Antwerp

Introduction

From the late 15th century onward, the city of Antwerp experienced an enormous demographic and economic expansion and became the commercial metropolis of the West par excellence. Merchants from Portugal, Spain, England, Germany, and other parts of Europe settled in Antwerp and gave the city a cosmopolitan character. The rapid economic growth had far reaching consequences for the city’s social and cultural life. A limited number of merchants and bankers realized big fortunes and caused a highly polarized wealth structure. At the same time, the increasing prosperity created opportunities for a broad social middle group. The economic expansion greatly stimulated cultural and artistic activities. Foreigners visiting Antwerp were struck by the elaborated and laicized school system. The book printing industry boomed too, giving Antwerp a dominant position in the Low Countries. A similar evolution happened in the realm of the arts. A contemporary observed that the best artists moved to Antwerp and commented that “art prefers to be with abundance.” The cosmopolitan character of the city, the availability of books, and the high level of schooling created an openness and a critical attitude in religious matters and contributed to the rise of Protestantism. Furthermore, from 1566 onward Antwerp played a key role in the Netherlandish, or Dutch, Revolt. In 1585, however, rebellious Antwerp surrendered to the besieging Spanish army and quickly became a stronghold of the Counter-Reformation. The closure of the Scheldt River to navigation after 1585 notwithstanding, the Antwerp economy experienced an Indian summer in the first half of the 17th century thanks to the integration of commerce into the Iberian trade system. Furthermore, art production highly profited from the construction and redecoration of churches, turning Antwerp into an international center of baroque art. The history of Antwerp’s so-called Golden Age generated much historical research. While a focus on the economic and social aspects characterized the 1960s and 1970s, the history of art and culture has drawn considerable attention in the years since then.

General Overviews

Two volumes with a collection of articles, covering all aspects of Antwerp’s long 16th century, offer an excellent starting point for further research. Antwerpen in de XVIde eeuw (Genootschap voor Antwerpse Geschiedenis 1975) summarizes research up to the early 1970s, while van der Stock 1993 contains a limited number of overview articles and focuses more on how the Antwerp metropolis was represented in contemporary art and literature. Antwerpen in de XVIIde eeuw (Genootschap voor Antwerpse Geschiedenis 1989) is a chronological sequel to Antwerpen in de XVIde eeuw, the collection on the 16th century. Placing the Antwerp metropolis in a comparative perspective offers an interesting approach to study the city. Burke 1993 applies a broad approach, including European and Asian cities, while O’Brien 2001 compares the successive golden ages of Antwerp, Amsterdam, and London. Voet 1973 offers a classic and still valuable single-authored overview.

Burke, Peter. Antwerp, a Metropolis in Comparative Perspective. Ghent: Martial & Snoeck, 1993.
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A concise book that compares the Antwerp metropolis with other major European cities, particularly with regard to three activities: painting, performance, and printing. A last chapter broadens the horizon and compares Antwerp with three Asian cities.
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Genootschap voor Antwerpse Geschiedenis. Antwerpen in de XVIde eeuw. Antwerp: Mercurius, 1975.
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Contains overview articles dealing with all aspects of Antwerp in the 16th century. Most especially, the articles dealing with the social and economic aspects, all written by leading experts, are still valuable.
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Genootschap voor Antwerpse Geschiedenis. Antwerpen in de XVIIde eeuw. Antwerp: Genootschap voor Antwerpse Geschiedenis, 1989.
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Follows the same concept as the previous title although several articles do not offer a general overview but focus on specific topics or aspects of 17th-century Antwerp.
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O’Brien, Patrick, eds. Urban Achievement in Early Modern Europe: Golden Ages in Antwerp, Amsterdam and London. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2001.
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Compares the major urban achievements or realizations of three important mercantile cities in five domains: economy, architecture, fine and decorative arts, book publishing, and scientific knowledge. For each domain, there are separate chapters for each city. A conclusion, connecting the insights cited in the articles, is missing.
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van der Stock, Jan, ed. Antwerp: Story of a Metropolis, 16th–17th centuries. Antwerp: Snoeck-Ducaju & Zoon, 1993.
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In this splendidly illustrated exhibition catalogue a rich variety of material objects evokes the diverse achievements of Antwerp and reveals at the same time how the city was represented in contemporary art and literature. The excellent introductory chapters written by leading experts put the items of the catalogue in a broader perspective. A useful and tangible introduction for both historians and art historians.
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Voet, Leon. Antwerp the Golden Age: The Rise and Glory of the Metropolis in the Sixteenth Century. Antwerp: Mercatorfonds, 1973.
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A somewhat dated but still very informative narrative of Antwerp’s golden age written by the former curator of the Plantin-Moretus Museum. The economic, political, intellectual, and cultural developments are especially well covered.
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Archives and Published Sources

Many sources kept by the Antwerp city administration were destroyed by the Spanish Fury, the sack of Antwerp by mutinous Spanish soldiers in November 1576. Yet, the Antwerp city archives, now kept at the spacious Felix Archief, are still a rich resource and indispensable for those undertaking original research on Antwerp’s long 16th century. Antwerpsch Archievenblad (Stadsarchief te Antwerpen 1864–1893) is a huge collection of published sources, mostly conserved at the FelixArchief, while de Longé 1870–1874 contains the various editions of the Antwerp costuimen. Antwerpsch chronykje and van Roosbroeck 1928–1933 are important 16th-century chronicles. Guicciardini 1567 and Scribani 1610 are contemporary chorographies that contain ample information on Antwerp’s Golden Age, the latter from a distinct Counter-Reformation perspective.

