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Ethnic and Religious Groups in Medieval Poland

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. Starting from its historical emergence in the 10th century, Poland formed the eastern margin of Western Christianity. In the Middle Ages Poland became a meetingplace between the East and the West, and the blend of Eastern and Western European traditions left its imprint on Polish culture. One of the most striking features of Poland was the ethnic and religious pluralism of its society and culture. In the mid-14th century, the expansion of Poland eastward brought thousands of Orthodox Ruthenians under the rule of Polish kings. The migration of European Jews to Poland, which started in the 12th century and later intensified, made Poland host to the largest concentration of Jews in Europe and a hub for Jewish culture. In the Middle Ages, most Polish towns and villages were inhabited by numerous minorities of Germans, who contributed to their economic growth. They introduced new legal codes and institutions that lay the foundation for city autonomy. Polish towns situated along international trade routes became places of settlement for Scots, Italians, and Armenians. Members of all ethnic minorities developed crafts and trade on both international and local scales. Polish rulers appreciated their role in the growing prosperity of the country and granted them special privileges which secured their ethnic and religious diversity. Leading up to the modern era in Poland, or rather the Commonwealth of Poland and Lithuania, it was a diverse country where various ethnic and religious groups lived together in peace. A long tradition of peaceful coexistence between various Christian and non-Christian religions gave rise to mutual acceptance and cooperation, which functioned well even in the period of the Reformation.
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  5. General Overviews
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  7. The best general overview of the composition of the Polish society and its transformations in the Middle Ages is offered by Ihnatowicz, et al. 1988. The studies of Kłoczowski 1998 and Kłoczowski 2000 present the history of Polish Christianity and analyze the relations between the Catholic and the Orthodox churches, as well as their attitude toward non-Christian groups. A comprehensive analysis of various ethnic and religious minorities in medieval Poland is presented in Drabina 1989, supplemented by selected sources in Polish translation from Drabina 1994. Two recent studies, Samsonowicz 1993 and Janeczek 2003, offer general reflections on the functioning of ethnic minorities in late medieval Poland. In addition, they discuss concepts and terminology used in research on medieval ethnic, religious, and legal groups.
  8.  
  9. Drabina, Jan, ed. Religie na ziemiach Polski i Litwy w średniowieczu. Kraków: Uniwersytet Jagielloński, 1989.
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  11. Textbook on religions in medieval Poland and Lithuania. Includes an encyclopedic overview of the history of churches and religious groups. Basic information and commentary, with bibliographical references.
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  13. Drabina, Jan. Wierzenia, religie i wspólnoty wyznaniowe w średniowiecznej Polsce i na Litwie. Kraków: Uniwersytet Jagielloński, 1994.
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  15. Selected edition of sources (in Polish translation) related to pagan beliefs, churches, and religious communities in medieval Poland and Lithuania, with a historical introduction and bibliographical guidelines.
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  17. Ihnatowicz, Ireneusz, Antoni Mączak, Benedykt Zientara, and Janusz Żarnowski. Społeczeństwo polskie od X do XX wieku. Warsaw: Książka i Wiedza, 1988.
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  19. A detailed study of the historical evolution of the Polish society from the 10th to the 20th centuries. The chapters written by Benedykt Zientara and Antoni Mączak include sections devoted to the place of minority groups in medieval and early modern Polish society. Reprinted in 2005.
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  21. Janeczek, Andrzej. “Ethnische Gruppenbildungen im spätmittelalterlichen Polen.” In Das Reich und Polen: Parallellen, Interaktionen und Formen der Akkulturation hohem and späten Mittelalter. Edited by Thomas Wünsch and Alexander Patschovsky. 401–446. Ostfildern, Germany: Jan Thorbecke Verlag, 2003.
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  23. An intriguing comparative study on ethnic groups in late medieval Poland, their social and legal position, as well as the way their collective identity was formed. Offers new methodological perspectives for the study of minority-majority problems.
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  25. Kłoczowski, Jerzy. History of Polish Christianity. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
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  27. Classic English textbook on the history of Christianity in Poland from the 10th century to the present day. Includes chapters on the medieval history of the Catholic and Orthodox churches. A good starting point for further research.
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  29. Kłoczowski, Jerzy. Młodsza Europa: Europa Środkowo-Wschodnia w kręgu cywilizacji chrześcijańskiej średniowiecza. Warsaw: Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy, 1998.
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  31. Comprehensive and comparative study of the history of east central Europe in the Middle Ages. Separate chapters offer overviews on the rise and growth of pluralist society in Poland and Lithuania against the background of major social and religious developments.
