Rimer 1988 discusses the travels of modern Japanese writers and artist to Europe and uses pilgrimage as a metaphor to understand cross-cultural influences in modern Japanese literature. Reader 2001a and Reader 2001b engage more closely with pilgrimage in more narrow sense.
  1338.  
  1339. Reader, Ian. “Interior Travels: Pilgrimage, Nostalgia, Identity and Quest.” In Return to Japan: From “Pilgrimage” to the West. Edited by Yoichi Nagashima, 13–32. Aarhus, Denmark: Aarhus University Press, 2001a.
  1340.  
  1341. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1342.  
  1343. Outlines the importance of nostalgia and search in pilgrimage contexts as reflected in literary writing. Examines Takamure Itsue (b. 1894–d. 1964) in particular, including her pilgrimage diary of 1918 and her later writings. Shows how her interpretations and feelings about her pilgrimage changed and how her depiction of pilgrimage became more idealized the longer she was away from the experience.
  1344.  
  1345. Find this resource:
  1346.  
  1347.  
  1348. Reader, Ian. “Reflected Meanings: Underlying Themes in the Experiences of Two Japanese Pilgrims to Europe.” In Firenze, il Giappone e l’Asia Orientale. Edited by Adriana Boscaro and Maurizio Bozzi, 121–139. Florence: Leo S. Olschi, 2001b.
  1349.  
  1350. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1351.  
  1352. Examines Japanese-Italian interactions through the experiences of two Japanese pilgrims—one a “literary” author who, in traveling in Italy, developed a sense of nostalgic romantic Japanese nationalism; the other a “religious” pilgrim who, having done numerous Japanese pilgrimages, visited Catholic shrines in Italy and found a sense of unity with Japanese ones.
  1353.  
  1354. Find this resource:
  1355.  
  1356.  
  1357. Rimer, Thomas. Pilgrimages: Aspects of Japanese Literature and Culture. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 1988.
  1358.  
  1359. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1360.  
  1361. Employs Turner’s pilgrimage theory to examine how Western culture has affected the works of modern Japanese novelists, playwrights, painters, and poets.
  1362.  
  1363. Find this resource:
  1364.  
  1365.  
  1366. Modern Pilgrimage Accounts
  1367. Though they are not scholarly analyses of pilgrimage, these travelogues are excellent teaching tools. Chamberlain and Mason 2012 is a useful primary source that provides insight into Western travel and local pilgrimage activities in late-19th-century Japan. Statler 1983 and McLachlan 1997 likewise consist of Western travelogues from the mid- and late 20th century, respectively. Takamure 2010 and Watsuji 2012, both written by leading Japanese intellectuals of the early 20th century, were among the first publications to affirm pilgrimage as compatible with modernity and the formation of a national identity.
  1368.  
  1369. Chamberlain, Basil Hall, and W. B. Mason. A Handbook for Travellers in Japan Including the Whole Empire from Saghalien to Formosa. Boston: Elibron Classics, Adamant Media, 2012.
  1370.  
  1371. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1372.  
  1373. Facsimile reprint of the 1907 edition of this classic guidebook to Japan, which was first published in 1891. Provides useful details about pilgrimage practices in the late 19th century.
  1374.  
  1375. Find this resource:
  1376.  
  1377.  
  1378. McLachlan, Craig. Tales of a Summer Henro. Tokyo: Yohan, 1997.
  1379.  
  1380. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1381.  
  1382. McLachlan’s humorous first-person account of his walking pilgrimage in 1995. While not very scholarly, the vivid account is useful for engaging undergraduate students.
  1383.  
  1384. Find this resource:
  1385.  
  1386.  
  1387. Statler, Oliver. Japanese Pilgrimage. New York: William Morrow, 1983.
  1388.  
  1389. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1390.  
  1391. A classic, semi-fictionalized study of the Shikoku circuit. It is not very scholarly, but before the publication of Ian Reader’s research, was the most influential resource in English on the pilgrimage. Based on Statler’s own walking pilgrimages around the island in 1968 and 1971.
  1392.  
  1393. Find this resource:
  1394.  
  1395.  
  1396. Takamure, Itsue. The 1918 Shikoku Pilgrimage of Takamure Itsue: An English Translation of Musume Junreiki. Translated by Susan Tennant. Bowen Island, BC: Bowen, 2010.
  1397.  
  1398. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1399.  
  1400. Translation of Takamure Itsue’s Musume junreiki, which was based on the feminist historian’s own pilgrimage along the Shikoku circuit in 1918. The account was originally serialized in 105 installments in the Kumamoto nichi nichi shinbun.
  1401.  
  1402. Find this resource:
  1403.  
  1404.  
  1405. Watsuji, Tetsurō. Pilgrimages to the Ancient Temples in Nara. Translated by Hiroshi Nara. Portland, ME: MerwinAsia, 2012.
  1406.  
  1407. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1408.  
  1409. A translation of Koji junrei (1919), Watsuji Tetsurō’s (b. 1889–d. 1960) account of his journey to famous temples in Nara Prefecture in 1918. The book was influential in the development of heritage tourism in Japan.