Antwerpsch chronykje. Leiden, The Netherlands: Pieter vander Eyk, 1743.
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A chronicle written by a moderate Antwerp Catholic covering the period 1500–1574, with a focus on the years 1566–1574.
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de Longé, G., ed. Coutumes de la ville d’Anvers. 4 vols. Brussels: Gobbaerts, 1870–1874.
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The Antwerp costuimen, or costumary laws, reveal many aspects of public and private life. Most editions date from the 16th century.
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Felix Archief, Antwerp.
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In 2006 the Antwerp city archives moved to the FelixArchief, a former warehouse. Most inventories of the collections pertaining to the early modern period are now accessible at the website of the Felixarchief and documents can be digitally ordered in advance. The FelixArchief keeps not only documents produced by the city administration, but also private archives and collections.
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Guicciardini, Ludovico.Descrittione di tutti i Paesi Bassi altrimenti detti Germania Inferiore. Antwerp: Willem Silvius, 1567.
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In his description of the Low Countries the Florentine merchant Ludovico Guicciardini paid ample attention to Antwerp, the city where he spent most of his life. The section on Antwerp contains valuable information on the city’s economic, cultural, and artistic life and on the civic regiment. It also includes contemporary descriptions of the important civil and ecclesiastical buildings.
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Scribani, Carolus. Origines Antverpiensium. Antwerp: Jan Moretus, 1610.
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The Jesuit Scribani highlights the Christian origins of the city and offers detailed information on architectural highlights and economic life, including statistical data.
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Stadsarchief te Antwerpen. Antwerpsch Archievenblad. First series. 30 vols. Antwerp: Van Merlen (etc.), 1864–1893.
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See also the second series, 9 vols. (Antwerp: Van Merlen (etc.): 1926–1934). An annual publication by the Antwerp city archives containing published sources related to the history of Antwerp. The majority of the published documents date from the 16th century with a special focus on the religious troubles and the Netherlandish Revolt.
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van Roosbroeck, Robert, ed. De kroniek van Godevaert van Haecht over de troebelen van 1565 to 1574 te Antwerpen en elders. 2 vols. Antwerp: Genootschap voor Antwerpsche Geschiedenis, 1928–1933.
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A vivid account of the political and religious troubles of 1565–1574 written by Godevaert van Haecht, a moderate Lutheran.
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Journals

Historiant: Jaarboek voor Antwerpse geschiedenis is the only journal covering all aspects of Antwerp history. De Gulden Passer is an indispensable tool for everyone who wants to be informed about the world of book printing and book trade.

De Gulden Passer: Tijdschrift voor boekwetenschap. 1923–.
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This biannual journal published by the Antwerp Bibliophile Society is devoted to the history of the book in the Low Countries. There is, however, a strong focus on the development of the book printing and book trade in Antwerp and on the era of the Renaissance and Reformation. With a good book review section.
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Historiant: Jaarboek voor Antwerpse geschiedenis. 2013–.
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This journal aims to offer articles covering all aspects and periods of Antwerp history. It also contains a brief overview of current research and reports with news from Antwerp archives, libraries, and museums.
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Economic Growth and Decline

The rapid growth and the successive decline of the Antwerp metropolis was and still is a fascinating research topic for economic historians. The commercial expansion of the city, the role of foreign and indigenous merchants, the industrial growth, and the demographic explosion are all elements of an interconnected development. Van der Wee 1963 offers a masterly analysis and explanation of the rise and decline of the Antwerp market. Suykens, et al. 1986 contains a well-documented overview of the development of the Antwerp port. Research on other important European cities has made clear that growing urban economies had a serious impact on their rural surroundings. In this regard, Limberger 2008 fills an important gap. That the intense economic and demographic growth had a profound influence upon the urban topography is highlighted in Voet, et al. 1978. Van Roey 1975 offers an overview of Antwerp’s demographic development.

Limberger, Michael. Sixteenth Century Antwerp and Its Rural Surroundings: Social and Economic Changes in the Hinterland of a Commercial Metropolis, ca. 1450–1570. Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols, 2008.
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Examines the influence of the growing metropolis on the surrounding countryside. Pays special attention to the impact on the rural economy, agrarian system, and rural demography. A welcome study based on solid archival research.
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Suykens, F., G. Asaert, A. Thijs, K. Verachtert, and A. de Vos. Antwerp: A Port for All Seasons. Antwerp: MIM, 1986.
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Examines the growth and decline of the Antwerp market through the prism of the development of its port on the Scheldt River. Gustaaf Asaert wrote an extensive chapter on the pre-1585 period and Alfons Thijs one on the long 17th century. They both combine results of previous research with own archival research.
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van der Wee, Herman. The Growth of the Antwerp Market and the European Economy, Fourteenth–Sixteenth Centuries. 3 vols. The Hague: Nijhoff, 1963.
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Based on massive archival research, van der Wee presents a long-term analysis of the growth of the Antwerp market and succeeds in integrating the Antwerp case into a wider Brabantine, Netherlandish, and European context. This masterpiece of quantitative long-term economic history is still, more than half a century later, indispensable for everyone studying the economic development of late medieval and 16th-century Antwerp.
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van Roey, Jan. “De bevolking.” In Antwerpen in de XVIde eeuw. By Genootschap voor Antwerpse Geschiedenis, 95–108. Antwerp: Mercurius, 1975.
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Reconstructs the demographic explosion and the subsequent sharp decline of Antwerp’s population in the 16th century.
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Voet, Leon, Gustaaf Asaert, Hugo Soly, Adriaan Verhulst, Francine de Nave, and Jan van Roey. De stad Antwerpen van de Romeinse tijd tot de 17de eeuw: Topografische studie rond het plan Virgilius Bononiensis 1565. Brussels: Gemeentekrediet van België, 1978.
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Four leading historians examine the development of urban topography in successive chronological chapters. The chapter on the Antwerp “megalopolis” by Hugo Soly makes clear how the explosive demographic and economic growth affected the existing urban space, leading to the creation of many new streets and much commercial infrastructure. The reproduction of the detailed Virgilius Bononiensis city plan (1565) with an accompanying street index is an extremely useful practical tool.
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Commerce