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  33. Samsonowicz, Henryk. “Grupy etniczne w Polsce XV w.” In Ojczyzna bliższa i dalsza: Studia historyczne ofiarowane Feliksowi Kirykowi w sześćdziesiątą rocznicę urodzin. Edited by Jacek Chrobaczyński, Andrzej Jureczka and Michał Śliwa, 461–469. Kraków: Wydawnictwo “Secesja”, 1993.
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  35. A short and comprehensive article on ethnic groups in 15th-century Poland and their position within Polish society.
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  37. Jews
  38.  
  39. The first Jews arrived in the territory of Poland in the 10th century. Traveling along the trade routes leading east to Kiev and Bukhara, Jewish merchants crossed areas populated by Polish tribes. The first Jewish communities were established in Poland a century later. A major influx of Jews was brought about by their persecution in western Europe during the crusades. Thanks to the protection of the Polish king, the Jews developed an autonomous government and monopolized trade exchange outside the bigger towns. The rapid development of Jewish settlement and economic activity was accompanied by expansion of their self-governing organization. By the end of the Middle Ages, Jewish autonomous communities (kahals) were established in almost every large town in western and southern Poland. The history of Jewish settlement in medieval Poland has inspired great interest within international historiography, evident in the abundance of general and analytical studies. The works listed are just a selection of the most important studies that present groundbreaking scholarly achievements and main trends of recent research.
  40.  
  41. Overviews
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  43. Among many works, Ben-Sasson 1999 seems to be the best recent study on the history of Jews that covers the beginning and growth of Jewish settlement in Poland. Bałaban 1916–1925 remains the classic work on the Polish Jews and a rich source of information. An introduction to the medieval history of Polish Jews is provided by Weinryb 1973, but his work needs to be used alongside the later articles published in Fuks, et al. 1982, Abramsky, et al. 1986, and Polonski, et al. 1993. The best and most extensive account of the Jews in medieval Poland (to the end of the 14th century) is provided by Grodecki 1969. Haumann 1990 and Zaremska 2005 offer a comparative approach to the study of the Jews in medieval Poland.
  44.  
  45. Abramsky, Chimen, Maciej Jachimczyk, and Antony Polonsky, eds. The Jews in Poland: Papers Presented at the International Conference of Polish-Jewish Studies held in Oxford in September 1984. Oxford: Blackwell, 1986.
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  47. A collection of studies by leading Polish and international experts. Includes an important contribution on the beginnings of Jewish settlement in Polish lands.
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  49. Bałaban, Majer. Historia i literatura żydowska ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem historii Żydów w Polsce. 3 vols. Lviv, Polish Republic: Ossolineum, 1916–1925.
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  51. Classic, groundbreaking work on Jewish history and literature written by a leading Jewish historian—just one of his many studies on the Polish Jews. A rich source of information. Reprinted in 1988.
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  53. Ben-Sasson, Haim H., ed. A History of the Jewish people. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999.
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  55. Popular historical work on the history of the Jews, with sections devoted to the settlement and growth of the Jewish population in Poland; well-structured analysis of the arrival and spread of Jewish communities.
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  57. Fuks, Marian, Zygmunt Hoffmann, Maurycy Horn, and Jerzy Tomaszewski. Żydzi polscy: Dzieje i kultura. Warsaw: Interpress, 1982.
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  59. Collection of studies on the the history and culture of the Polish Jews. A good introduction to the medieval history of Jewry in Poland. English translation by Bogna Piotrowska and Lech Petrowicz, Polish Jews: History and Culture (Warsaw: Interpress, 1982).
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  61. Grodecki, Roman. “Dzieje Żydów w Polsce do końca XIV wieku.” In Idem, Polska piastowska: Pisma pośmiertne. Edited by Jerzy Wyrozumski, 595–702. Warsaw: PWN, 1969.
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  63. Classic overview of the history of the Jews in Piast Poland, covering the period from the 11th to the 14th centuries. The emergence and growth of the first Jewish communities in medieval Poland is outlined based on a careful analysis of various sources. Analyzes the role of Polish monarchs in supporting the Jewish communities and their role in the Polish economy.
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  65. Haumann, Heiko. Geschichte der Ostjuden. Munich: Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, 1990.
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  67. A general presentation of the history of Jews in eastern Europe, with sections concerning Jewish settlement in medieval Poland.
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  69. Polonski, Anthony, Jakub Basista, and Andrzej Link-Lenczkowski, eds. The Jews in Old Poland 1000–1795. London and New York: I. B. Tauris, 1993.