  1410.  
  1411. Find this resource:
  1412.  
  1413.  
  1414. Shugendō and Pilgrimage
  1415. The first modern studies of Shugendō, the tradition of mountain asceticism in Japan, were written by Japanese scholars in the 1920s and 1930s. As interest in folklore studies surged in the 1960s, several Western scholars began to study Shugendō as well. An amalgamation of Buddhist, Shinto, Daoist, and folkloric elements, Shugendō claims its origins in the 7th century with the legendary figure of En no Ozunu (also E no Ozunu, En no Shōkaku, En no Gyōja [En the Ascetic], En no Ubasoku [En the Layman]). It emerged as a full-fledged tradition in the medieval period. Shugendō is closely linked to the topic of pilgrimage as many of its anchorites (known as yamabushi or shugenja) historically engaged in religious itinerancy and have performed mountain-entry rituals to this day. This section is divided into the following subheadings: Medieval Shugendō, the Mandalization of Sacred Space, Early Modern Shugendō, and Ethnographic Studies. The following introductory studies present overviews of the tradition and are not limited to specific time periods Casal 1965 and Renondeau 1965 are examples of early surveys of the history and rituals of Shugendō. Miyake Hitoshi is one of the most important Japanese scholars of Shugendō, who has studied the tradition both from historical and folkloristic perspectives. Miyake 2001 and Miyake 2005 cover a wide range of topics related to Shugendō. Specialists are encouraged to explore his scholarship in Japanese. Bouchy 2000 and Sekimori 2009 provide a useful overview of Japanese and Western scholarship on Shugendō. Tyler and Swanson 1989 and Faure, et al. 2011 are edited volumes on Shugendō. A comparison between the two volumes demonstrates how the field has progressed since the late 1980s.
  1416.  
  1417. Bouchy, Anne. “La cascade et l’écritoire: Dynamique de l’histoire du fait religieux et de l’ethnologie du Japan—le cas du shugendō.” Bulletin de l’École Française d’Extrême-Orient 87.1 (2000): 341–366.
  1418.  
  1419. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1420.  
  1421. A useful state-of-the-field essay on Shugendō. Traces the development of Shugendō studies in Japan in the prewar and postwar periods. Contrasts the methodological approaches of Gorai Shigeru and Miyake Hitoshi.
  1422.  
  1423. Find this resource:
  1424.  
  1425.  
  1426. Casal, Ugo Alfonso. “The Yamabushi.” Mitteilungen der deutschen Gesellschaft für Natur- und Völkerkunde Ostasiens 46 (1965): 1–45.
  1427.  
  1428. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1429.  
  1430. The first English-language study of Shugendō. Casal gives a brief overview of the history and major ritual practices of Shugendō.
  1431.  
  1432. Find this resource:
  1433.  
  1434.  
  1435. Faure, Bernard, D. Max Moerman, and Gaynor Sekimori, eds. Shugendō: The History and Culture of a Japanese Religion (Cahiers d’Extrême-Asie 18). Kyoto, Japan: École française d’Extrême-Orient, Centre de Kyōto, 2011.
  1436.  
  1437. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1438.  
  1439. Excellent collection of recent essays on Shugendō by American, European, and Japanese scholars. Comprises historical, folkloristic, and anthropological approaches.
  1440.  
  1441. Find this resource:
  1442.  
  1443.  
  1444. Miyake, Hitoshi. Shugendō: Essays on the Structure of Japanese Folk Religion. Edited and with an introduction by H. Byron Earhart. Ann Arbor: Center for Japanese Studies, University of Michigan, 2001.
  1445.  
  1446. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1447.  
  1448. The first collection of essays by Miyake on the history and practices of Shugendō. Several of these essays had been previously published in English-language journals and edited volumes; others were translated from the Japanese.
  1449.  
  1450. Find this resource:
  1451.  
  1452.  
  1453. Miyake, Hitoshi. The Mandala of the Mountain: Shugendō and Folk Religion. Edited and with an introduction by Gaynor Sekimori. Tokyo: Keio University Press, 2005.
  1454.  
  1455. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1456.  
  1457. The second collection of essays by Miyake. Several of these essays had been previous published in English-language journals and edited volumes; others were translated from the Japanese.
  1458.  
  1459. Find this resource:
  1460.  
  1461.  
  1462. Renondeau, Gaston. Le Shugendō: Histoire, doctrine et rites des anchorètes dits yamabushi. Paris: Cahiers de la Société Asiatique, 1965.
  1463.  
  1464. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1465.  
  1466. The first French study of Shugendō. Covers the history of the tradition from the legendary founder En no Ozunu through the Heian into the medieval period ending with short sections on Shugendō in the early modern and modern eras. The second half of the book sums up the major rituals practiced in Shugendō, including pilgrimage.
  1467.  
  1468. Find this resource:
  1469.  
  1470.  