Antwerp’s rise as Europe’s great commercial entrepôt is a story of foreign and indigenous merchants and of commercial networks and old and new techniques. Gelderblom 2013 studies the successive rise of Bruges, Antwerp, and Amsterdam and situates the growth of these commercial cities within recent international debates. Brulez 1975 offers an excellent overview of 16th-century Antwerp. The contribution of “foreign” and “indigenous” merchants to Antwerp’s ascendancy has sparked much research. Harreld 2004 is the first monograph on the role of the German merchants, while Brulez 1959 is an excellent case study on a leading Flemish merchant company. After 1585, Flemish merchants continued to play an important role in the city’s international trade and contributed to an indian summer in Antwerp’s commercial welfare, as Baetens 1976 makes clear.

Baetens, Roland. De nazomer van Antwerpens welvaart: De diaspora en het handelshuis De Groote tijdens de eerste helft der 17de eeuw. 2 vols. Brussels: Gemeentekrediet van België, 1976.
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The Dutch Revolt and especially the fall of Antwerp in 1585 seriously weakened Antwerp’s international trade. Yet, in spite of the blockade of the Scheldt River indigenous Antwerp merchants continued their activities and profited from the networks set up by relatives and friends who had fled Antwerp and resided in other European trade cities. The De Groote company, thoroughly studied by Baetens, constitutes a remarkable illustration of this trend.
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Brulez, Wilfrid. De firma Della Faille en de internationale handel van Vlaamse firma’s in de 16de eeuw. Brussels: Paleis der Academiën, 1959.
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From the 1540s onward indigenous merchants played an increasing role in Antwerp’s trade. Brulez offers an outstanding study of the Della Faille’s, one of the leading indigenous trading companies.
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Brulez, Wilfrid. “De handel.” In Antwerpen in de XVIde eeuw. By Genootschap voor Antwerpse Geschiedenis, 109–142. Antwerp: Mercurius, 1975.
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Gives a still useful overview of the important aspects of Antwerp’s trade: the global trend, volume and value, contribution of different merchant groups, and techniques related to money and credit.
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Gelderblom, Oscar. Cities of Commerce: The Institutional Foundations of International Trade in the Low Countries, 1250–1650. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2013.
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Emphasizes the role of urban rivalry and the institutional aspects of trade and offers an interesting comparative perspective. An excellent starting point for those who seek to place the Antwerp evidence in a broader framework and to acquire an understanding of recent debates on international trade.
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Harreld, Donald J. High Germans in the Low Countries: German Merchants and Commerce in Golden Age Antwerp. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2004.
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Several monographs deal with foreign merchant groups in 16th-century Antwerp, but this is the only one in English and, at the same time, the most recently written. Harreld examines the role of the “German” merchants in the commercial life of Antwerp and the place of Antwerp in the commercial networks set up by German merchants. The focus is on merchants from German cities such as Augsburg and Nuremberg.
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Industry

Antwerp’s commercial expansion stimulated existing industries and attracted several new ones. Throughout the 16th century industrial activities were influenced to a large extent by the global commercial evolution. Soly 1975 examines the impact of commercial capitalism upon the development of existing and new industrial branches. Thijs 1987 offers a thorough study of the dominating textile industry.

Soly, Hugo. “Nijverheid en kapitalisme te Antwerpen in de 16e eeuw.” In Album aangeboden aan Charles Verlinden ter gelegenheid van zijn dertig jaar professoraat. By Hugo Soly, Jan Craeybeckx, Sigfried J. de Laet, et al., 331–352. Ghent, Belgium: Universa, 1975.
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Gives valuable information on several industrial branches in 16th-century Antwerp. He argues that big capitalistic enterprises remained relatively rare in the main industrial branches, mainly textiles and the building industry. At the same time, rich merchants acquired a dominating influence.
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Thijs, Alfons K. L. Van “werkwinkel” tot “fabriek”: De textielnijverheid te Antwerpen, einde 15de–begin 19de eeuw. Brussels: Gemeentekrediet, 1987.
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An extremely well documented study on the diverse textile industry from the late 15th until the early 19th centuries. Essential reading for acquiring an understanding of the important developments in the 16th century.
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Social Relations

The enormous economic and demographic growth that Antwerp experienced within a short time span had far reaching consequences for the city’s social fabric. The presence of a small group of extremely wealthy merchants and bankers, the confluence of thousands of immigrants with an often modest background, and the very uneven distribution of wealth put social relations under pressure. Scholliers 1960 is a pioneering work on the evolution of the living standard in the 15th and 16th centuries. Soly 1970 draws attention to the important social middle class, while Soly 1997 highlights how the economic transformation of early modern Antwerp influenced the city’s social policy and health care. Soly 1977 examines the impact of commercial capitalism upon urban planning. Kint 1996 encompasses all social groups and examines how Antwerp’s inhabitants created and maintained social order during Antwerp’s Golden Age.