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  71. A collection of essays written by Polish and international experts in the field, which presents the establishment, growth, and partial decline of Jewish communities in medieval Poland and the early modern Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Includes an important paper by Jerzy Wyrozumski on Jews in medieval Poland.
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  73. Weinryb, Bernard D. The Jews of Poland: A Social and Economic History of the Jewish Community in Poland from 1100 to 1800. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society in America, 1973.
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  75. Chronological narrative of the history of the Jews in medieval and early modern Poland from a perspective of social and economic transformations in Europe. Offers a detailed examination of the arrival and growth of the Jewish population in medieval Poland, its role in the country’s economy, and its legal position. A good introduction to the issue.
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  77. Zaremska, Hanna. Żydzi w średniowiecznej Europie Środkowej: w Czechach, Polsce, i na Węgrzech. Poznan, Poland: PTPN, 2005.
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  79. A comparative study on the Jews in east-central Europe in the Middle Ages. Presents the growth of the Jewish communities in medieval Bohemia, Poland, and Hungary, their role in the economy and culture of the whole region, and analyzes the legal status of Jews and their relation with the Catholic Church, the monarch, and the townspeople.
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  81. Bibliographies
  82.  
  83. Apart from the renowned international bibliographies of Jewish studies such as Shunami 1975, Brisman 1978–1987, and Cutter and Oppenheim 2004, the current bibliography of works on the history of Polish Jews has been collected by the Jewish Historical Institute, established in Warsaw in 1944, and was published in the journal Biuletyn Żydowskiego Instytutu Historycznego (see Journals) and since 2001 in Kwartalnik Historii Żydów (see Journals). It is now available online. Wyrozumski 1998 remains a basic practical bibliographic guide to studies on the Jews in medieval Poland.
  84.  
  85. Bibliografia do historii Żydów w Polsce.
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  87. Current bibliography of historical studies on the Jews in Poland, which was published in Biuletyn Żydowskiego Instytutu Historycznego (see Journals), and since 2001 in Kwartalnik Historii Żydów (see Journals). Since 2008, it has been available online on the website of the Jewish Historical Institute in Warsaw.
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  89. Brisman, Shimeon. Jewish Research Literature. 2 vols. Bibliographia Judaica 11. Cincinnati and New York: Hebrew Union College Press, 1978–1987.
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  91. Basic bibliographical guide to the literature of the Jewish people worldwide.
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  93. Cutter, Charles, and Michael Falk Oppenheim. Judaica Reference Sources: Selective, Annotated Bibliographic Guide. 3d ed. Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited, 2004.
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  95. Selective bibliographical guide to Jewish studies.
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  97. Shunami, Shlomo. Bibliography of Jewish Bibliographies. 2d ed. Jerusalem: Magnes, 1975.
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  99. Classic and primary bibliography for Jewish studies.
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  101. Wyrozumski, Jerzy. “Dzieje Żydów Polski średniowiecznej w historiografia.” Studia Judaica 1.1 (1998): 3–17.
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  103. General overview of Polish historiography devoted to the history of the Jews in medieval Poland. A presentation and examination of the most important recent studies.
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  105. Reference Works
  106.  
  107. Apart from standard international encyclopedias of Jewry such as Encyclopedia Judaica: Das Judentum in Geschichte und Gegenwart or Encyclopedia Judaica, there is a growing number of reference works devoted exclusively to Polish Jews. Worth mentioning are the popular lexicon of Cała, et al. 2000 and the extensive scholarly work of Tomaszewski and Żbikowski 2001. Pilarczyk 2002 provides comprehensive information on international and Polish encyclopedias and lexicons.
  108.  
  109. Borzymińska, Zofia, and Rafal Żebrowski, eds. Polski słownik judaistyczny: Dzieje kultura, religia, ludzie. 2 vols. Warsaw: Pruszyński i Spółka, 2003.
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  111. A Polish Judaistic dictionary produced by scholars from the Jewish Historical Institute in Warsaw, a monumental collection of articles on the history, culture, and religion of the Polish Jews from the Middle Ages to the present day. Includes a number of biographical articles on Polish Jews: religious leaders, writers, scientists, artists and others.
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  113. Cała, Alina, Hanna Węgrzynek, and Gabriela Zalewska. Historia i kultura Żydów polskich—słownik. Warsaw: Wydawnictwa Szkole i Pedagogiczne, 2000.
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  115. A popular lexicon on the history and culture of Polish Jews.
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  117. Encyclopedia Judaica: Das Judentum in Geschichte und Gegenwart. 10 vols. Berlin: Jüdischer Verlag, 1928–1934.