  1471. Sekimori, Gaynor. “Shugendō: Japanese Mountain Religion—State of the Field and Bibliographic Review.” Religion Compass 3.1 (2009): 31–57.
  1472.  
  1473. DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-8171.2008.00124.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1474.  
  1475. A useful state-of-the-field essay on Shugendō.
  1476.  
  1477. Find this resource:
  1478.  
  1479.  
  1480. Tyler, Royall, and Paul Swanson, eds. Special Issue: Shugendō and Mountain Religion in Japan. Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 16.2–3 (1989).
  1481.  
  1482. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1483.  
  1484. A collection of essays on Shugendō including topics such as art, rituals, oral lore, and lesser-known Shugendō sites such as Kōfukuji and Mt. Fuji. Examples range from the medieval to the contemporary periods.
  1485.  
  1486. Find this resource:
  1487.  
  1488.  
  1489. Medieval Shugendō
  1490. Shugendō gradually emerged in the Heian and medieval periods. Exemplified by Rotermund 1967, much of the Western scholarship on medieval Shugendō relies on literary sources. Kleine and Kohn 1999 and Keenan 1999 are translations of legends about mountain ascetics.
  1491.  
  1492. Keenan, Linda Klepinger. “En the Ascetic.” In Religions of Japan in Practice. Edited by George Tanabe, 343–353. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999.
  1493.  
  1494. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1495.  
  1496. Introduction to and translation of En no Ozunu’s hagiography from the monk Jūshin’s Shishū hyaku innen shū (One hundred cases of karmic origins, personally gathered; 1257). Includes an overview of the esotericization of En no Ozunu’s biographies from the 8th through the 13th centuries.
  1497.  
  1498. Find this resource:
  1499.  
  1500.  
  1501. Kleine, Christoph, and Livia Kohn. “Daoist Immortality and Buddhist Holiness: A Study and Translation of the Honcho shinsen-den.” Japanese Religion 24.2 (1999): 119–196.
  1502.  
  1503. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1504.  
  1505. Ōe no Masafusa’s (b. 1041–d. 1111) hagiographies of Japanese ascetics. The biographies of En no Gyōja and the nun Toran are of particular note. Previously translated into German by Hermann Bohner (“Honchō-shinsen-den.” Monumenta Nipponica 13.1–2 (1957): 129–15) and Italian by Silvio Calzolari (Il dio incatenato Honcho Shinsen Den di Oe no Masafusa. Florence: Sansoni, 1984).
  1506.  
  1507. Find this resource:
  1508.  
  1509.  
  1510. Rotermund, Hartmut O. Die Yamabushi: Aspekte ihres Glaubens, Lebens und ihrer sozialen Funktion im japanischen Mittelalter. Hamburg, Germany: Kommissionsverlag Cram, De Gruyter, 1967.
  1511.  
  1512. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1513.  
  1514. Study of medieval Shugendō. Based primarily on legends and literary sources. The chapter on Shugendō practices discusses many aspects related to pilgrimage.
  1515.  
  1516. Find this resource:
  1517.  
  1518.  
  1519. The Mandalization of Sacred Space
  1520. The premodern Shugendō tradition offers the most complex views of sacred space in Japan through its mapping of sacred texts and mandalas onto mountain sites. Allan Grapard’s research on this esoteric tradition has been groundbreaking. His earliest work on this topic focused on the Kumano-Yoshino region (Grapard 1982) but later shifted to the Kunisaki region and Mt. Hiko in Kyūshū (Grapard 1987, Grapard 1994, Grapard 1998). While Grapard stresses esoteric Buddhist mandalas (the Womb and Diamond World mandalas and Lotus Sutra mandala) as the basis for the mandalization of sacred places, Arichi 2006 explores the connections between sacred space and shrine mandalas.
  1521.  
  1522. Arichi, Meri. “Sannō Miya Mandara: The Iconography of Pure Land on This Earth.” Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 33.2 (2006): 319–347.
  1523.  
  1524. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1525.  
  1526. Study of the Sannō mandala as an example of a shrine mandala. Argues that the mandala depicted the site as an embodiment of a Buddhist Pure Land and links the image to the development of the concept of Japan as the land of the gods (shinkoku) in the medieval period.
  1527.  
  1528. Find this resource:
  1529.  
  1530.  
  1531. Grapard, Allan. “Flying Mountains and Walkers of Emptiness: Toward a Definition of Sacred Space in Japanese Religions.” History of Religions 21.3 (1982): 195–221.
  1532.  
  1533. DOI: 10.1086/462897Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1534.  
  1535. A seminal article on the mandalization of sacred space in the Shugendō tradition. Demonstrates that medieval Shugendō practitioners mapped the two mandalas of the Womb and Diamond Worlds onto the mountain ranges between Kumano and Yoshino as well as other sacred sites. The first article in a Western language to draw attention to this complex phenomenon. Republished in Einarsen 1995 (cited under Anthologies).
  1536.  
  1537. Find this resource:
  1538.  
  1539.  