Kint, An M. “The Community of Commerce: Social Relations in Sixteenth-Century Antwerp.” PhD diss., Columbia University, 1996.
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Analyzes elements of tension and elements of unity within Antwerp society. Kint argues that new social networks, a broad political participation, and an awareness to form a community bound together by commerce succeeded in holding Antwerpers together. This dissertation is a good starting point for those who seek to study Antwerp society in the long 16th century.
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Scholliers, E. Loonarbeid en honger: De levensstandaard in de XVe en XVIe eeuw te Antwerpen. Antwerp: De Sikkel, 1960.
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Focuses on the long-term evolution of prices and wages—two essential elements for reconstruction of the living standard. Wages showed a trend to increasingly rise, but usually they lagged behind rising prices, particularly the vital grain prices.
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Soly, Hugo. “Economische vernieuwing en sociale weerstand: De betekenis en aspiraties der Antwerpse middenklasse in de 16e eeuw.” Tijdschrift voor Geschiedenis 83 (1970): 520–535.
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An in-depth analysis of a social rebellion that took place in Antwerp in 1554. Soly points to the existence of an urban middle class comprising small entrepreneurs, merchants, and master artisans, which articulated a specific social program.
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Soly, Hugo. Urbanisme en kapitalisme te Antwerpen in de 16de eeuw: De stedebouwkundige en industriële ondernemingen van Gilbert van Schoonbeke. Brussels: Gemeentekrediet van België, 1977.
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The well-documented case of the Antwerp entrepreneur Gilbert van Schoonbeke shows how in the middle of the 16th century the building of a new economic infrastructure and the creation of new streets was realized through large-scale speculation on immovable property. A superb study.
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Soly, Hugo. “Continuity and Change: Attitudes towards Poor Relief and Health Care in Early Modern Antwerp.” In Health Care and Poor Relief in Protestant Europe, 1500–1700. Edited by Ole Peter Grell and Andrew Cunningham, 84–107. London: Routledge, 1997.
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Offers an excellent overview of how poor relief was organized and explains how the Antwerp city government and the poor relief institutions brought their social policy in line with the changing economic and religious circumstances.
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City Government and Politics

The Antwerp city government, in particular the magistracy (magistraat), which was responsible for the day-to-day administration of the city, was dominated by a relatively small elite of often related patrician families. One of the striking features was the merchant’s small share in the magistracy—they were even absent among the limited group of top politicians. The Antwerp city fathers tried to conduct a policy that protected the economic interests and the relative autonomy of their mighty metropolis. They had, however, to face the centralizing forces of Charles V and Philip II. In the period of the Dutch Revolt the relationship between city and central government came under increasing pressure, culminating in the rebellious intermezzo of the Calvinist Republic (1577–1585). Wouters 2004 analyzes the power relationships within the magistracy during the first half of the 16th century. Wells 1982 explores the relationship between Philip II and the Antwerp city government during the first stage of his reign (1555–1567). Van Roosbroeck 1930 offers a detailed analysis of the political and religious developments during the so-called Wonderjaar (Wonderyear). Prims 1942–1943 is an extensive study on the Calvinist Republic, while Marnef 2010 focuses on the process of political change during this rebellious period. Thøfner 2007 examines how the Dutch Revolt transformed the nature of urban ceremonial.

Marnef, Guido. “The Process of Political Change under the Calvinist Republic in Antwerp, 1577–1585.” In Des villes en révolte: Les “Républiques urbaines” aux Pays-Bas et en France pendant la deuxième moitié du XVIe siècle. Edited by Monique Weis, 25–33. Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols, 2010.
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Shows how the Calvinists gradually took over the various levels of the Antwerp city government during the Calvinist Republic.
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Prims, Floris. De groote cultuurstrijd. 2 vols. Antwerp: Standaard Boekhandel, 1942–1943.
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Contains a detailed chronological narrative of political and religious events during the Calvinist Republic. Still valuable although some major deficiencies are found: there are no systematic references to the sources and Prims displays a partisan, Catholic perspective.
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Thøfner, Margit. A Common Art: Urban Ceremonial in Antwerp and Brussels during and after the Dutch Revolt. Zwolle, The Netherlands: Waanders, 2007.
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Thøfner sees urban ceremonials as civic acts of self-presentation. She examines how the political and religious tensions transformed these ceremonials in Antwerp and Brussels in the period 1566–1633 and shows how the Habsburg overlords had a growing impact from 1598 onward.
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van Roosbroeck, Rob. Het Wonderjaar te Antwerpen, 1566–1567: Inleiding tot de studie der godsdienstonlusten te Antwerpen van 1566 tot 1585. Antwerp: De Sikkel, 1930.
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A detailed analysis of the political and religious developments during the Wonderyear, based on solid archival research.
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Wells, Guy Edward. “Antwerp and the Government of Philip II, 1555–1567.” PhD diss., Cornell University, 1982.
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A systematic and careful analysis of the growing tensions between Philip II and the Antwerp metropolis until the end of the Wonderyear. Pays ample attention to the important political and religious issues and to the economic context.
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Wouters, Koen. “Een open oligarchie? De machtsstructuur in de Antwerpse magistraat tijdens de periode 1520–1555.” Belgisch Tijdschrift voor Filologie en Geschiedenis 82 (2004): 905–934.
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Explains the mechanisms of the annual renewal of the magistracy and reconstructs the real power relationships within this important political body. Wouters typifies the system as an open elite: there was a small and mutually related elite that left room for some mobility.
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Culture