  1540. Grapard, Allan. “Enmountained Text, Textualized Mountain.” In The Lotus Sūtra in Japanese Culture. Edited by George Tanabe and Willa Tanabe, 159–189. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 1987.
  1541.  
  1542. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1543.  
  1544. Analysis of the 19th-century Rokugō kaizan Ninmon Daibosatsu hongi. Examines how the Lotus Sūtra was mapped onto the Kunisaki Peninsula and the local Hachiman cult under the influence of the Shugendō tradition at Mt. Hiko. Grapard’s full translation of this text appears in “Lotus in the Mountain, Mountain in the Lotus: Rokugō Kaizan Nimmon Daibosatsu Hongi” (Monumenta Nipponica. 41.1: 21–50).
  1545.  
  1546. Find this resource:
  1547.  
  1548.  
  1549. Grapard, Allan. “Geosophia, Geognosis, and Geopiety: Orders of Significance in Japanese Representations of Space.” In NowHere: Space, Time, and Modernity. Edited by Roger Friedland and Deirdre Boden, 372–401. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994.
  1550.  
  1551. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1552.  
  1553. Posits three types of understanding sacred space exemplified by sacred mountains in Japan: geosophia, geognosis, and geopiety. Geosophia refers to the wise use of the land, whereas geognosis refers to soteriological knowledge purportedly drawn from the land, and geopiety refers to religious reverence toward the land.
  1554.  
  1555. Find this resource:
  1556.  
  1557.  
  1558. Grapard, Allan. “Geotyping Sacred Space: The Case of Mt. Hiko in Japan.” In Sacred Space: Shrine, City, Land. Edited by Benjamin Kedar and Zwi Werblowsky, 215–249. New York: New York University Press, 1998.
  1559.  
  1560. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1561.  
  1562. Examines the sacred geography of Mt. Hiko, a Shugendō site in Kyūshū. Shows how the Lotus Sutra was superimposed onto the mountain creating distinct symbolic zones at different altitudes.
  1563.  
  1564. Find this resource:
  1565.  
  1566.  
  1567. Early Modern Shugendō
  1568. Shugendō remained an important component of life in the early modern period, when many practitioners settled in villages to serve as healers and manage local temples and shrines. However, their activities as itinerants also continued. Georg Schurhammer was a German Jesuit missionary in East Asia. First published in Zeitschrift für Missionswissenschaft (1922), his essay is the first Western-language study of Shugendō (Schurhammer 1965). While Schurhammer relied exclusively on Western-language documents, Bouchy 1978 and Rotermund 1983 examine journals kept by the practitioners.
  1569.  
  1570. Bouchy, Anne Marie. “Jitsukaga: Yamabushi des premières années de Meiji et le shugendō.” Revue de l’Histoire des Religions 193.2 (1978): 187–211.
  1571.  
  1572. DOI: 10.3406/rhr.1978.6665Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1573.  
  1574. Chronicles the religious activities of Hayashi Jitsukaga (b. 1843–d. 1884), a Shugendō practitioner who committed suicide in the Nachi waterfall in Kumano. As Shugendō was suppressed in the early Meiji period, Jitsukaga engaged in rigorous pilgrimages across Japan.
  1575.  
  1576. Find this resource:
  1577.  
  1578.  
  1579. Klonos, Georgios [Clonos, George]. “Shugendō in the Tokugawa Period: Mount Ōmine as Imaginary Space and Place of Practice.” PhD diss., Stanford University, 2012.
  1580.  
  1581. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1582.  
  1583. Study of Shugendō at Mount Ōmine based on early modern sectarian records. Examines the construction of Mt. Ōmine as a sacred space through the lens of esoteric texts transmitted in the tradition.
  1584.  
  1585. Find this resource:
  1586.  
  1587.  
  1588. Rotermund, Hartmut O. Pèlerinage aux neuf sommets: Carnet de route d’un religieux itinérant dans le Japon du XIXe siècle. Paris: Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 1983.
  1589.  
  1590. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1591.  
  1592. Study of the travel journal kept by Noda Sekōin Narisuke (b. 1756–d. 1835), a Shugendō practitioner. Sheds light on pilgrimage and itinerancy during this period as well as the activities and life of early modern Shugendō practitioners.
  1593.  
  1594. Find this resource:
  1595.  
  1596.  
  1597. Schurhammer, Georg. “Die Yamabushis: Nach gedruckten und ungedruckten Berichten des 16. und 17. Jahrhunderts.” Mitteilungen der deutschen Gesellschaft für Natur- und Völkerkunde Ostasiens 46 (1965): 47–83.
  1598.  
  1599. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1600.  
  1601. Based on observations by Jesuit missionaries and the German physician Engelbert Kaempfer during the 16th and 17th centuries. Contains a substantial section on annual mountain-entry practices.
  1602.  
  1603. Find this resource:
  1604.  
  1605.  
  1606. Ethnographic Studies
  1607. Along with the revival of Shugendō in the 20th century, ethnographic scholarship on the tradition proliferated. Blacker 1975 has become a classic in this field and remains a useful, accessible introduction for novice readers. Swanson 1981, Rill 2011, McGuire 2011, and McGuire 2013 examine contemporary Shugendō practices in the Kumano-Yoshino region. Earhart 1968 and Earhart 1970 focus on the Shugendō tradition at Mt. Haguro. Blacker 1965 studies practices in both locations.
  1608.  
  1609. Blacker, Carmen. “Initiation in the Shugendo: The Passage through the Ten Stages of Existence.” In Initiation: Contributions to the Theme of the Study-Conference of the International Association for the History of Religions Held at Strasburg, September 17th to 22nd 1964. Edited by Claas Jouco Bleeker, 96–111. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1965.
  1610.  
  1611. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1612.  
  1613. Examines the ritual enactment of the ten stages at Mt. Ōmine and Mt. Haguro. Ascetics perform rituals symbolizing the ten stages of rebirth (hell, hungry ghosts, beasts, asura, humans, heavenly beings, śrāvaka, pratyekabuddha, bodhisattva, and the Buddha). Partially based on the Blacker’s fieldwork at Mt. Ōmine and Mt. Haguro.
  1614.  
  1615. Find this resource:
  1616.  
  1617.  
  1618. Blacker, Carmen. The Catalpa Bow: A Study of Shamanistic Practices in Japan. London: George Allen and Unwin, 1975.
  1619.  
  1620. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1621.  
  1622. This classic includes material on mountain ascetics and their pilgrimage practices, in particular in the Kumano-Yoshino range and at Mt. Haguro. Also gives a detailed description of practices to contact the spirits of the dead at Mt. Ontake and at Osorezan. A revised edition was published in 1986.
  1623.  
  1624. Find this resource:
  1625.  
  1626.  
  1627. Earhart, H. Byron. “The Celebration of Haru Yama (Spring Mountain): An Example of Folk Religious Practice in Japan.” Asian Folklore Studies 27.1 (1968): 1–18.
  1628.  
  1629. DOI: 10.2307/1177798Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1630.  
  1631. Study of the spring festival celebrated at Dewa Sanzan, an important Shugendō and pilgrimage site in northeastern Japan. Based on Earhart’s fieldwork in 1964. The festival includes an ascent of Mt. Yudono and Mt. Gassan.
  1632.  
  1633. Find this resource:
  1634.  
  1635.  
  1636. Earhart, H. Byron. A Religious Study of the Mount Haguro Sect of Shugendō. Tokyo: Sophia University, 1970.
  1637.  
  1638. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1639.  
  1640. The first English-language monograph on Shugendō. Contains a historical overview of the tradition and a case study of Mt. Hagurō. Partially based on Earhart’s fieldwork at Mt. Hagurō in the 1960s. Chapters 1 and 5 were previously published in abbreviated form in “Four Ritual Periods of Haguro Shugendō” (History of Religions. 5.1 (1965): 93–113).
  1641.  
  1642. Find this resource:
  1643.  
  1644.  
  1645. McGuire, Mark Patrick. “Making a Space for Hope: Representing the Creative Reinvention of Japanese Mountain Asceticism in the Documentary Shugendō Now.” CrossCurrents 61.3 (2011): 298–327.
  1646.  
  1647. DOI: 10.1111/j.1939-3881.2011.00185.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1648.  
  1649. Self-reflexive essay on visual ethnography (documentary filmmaking) to study Shugendō in the Ōmine-Kumano region.
  1650.  
  1651. Find this resource:
  1652.  
  1653.  
  1654. McGuire, Mark Patrick. “From the City to the Mountain and Back Again: Situating Contemporary Shugendō in Japanese Social and Religious Life.” PhD diss., Concordia University, 2013.
  1655.  
  1656. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1657.  
  1658. Ethnographic study of contemporary Shugendō in the Yoshino-Kumano region. Based on fieldwork in 2002–2003 and 2007. Discusses the ritual ascent to Sanjōgatake led by Tanaka Riten and eco-pilgrimage activities led by Tateishi Kōshō at Sangakurin. Also explores the implications of the region earning the status of a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2004.
  1659.  
  1660. Find this resource:
  1661.  
  1662.  
  1663. Rill, Bryan. “Shugendō: Cultivating Spiritual Power and Health in Contemporary Japan.” PhD diss., Florida State University, 2011.
  1664.  
  1665. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1666.  
  1667. Ethnographic study of contemporary Shugendō in the Ōmine-Kumano region based on participant observation and interviews conducted in 2009 and 2010. Investigates the diverse ways in which contemporary practitioners conceive and make use of spiritual power.
  1668.  
  1669. Find this resource:
  1670.  
  1671.  
  1672. Swanson, Paul. “Shugendō and the Yoshino-Kumano Pilgrimage.” Monumenta Nipponica 36.1 (1981): 55–80.
  1673.  
  1674. DOI: 10.2307/2384087Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1675.  
  1676. Based on participant observation in the mid-1970s. Describes Shugendō practices along the yearly mountain-entry pilgrimage between Yoshino and Kumano.