The presence of a wealthy elite and a prosperous urban middle class and the opportunities provided by a cosmopolitan metropolis created important stimuli for cultural life. That schooling, book printing, and literature thrived was, in fact, closely connected to the general economic context, as is clear from research undertaken during recent decades.

Schooling

Antwerp’s role as a metropolis of trade created specific requirements in training and education. A growing number of private schools offered not only basic teaching in reading and writing, but also, in several cases, more advanced skills such as foreign languages and bookkeeping. Even Latin, in principle reserved to the five parish schools, was taught at private schools. Another remarkable feature was the large number of schoolmistresses providing teaching for girls. De Ridder-Symoens 1989 gives an excellent overview of schooling in Antwerp in the 16th and 17th centuries. De Groote contains a detailed analysis and a prosopography of schoolmasters active in 16th-century Antwerp. De Munck 2007 deals with training and education in the world of the artisans.

de Groote, H. L. V. “De zestiende-eeuwse Antwerpse schoolmeesters.” Bijdragen tot de Geschiedenis 50 (1967): 179–318; 51 (1968): 5–52.
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Brings together biographical data on schoolmasters who were members of the Antwerp schoolmasters’ guild in the 16th century and pays attention to the works written by these schoolmasters. Based on thorough research in archives and contemporary printed works—a gold mine of information for researchers into 16th-century Antwerp schoolmasters.
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de Munck, Bert. Technologies of Learning: Apprenticeship in Antwerp Guilds from the 15th Century to the End of the Ancien Régime. Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols, 2007.
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Shows that the schooling and training that apprentices received in their guilds were based on a flexible and dynamic system that met the demands of the changing early modern economy.
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de Ridder-Symoens, Hilde. “Het onderwijs te Antwerpen in de zeventiende eeuw.” In Antwerpen in de XVIIde eeuw. By Genootschap voor Antwerpse Geschiedenis, 221–250. Antwerp: Genootschap voor Antwerpse Geschiedenis, 1989.
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Deals with all levels of schooling, from elementary education to university. Emphasizes a big shift in the education landscape: from a broad and laicized school system in the Golden Age to a polarized system, featuring Latin education for a small elite and catechism training for the masses, in the post-1585 era.
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The Printed Book

The presence of ample capital, a prosperous and well-educated reading public, and international distribution channels created a fertile ground for the printing industry. Christopher Plantin became the icon by excellence of this flourishing industry, but in addition to Plantin many other book printers of different stature and orientation operated. After 1585, the cosmopolitan character of the Antwerp printing industry came to an end. Many printers left for the Dutch Republic while several who remained carried out their activities in the world of the Counter-Reformation. Voet 1975 offers an excellent overview of the world of book printing in 16th-century Antwerp. Voet 1969–1973 is a thorough study of the Officina Plantiniana, while de Schepper and de Nave 1989 brings together several new articles on Plantin and his world. Valkema Blouw 2013 is indispensable for acquiring a knowledge of dissident book printing and trade. Christman 2011 focuses on five widowed women engaging in illicit book printing. De Schepper and de Nave 1996 highlights the reorientation of the Officina Plantiniana under Plantin’s successors, the Moretussen. Van der Stock 1998 discusses the production and consumption of printed images.