  1677.  
  1678. Find this resource:
  1679.  
  1680.  
  1681. New Religious Movements and Pilgrimage
  1682. The role of pilgrimage in New Religious Movements (NRMs) has not been studied extensively or systematically. Yet in some of the largest NRMs and Buddhist lay movements in Japan, pilgrimage plays a central role. Some early NRMs developed out of pilgrimage confraternities linked to specific sacred sites, first becoming sectarian Shinto groups and then independent religious organizations. Locations associated with the person of the founder and the headquarters of a movement often function as pilgrimage centers. Many of these sites are equipped with extensive facilities to house pilgrims. Other NRMs choose sites that are not related to the founding of the movement but express their organization’s ideological stance. Written by one of Japan’s foremost scholars of new religious movements, Inoue 2000 offers a useful introduction to the topic of pilgrimage in the new religions.
  1683.  
  1684. Inoue, Nobutaka. “From Religious Conformity to Innovation: New Ideas of Religious Journey and Holy Places.” Social Compass 47.1 (2000): 21–32.
  1685.  
  1686. DOI: 10.1177/003776800047001004Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1687.  
  1688. Examines how the concept of pilgrimage has changed in modern and contemporary Japan, particularly in NRMs. Addresses not only the secularization of traditional pilgrimages but also the expansion of the concept to include inner journeys, new pilgrimage destinations, and virtual sacred space.
  1689.  
  1690. Find this resource:
  1691.  
  1692.  
  1693. Pilgrimage Confraternities
  1694. The earliest groups that resembled NRMs in the late Edo and the Meiji periods were linked to sacred mountains that were famous pilgrimage destinations, such as Mt. Fuji (Earhart 2011, Sawada 1998, Miyazaki 1990) and Mt. Ontake (Akaike 1981).
  1695.  
  1696. Akaike, Noriaki. “The Ontake Cult Associations and Local Society: The Case of the Owari-Mikawa Region in Central Japan.” Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 8.1–2 (1981): 51–81.
  1697.  
  1698. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1699.  
  1700. Discusses Ontake pilgrimage associations linked to Kiso Ontake Honkyō, Ontakekyō, and other independent groups.
  1701.  
  1702. Find this resource:
  1703.  
  1704.  
  1705. Earhart, H. Byron. Mount Fuji: Icon of Japan. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2011.
  1706.  
  1707. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1708.  
  1709. Traces the historical development of the Fuji cult. Covers Fuji confraternities and several NRMs including Fujidō, Maruyamakyō, and Gedatsukai.
  1710.  
  1711. Find this resource:
  1712.  
  1713.  
  1714. Miyazaki, Fumiko. “The Formation of Emperor Worship in the New Religions: The Case of Fujidō.” Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 17.2–3 (1990): 281–314.
  1715.  
  1716. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1717.  
  1718. Study of the teachings of Fujidō, an NRM that grew out of Fuji pilgrimage confraternities, and its inherent nativism and adaptations to State Shinto doctrines during the early Meiji period.
  1719.  
  1720. Find this resource:
  1721.  
  1722.  
  1723. Sawada, Janine. “Mind and Morality in Nineteenth-Century Japanese Religions: Misogi-kyō and Maruyama-kyō.” Philosophy East and West 48.1 (1998): 108–141.
  1724.  
  1725. DOI: 10.2307/1399927Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1726.  
  1727. The second half of the article deals with Maruyamakyō, an NRM that grew out of a Fuji pilgrimage confraternity and was founded by Itō Rokurōbei (b. 1829–d. 1894).
  1728.  
  1729. Find this resource:
  1730.  
  1731.  
  1732. Tenrikyō and Returning to Ojiba
  1733. In Tenrikyō, followers are encouraged to visit the headquarters in Tenri City, Nara Prefecture. The site, known as Ojiba to followers, is simultaneously associated with the person of the foundress, Nakayama Miki (b. 1798–d. 1887) and regarded as the location of humanity’s creation. Pilgrimage to Ojiba is known as Ojibagaeri (return to Ojiba), since the site is conceived as the home of all humans. The headquarters in Tenri City features the Oyasato Yakata, a large, square complex of buildings partially dedicated to housing pilgrims. Pilgrims visit Ojiba year-round, but annual services commemorating events in the life of the foundress tend to draw especially large numbers of followers (both from domestic and international branches). Tenrikyō also organizes a yearly Children’s Pilgrimage—part religious pilgrimage, part summer camp. Although pilgrimage plays such a central role in Tenrikyō, the subject has not been extensively explored by scholars of Japanese religions. Existing publications were produced by sectarian scholars (Kaneko 1967, Mori 1986) or published by the sectarian press (Ellwood 1982).
  1734.  
  1735. Ellwood, Robert S. Tenrikyo: A Pilgrimage Faith. Tenri, Japan: Tenri University Press, 1982.
  1736.  
  1737. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1738.  
  1739. Despite the book’s subtitle, it does not focus on the particulars of pilgrimage in Tenrikyō but contains much information related to the background of the pilgrimage to the main sanctuary and the shrine to the foundress.