Christman, Victoria. “The Coverture of Widowhood: Heterodox Female Publishers in Antwerp, 1530–1580.” Sixteenth Century Journal 42 (2011): 77–97.
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Reconstructs the publishing activities of five Antwerp widowed women and explains why they could go farther in their illicit book printing than their deceased husbands.
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de Schepper, Marcus, and Francine de Nave, eds. Ex Officina Plantiniana: Studia in memoriam Christophori Plantini, ca. 1520–1589. Antwerp: Vereeniging der Antwerpsche Bibliophielen, 1989.
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Contains thirty-two articles dealing with Christopher Plantin and his circle and with aspects of book printing, book publishing, and book trade in Plantin’s Officina. Also published as special issue of De Gulden Passer 66–67 (1988–89).
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de Schepper, Marcus, and Francine de Nave, eds. Ex Officina Plantiniana Moretorum: Studies over het drukkersgeslacht Moretus. Antwerp: Vereeniging der Antwerpsche Bibliophielen, 1996.
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A sequel to the previous volume containing articles on the first generations of the Moretus family, which took over Plantin’s Officina in 1589. Also published as special issue of De Gulden Passer 74 (1996).
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Valkema Blouw, Paul. Dutch Typography in the Sixteenth Century. Edited by Ton Croiset van Uchelen and Paul Dijstelberge. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2013.
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Contains fundamental articles on illicit book printing and the book trade in the 16th century. Several articles deal with Antwerp printers: not only the preeminent Christopher Plantin, but also Frans Fraet, Willem Silvius, Gilis Coppens van Diest, Niclaes Mollijns, and Gillis van den Rade.
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van der Stock, Jan. Printing Images in Antwerp: The Introduction of Printmaking in a City, Fifteenth Century to 1585. Rotterdam: Sound & Vision Interactive, 1998.
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Examines how 16th-century Antwerp developed into an important center of printmaking. Based on thorough archival research this pioneering study unravels interesting aspects of the production, the marketing, and the use of printed images.
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Voet, Leon. The Golden Compasses: A History and Evaluation of the Printing and Publishing Activities of the Officina Plantiniana at Antwerp. 2 vols. Amsterdam: Vangendt, 1969–1973.
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A history of the Officina Plantiniana under Christopher Plantin and his successors written by the former curator of the Museum Plantin-Moretus. Covers all aspects of the publishing house, including the printer’s techniques and methods, the working conditions, and the financial aspects. Based on the exceptionally rich archives of the Officina.
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Voet, Leon. “De typografische bedrijvigheid te Antwerpen in de 16e eeuw.” In Antwerpen in de XVIde eeuw. By Genootschap voor Antwerpse Geschiedenis, 233–255. Antwerp: Mercurius, 1975.
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An excellent chronological overview of Antwerp book printing from the late 15th century to 1600, with an interesting appendix containing the names of 271 printers, publishers, and book traders.
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Literature and Theater

The chambers of rhetoric played an important role with respect to vernacular literature and theater. These associations, which particularly recruited among the urban middle groups, performed poetry of different types and volumes. They contributed significantly to the formation of civic culture and religion. Van Bruaene 2008 is a social and cultural history of the chambers of rhetoric in the Southern Netherlands and offers an indispensable framework for the Antwerp chambers. Vandommele 2011 focuses on what might have been the apogee of the rhetoricians’ art: the Antwerp “Landjuweel” of 1561, an intercity competition for chambers in the duchy of Brabant. Marnef 2006 explains how the chambers of rhetoric served as vehicles for religious change and how they contributed to the spread of dissenting religious ideas. Kessler 2013 highlights how Anna Bijns, an Antwerp female poet, argued against the new Protestant ideas. Bostoen 1987 shows how new forms and themes influenced by the Renaissance were introduced in Netherlandish literature and emphasizes the intermediary role of the Italian merchants in Antwerp.

Bostoen, Karel. Dichterschap en koopmanschap in de zestiende eeuw: Omtrent de dichters Guillaume de Poetou en Jan vander Noot. Deventer, The Netherlands: Sub Rosa, 1987.
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Focuses on the poetry of Guillaume de Poetou, who was influenced by the French Pléiade and Italian Renaissance poets. He used his poems as a present for business acquaintances in the Antwerp commercial milieu. Poetou, in turn, influenced the Antwerp/Brabantine poet Jan van der Noot.
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Kessler, Judith. Princesse der rederijkers: Het oeuvre van Anna Bijns: Argumentatieanalyse—structuuranalyse—beeldvorming. Hilversum, The Netherlands: Verloren, 2013.
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Argues that the life and work of Anna Bijns should be studied separately and makes an analysis of Bijns’s refrains (refreinen), showing that she used a deliberate argumentation strategy.
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Marnef, Guido. “Chambers of Rhetoric and the Transmission of Religious Ideas in the Low Countries.” In Religion and Cultural Exchange in Europe, 1400–1700. Edited by Heinz Schilling and István Tóth, 274–293. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
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Analyzes rhetoricians’ texts from the period prior to the Netherlandish Revolt, with a special focus on the contribution of Antwerp rhetoricians. Emphasizes the interplay with other modes of communication.
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van Bruaene, Anne-Laure. Om beters wille: Rederijkerskamers en de stedelijke cultuur in de Zuidelijke Nederlanden, 1400–1650. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2008.
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A thorough and innovative study of the chambers of rhetoric that were concentrated in Flanders and Brabant. Van Bruaene examines their role and development from the 15th century to the middle of the 17th century. A must for those who seeks to study these chambers and their texts.
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Vandommele, Jeroen. Als in een Spiegel: Vrede, kennis en gemeenschap op het Antwerpse landjuweel van 1561. Hilversum, The Netherlands: Verloren, 2011.
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A well-documented case study of the famous Antwerp “Landjuweel” of 1561. Emphasizes the role of rhetoricians as recipients of renewal in the arts and as disseminators of knowledge.
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Humanism

Antwerp in the 16th-century was not a center of humanism comparable with Basel or Venice. Yet, the city’s cosmopolitan character, marked as it was by the presence of learned printers and schoolmasters, created an obvious receptiveness for humanist influences. A full-length monograph bringing together the most relevant data for the long 16th century is still missing, although Nauwelaerts 1975 offers a good overview. Several articles and edited volumes deal with the Officina Plantinia as a center of humanism in the period of Christopher Plantin and his successor Jan Moretus. Cockshaw and de Nave 1998 and de Landtsheer and Delsaerdt 2006 are good examples of such work.

Cockshaw, P., and F. De Nave, eds. Abraham Ortelius, 1527–1598, cartograaf en humanist. Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols, 1998.
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Contains articles that deal with Ortelius as a cartographer and as a humanist.
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de Landtsheer, Jeanine, and Pierre Delsaerdt, eds. Iam illustravit Omnia: Justus Lipsius als lievelingsauteur van het Plantijnse Huis. Antwerp: Vereeniging van Antwerpse Bibliofielen, 2006.
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Seventeen articles cover several aspects of Lipsius. Many of them deal with specific works of Lipsius and in most cases there is a link with the Officina Plantiniana. Also published as a special issue of De Gulden Passer 84 (2006): 1–322.
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Nauwelaerts, Marcel A. “Humanisme en onderwijs.” In Antwerpen in de XVIde eeuw. By Genootschap voor Antwerpse Geschiedenis, 257–300. Antwerp: Mercurius, 1975.
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A still useful survey. Identifies the Latin school attached to the Church of Our Lady, the printing houses of Dirk Martens and Christopher Plantin, and a number of clerks in the service of the Antwerp city administration as important centers or vehicles of humanism.
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The Visual Arts

Just as it did with book publishing, the growth of the Antwerp market profoundly influenced the world of the arts. The wealth of the Antwerp metropolis attracted many artists and created new opportunities for the marketing of art work. Recent research has particularly highlighted the interplay between society and the art of painting. Vermeylen 2003 examines the commercialization of art and the emergence of Antwerp as an important export center for the arts. Honig 1998 shows how the theme of paintings, particularly market-scene paintings, and the collection of paintings reflect changes in Antwerp society. Filipczak 1987 evaluates the place of the artist in Antwerp society. Jonckheere 2012 focuses on the development of painting in the two decades following the iconoclastic fury of 1566. Ramakers 2011 addresses the relationship between the vernacular and the classic tradition in a variety of arts. Timmermans 2008 explores the role of the political elite as patron of the arts in the post-1585 period.

Filipczak, Zirka Zaremba. Picturing Art in Antwerp, 1550–1700. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987.
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Analyzes visual representations of art and artists such as artists’ portraits and historical and allegorical paintings about the making of art. The author explores what this reveals about the attitudes toward art and artists from the perspective of both the creators and the viewers.
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Honig, Elizabeth Alice. Painting & the Market in Early Modern Antwerp. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1998.
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Connects the iconographic development of Antwerp market-scene paintings with the shifts in Antwerp’s economy from the middle of the 16th century to the middle of the 17th century and explains how these changes led to new aesthetic priorities among art consumers.
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Jonckheere, Koenraad. Antwerp Art after Iconoclasm: Experiments in Decorum, 1566–1585. Brussels: Mercatorfonds, 2012.
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The period 1566–1585 has remained remarkably understudied in the history of Antwerp art. Jonckheere examines how the important Antwerp painters (re)positioned themselves and reframed traditional religious iconography and style.
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Ramakers, Bart, ed. Understanding Art in Antwerp: Classicising the Popular, Popularising the Classic, 1540–1580. Leuven, Belgium: Peeters, 2011.
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Fourteen essays explore the relationship between the vernacular and the classical, foreign tradition using products of the visual arts (paintings and printed images), literature, and music. A stimulating collection that invites further research.
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Timmermans, Bert. Patronen van patronage in het zeventiende-eeuwse Antwerpen: Een elite als actor binnen een kunstwereld. Amsterdam: Aksant, 2008.
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This important monograph starts with an extensive analysis of the political elite governing Antwerp between 1585 and 1700 and subsequently examines the role of this elite as a patron of the arts. Makes clear how the domains of politics, religion, economy, and the arts were interrelated.
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Vermeylen, Filip. Painting for the Market: Commercialization of Art in Antwerp’s Golden Age. Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols, 2003.
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Reveals a number of important changes involved in the commercialization of art, such as the evolution from ordering artwork on commission to the production for the open market and the growing role of art dealers. Essential reading for those who want to understand the mechanisms of the Antwerp art market.
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The Church

Around 1500 and again around 1600 Antwerp was an almost homogeneously Catholic city. However, in the 16th century Antwerp was affected by the process of religious change and confessional strife to a degree matched by few other cities. Beginning in the 1520s the Catholic Church was challenged by a variety of Protestant movements. During the Wonderyear (April 1566–April 1567) the Calvinists and Lutherans were allowed to organize public churches, and during the Calvinist Republic (1577–1585) the public exercise of the Catholic religion was even forbidden. Yet, in 1585 rebellious Antwerp surrendered to the besieging Spanish army and the city quickly became a stronghold of the Counter-Reformation. Much new research has been undertaken since the 1970s but a recent general overview covering the long 16th century still remains to be written. Andriessen 1975 is to some extent dated but still useful and informative. Van Uytven and Marnef 1987 contains articles dealing with the Catholic Church and with Protestant movements, especially during the period of the Dutch Revolt. Marnef 2011 addresses the problem of multiconfessionalism in the second half of the 16th century, and Boumans 1952 offers exceptional quantitative data about the religious affiliation in Antwerp in 1585.