  1740.  
  1741. Find this resource:
  1742.  
  1743.  
  1744. Kaneko, Keisuke. “On the Returning Home to ‘Jiba’: An Aspect of the Pilgrimage through Shrines and Temples in Yamato during the Meiji Era.” Tenri Journal of Religion 8 (1967): 14–27.
  1745.  
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  1747.  
  1748. In order to demonstrate the development of Ojibagaeri, Kaneko chronicles the formation of Tenrikyō pilgrimage confraternities in the Meiji period. Written from a sectarian perspective, but still contains valuable information.
  1749.  
  1750. Find this resource:
  1751.  
  1752.  
  1753. Mori, Susumu. “A Study of Three Pilgrimages in Japan.” Tenri Journal of Religion 20 (1986): 79–166.
  1754.  
  1755. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1756.  
  1757. Mori compares Ojibagaeri to the pilgrimages along the Shikoku circuit and the Saikoku Kannon circuit in terms of their religious, social, and geographic dimensions. Written from a sectarian perspective, but still contains valuable information.
  1758.  
  1759. Find this resource:
  1760.  
  1761.  
  1762. Pilgrimage as an Expression of Nationalism in Gedatsukai
  1763. Gedatsukai, founded in 1928 by Okano Eizō, incorporates elements of mountain asceticism. The movement promotes various pilgrimages to express its nationalistic tendencies and to honor its founder. Earhart 1989 remains the only extensive Western study on this movement.
  1764.  
  1765. Earhart, H. Byron. “Ritual Life: The Round of Religious Activities in Gedatsu-kai.” In Gedatsu-kai and Religion in Contemporary Japan: Returning to the Center. By H. Byron Earhart, 170–222. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1989.
  1766.  
  1767. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1768.  
  1769. Shows that Gedatsukai promotes pilgrimage to the Three Holy Sites (sanseichi junpai)—Sennyūji, the Ise Shrines, and the Kashihara Shrine, which are all linked to the Imperial Household—and to various sacred sites in the Kantō and Tōkai regions that are connected with the founder.
  1770.  
  1771. Find this resource:
  1772.  
  1773.  
  1774. Buddhist Lay Movements and Pilgrimage
  1775. Pilgrimage to an NRM’s headquarters or sites linked to its founders functions to express the self-identity of the organization. The following works focus on two Nichiren-derived Buddhist lay movements, Reiyūkai (Hardacre 1983) and Sōka Gakkai (McLaughlin 2009).
  1776.  
  1777. Hardacre, Helen. Lay Buddhism in Contemporary Japan. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1983.
  1778.  
  1779. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1780.  
  1781. Not focused exclusively on pilgrimage in Reiyūkai, but chapter 2 contains a useful discussion on pilgrimage to three important Reiyūkai sites: Mirokusan (the location of the tomb of founder), Shichimensan (a site linked to Nichiren), and the Shakaden at the movement’s headquarters in Tokyo.
  1782.  
  1783. Find this resource:
  1784.  
  1785.  
  1786. McLaughlin, Levi. “Sōka Gakkai in Japan.” PhD diss., Princeton University, 2009.
  1787.  
  1788. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1789.  
  1790. Covers the shift from Taisekiji to the Gakkai headquarters in Shinanomachi as a result of Sōka Gakkai’s split from Nichiren Shōshū. Also highlights the importance of the pilgrimage to the headquarters in Shinanomachi for female devotees in the Married Women’s Division, who seek to deepen their connection with Ikeda Daisaku.
  1791.  
  1792. Find this resource:
  1793.  
  1794.  
  1795. Documentary Films
  1796. Since the 1990s, a good number of documentaries on pilgrimage in Japan have appeared that constitute a valuable resource for teaching. Unless noted otherwise, the documentaries are in English. The documentaries deal with the Shikoku Circuit or with Shugendō and Sacred Mountains.
  1797.  
  1798. The Shikoku Circuit
  1799. These films chronicle the modern pilgrimage in Shikoku. Despite the majority of bus pilgrims, walking pilgrims tend to be given more attention. Though quite dated, Statler 1990 provides useful footage on the Shikoku circuit in the 1970s. Hershfield and Lloyd 1992 and Mendel, et al. 2008 are probably more accessible for contemporary undergraduates.
  1800.  
  1801. Hershfield, Joanne, and Susan Carperna Lloyd, dirs. Between Two Worlds: A Japanese Pilgrimage. VHS. Berkeley: University of California Extension Center for Media and Independent Learning, 1992.
  1802.  
  1803. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1804.  
  1805. On the pilgrimage of the eighty-eight sacred places of Shikoku. Thirty minutes.
  1806.  
  1807. Find this resource:
  1808.  
  1809.  
  1810. Mendel, Tommi, Atsuko Toda, and Kōichi Osada, dirs. Arukihenro: Walking Pilgrims. DVD. Watertown, MA: Documentary Educational Resources, 2008.
  1811.  
  1812. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1813.  
  1814. On walking pilgrims along the circuit of the eighty-eight sacred places of Shikoku. Seventy-three minutes. In Japanese with English subtitles.
  1815.  
  1816. Find this resource:
  1817.  
  1818.  
  1819. Statler, Oliver, dir. Japanese Pilgrimage: The Pilgrimage to the Eighty-Eight Sacred Places of Shikoku. VHS. Honolulu, HI: Veda Film, 1990.
  1820.  
  1821. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1822.  
  1823. Written and narrated by Oliver Statler, this film documents the pilgrimage of the eighty-eight sacred places of Shikoku. Based on Statler’s pilgrimage in the early 1970s. Thirty minutes.
  1824.  
  1825. Find this resource:
  1826.  
  1827.  
  1828. Shugendō and Sacred Mountains
  1829. Plath 2006 and Roth and Roth 2009 are based on historical visual and literary materials related to the Kumano-Yoshino region, while the other documentaries are more ethnographically based. These films document pilgrimage practices by Shugendō ascetics, kaihōgyō practitioners, and pilgrimage confraternities at sites such as Mt. Fuji (Earhart 1990), Mt. Hiei (Hayden 2002, Simkin 2005), Mt. Ōmine (McGuire and Abela 2011), and Ōyama (Ambros 2004).
  1830.  
  1831. Ambros, Barbara, dir. Opening the Gates to Heaven. Tokyo, 2004.
  1832.  
  1833. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1834.  
  1835. Documentary on the pilgrimage of the Ohana confraternity to Ōyama for the mountain opening (yamabiraki) during the summer festival in 2000. Thirty minutes. Distributed by the filmmaker.
  1836.  
  1837. Find this resource:
  1838.  
  1839.  
  1840. Earhart, H. Byron, dir. Fuji: Sacred Mountain of Japan. VHS. Kalamazoo, MI: Western Michigan University, 1990.
  1841.  
  1842. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1843.  
  1844. Documentary on Mt. Fuji as a cultural symbol and pilgrimage site. Shows the mountain and the activities of Fuji pilgrimage confraternities. Twenty-seven minutes. Re-released by the University of Hawai’i Press.
  1845.  
  1846. Find this resource:
  1847.  
  1848.  
  1849. Hayden, Christopher, dir. The Marathon Monks of Mount Hiei, 1993. DVD. Watertown, MA: Documentary Educational Resources, 2002.
  1850.  
  1851. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1852.  
  1853. Hayden’s documentary chronicles the activities of Tanno Kakudō, a contemporary 1,000-day kaihōgyō practitioner on Mt. Hiei. Fifty-seven minutes.
  1854.  
  1855. Find this resource:
  1856.  
  1857.  
  1858. McGuire, Mark, and Jean-Marc Abela, dirs. Shugendo Now, 2009. DVD. Montreal: Empower Pictures, 2011.
  1859.  
  1860. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1861.  
  1862. Documentary on the Shugendō Lotus Ascent to Sanjōgatake on Mt. Ōmine and the activities of the Shugendō practitioner Tateishi Kōshō at his temple Sangakurin. Ninety-one minutes. Available in English, Japanese, French, and Spanish. Also available as a re-edited classroom version in which the Lotus Ascent and the activities at Sangakurin are presented in two separate 45-minute films.
  1863.  
  1864. Find this resource:
  1865.  
  1866.  
  1867. Plath, David, dir. Preaching from Pictures: A Japanese Mandala, 2002. DVD. Champaign, IL: Asian Educational Media Service, 2006.
  1868.  
  1869. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1870.  
  1871. Based on a Japanese documentary by the National Museum of Japanese History, this film explains the Kumano kanjin jikkai mandala, an image used for preaching by the early modern Kumano bikuni. Thirty-seven minutes. Special features include an interactive glossary and image galleries; commentaries by scholars of Japanese religion and history; and an etoki sermon on the image, adapted from a 17th-century Japanese puppet play.
  1872.  
  1873. Find this resource:
  1874.  
  1875.  
  1876. Roth, Carina, and Sandra Roth, dirs. Là où les montagnes volent/Where Mountains Fly. Geneva, Switzerland: Umeda Productions, 2009.
  1877.  
  1878. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1879.  
  1880. Based on the 13th-century text of the Shōzan engi, this documentary explores pilgrimage rituals in the Shugendō tradition of the Yoshino-Kumano region. Sixty minutes. In French and Japanese with optional English, French, and Japanese subtitles.
  1881.  
  1882. Find this resource:
  1883.  
  1884.  
  1885. Simkin, Mark, dir. Marathon Monks, 2004. DVD. New York: Filmakers Library, 2005.
  1886.  
  1887. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1888.  
  1889. Originally broadcast by Australian Broadcasting Corporation in 2004, this documentary chronicles the activities of Fujinami Genshin, a contemporary 1,000-day kaihōgyō practitioner on Mt. Hiei. Twenty minutes.
  1890.  
  1891. Find this resource:
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