Andriessen, Jos. “Het geestelijke en godstienstige klimaat.” In Antwerpen in de XVIde eeuw. By Genootschap voor Antwerpse Geschiedenis, 203–232. Antwerp: Mercurius, 1975.
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Offers a nuanced overview of the changing religious climate in 16th-century Antwerp. Pays attention to the evolution within the Catholic Church and to the development of the several Protestant churches and movements.
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Boumans, René. “De getalsterkte van katholieken en protestanten te Antwerpen in 1585.” Belgisch Tijdschrift voor Filologie en Geschiedenis 30 (1952): 741–798.
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Uses the membership lists of the civic militia and the shooting companies, containing more than 10,000 names, for a reconstruction of the religious affiliation of the adult male population in Antwerp in 1585.
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Marnef, Guido. “Multiconfessionalism in a Commercial Metropolis: The Case of 16th-Century Antwerp.” In A Companion to Multiconfessionalism in the Early Modern World. Edited by Thomas Max Safley, 75–97. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2011.
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Examines how the Antwerp city government tried to supersede religious division and to create a legal framework for a multiconfessional society during two phases linked with the Dutch Revolt: the Wonderyear and the Calvinist Republic.
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van Uytven, Raymond, and Guido Marnef, eds. Special Issue: Religieuze stromingen te Antwerpen voor en na 1585. Bijdragen tot de Geschiedenis 70 (1987): 1–160.
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Contains seven articles dealing with Catholics, Anabaptists, Lutherans, Calvinists, and the Family of Love.
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The Catholic Church

A thorough study of the Catholic Church in the 15th and the first half of the 16th centuries is still missing. However, studies indicate that devotional life was thriving at the turn of the 16th century but declined from the early 1520s onward, as the data in Vroom 1983 suggest. The post-1585 period is much better studied, notably with two complementary monographs. Thijs 1990 pays special attention to the interplay between the changing urban society and the Catholic Church, while Marinus 1995 explores the building of a Counter-Reformation Catholic Church mainly from a clerical perspective.

Marinus, Marie Juliette. De contrareformatie te Antwerpen, 1585–1676: Kerkelijk leven in een grootstad. Brussels: Paleis der Academiën, 1995.
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Emphasizes the importance of the ecclesiastical infrastructure and the close collaboration between the Catholic Church and civil authorities. Around the middle of the 17th century their joint efforts led to the culminating point of the Counter-Reformation Catholic Church. Based on thorough archival research.
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Thijs, Alfons K. L. Van geuzenstad tot katholiek bolwerk: Maatschappelijke betekenis van de Kerk in contrareformatorisch Antwerpen. Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols, 1990.
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Connects the development of Antwerp as a city of the Counter-Reformation to important social, economic, political, and mental transitions. Pays ample attention to the role of the printing press and the arts. The focus of the book is on the late 16th century and the 17th century.
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Vroom, W. H. De Onze-Lieve-Vrouwe-Kerk te Antwerpen: De financiering van de bouw tot de Beeldenstorm. Antwerp: De Nederlandsche Boekhandel, 1983.
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Reconstructs the financing of the building of the Church of Our Lady through an analysis of the accounts of the church fabric from the 15th century up to 1565. The revenues of the church reveal much about the evolution of religious life and devotional practices.
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Protestantism

The cosmopolitan character of the Antwerp metropolis and the tolerant attitude of its city fathers favored the circulation of new religious ideas and the emergence of Protestant communities. The Lutheran evangelical movement made major inroads in the early 1520s, and strong development of underground Anabaptist and Calvinist communities took place around the middle of the 16th century. From 1566 onward the spread of Protestantism was linked to the course of the Dutch Revolt. Marnef 1996 analyzes the changing religious landscape in 1550–1577 and pays special attention to the organization and development of the Calvinist and Anabaptist communities. Estié 1986 offers an overview of the Lutheran community during the Wonderyear. Harris 2004 reveals the complex religious affiliation could be by analyzing the religious attitude of one individual. Marinus 1993 examines the survival of a small group of Protestants after 1585.

Estié, Paul. Het vluchtige bestaan van de eerste Nederlandse Lutherse gemeente: Antwerpen, 1566–1567. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1986.
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A useful overview of the organization and development of the important though short-lived Lutheran community during the Wonderyear. Based on printed sources and secondary literature.
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Harris, Jason. “The Religious Position of Abraham Ortelius.” In The Low Countries as a Crossroads of Religious Beliefs. Edited by Arie-Jan Gelderblom, Jan L. de Jong, and Marc van Vaeck, 89–139. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2004.
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Offers a fine and well-documented analysis of the religious beliefs of the cartographer and humanist Abraham Ortelius. Harris concludes that Ortelius maintained an interest in reformation but stayed aloof from organized religion and emphasizes that he was influenced by stoicism.
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Marinus, Marie Juliette. “De protestanten te Antwerpen, 1585–1700.” Trajecta. Tijdschrift voor de geschiedenis van het katholieke leven in de Nederlanden 2 (1993): 327–343.
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Using Catholic ecclesiastical sources, Marinus documents how a small group of Protestants succeeded in surviving in the late 16th and 17th centuries,
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Marnef, Guido. Antwerp in the Age of Reformation: Underground Protestantism in a Commercial Metropolis, 1550–1577. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996.
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Sets the process of religious change in a broad urban context. The focus is on the Calvinist and Anabaptist communities. Marnef also examines the position of the Catholic Church and emphasizes the existence of a large but wavering religious middle group. Based on thorough research in Belgian and European archives. A digital version of the Dutch-language edition is available online.
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