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  119. Classic encyclopedia of Jewry, produced in Germany during the interwar period.
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  121. Pilarczyk, Krzysztof. “Leksykon dziejów i kultury Żydów w Polsce.” Studia Judaica 5.1 (2002): 153–159.
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  123. Short overview of Polish and international encyclopedias and lexicons for the history of the Polish Jews.
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  125. Roth, Cecil, and Geoffrey Wigoder, eds. Encyclopedia Judaica. 16 vols. Jerusalem: Keter, 1971–1972.
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  127. The most extensive encyclopedia of Jewish history and culture.
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  129. Tomaszewski, Jerzy, and Andrzej Żbikowski, eds. Żydzi w Polsce: Dzieje i kultura; leksykon. Warsaw: Wydawnictwo Cyklady, 2001
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  131. First comprehensive Polish encyclopedia of Jewish history and culture in Poland, produced by fifty-one Polish and international scholars. A basic reference work in Polish.
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  133. Journals
  134.  
  135. There are three major periodicals focusing on the Polish Jews, their history, and their culture. Kwartalnik Historii Żydów (Polish) continues Biuletyn Żydowskiego Instytutu Historycznego, the original journal of the Jewish Historical Institute in Warsaw.
  136.  
  137. Biuletyn Żydowskiego Instytutu Historycznego. 1949–2000.
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  139. Annual published by the Jewish Historical Institute in Warsaw.
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  141. Kwartalnik Historii Żydów. 2001–.
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  143. Quarterly published by the Jewish Historical Institute in Warsaw as a continuation of Biuletyn Żydowskiego Instytutu Historycznego.
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  145. Polin: Studies in Polish Jewry. 1986–.
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  147. Periodical published by the American Association for Polish-Jewish Studies.
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  149. Studia Judaica. 1998–.
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  151. Periodical established by a group of Polish scholars. Its main purpose is to popularize and promote research on the history and culture of Jews in Poland.
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  153. Sources
  154.  
  155. A corpus of sources on the history of Jews in medieval Poland is well established. Most of these works were produced by Christians. The earliest records of the presence of Jews in Poland were published in Kupfer and Lewicki 1956. Selected sources related to the history of Jews in Poland were edited in Polish translation in Fijałkowski 1993. Privileges granted by Polish monarchs to Jewish communities or individuals are scattered among various editions of medieval sources. Bersohn 1911 offers a useful collection of documents for the Jews in medieval and early modern Poland, whereas Oelsner 1864 and Bondy and Dworský 1906 include charters for the Jews in Silesia. Municipal registers of medieval Polish towns offer promising opportunities for research, such as Wyrozumska 1995. The Graboïs 1987 edition of medieval Hebrew sources provides insight into the organization and religious life of Jewish communities in medieval east-central Europe.
  156.  
  157. Bersohn, Mathias, ed. Dyplomatariusz dotyczący Żydów w dawnej Polsce na źródłach archiwalnych osnuty 1388–1782.Warsaw: n.p., 1911.
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  159. Edition of documents related to the history of Jews in medieval and early modern Europe.
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  161. Bondy, Bohumil, and Franz Dworský, eds. Zur Geschichte der Juden in Böhmen und Schlesien von 906 bis 1620. 2 vols. Prague: n.p., 1906.
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  163. Edition of documents relating to the history of Jews in Bohemia and Silesia.
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  165. Fijałkowski, Paweł, ed. Dzieje Żydów w Polsce: Wybór tekstów źródłowych. Vol. 1, XI–XVIII w. Warsaw: Żydowski Instytut Historyczny, 1993.
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  167. Popular edition of selected sources related to the history of Jews in medieval and early modern Poland, in Polish translation. Offers a good overview of various problems of Jewish settlement, their legal position and economic activity in medieval Poland. A good starting point for further research.
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  169. Goldberg, Jacob, ed. Jewish Privileges in the Polish Commonwealth: Charters of Rights Granted to Jewish Communities in Poland-Lithuania in the Sixteenth to Eighteenth Centuries. Jerusalem: Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, 1985.
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  171. Critical edition of original Latin and Polish documents with English introduction and notes, documenting the privileges granted to Jewish communities in the early modern Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, including confirmations of medieval charters. An indispensable work for the study of the organization and legal status of Jewish kahals in Poland-Lithuania.
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  173. Graboïs, Aryeh, ed. Les Sources hébraïques médiévales, I: Chroniques, Lettres et “Responsa.” Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols, 1987.
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  175. Principal critical edition of important Hebrew sources from the Middle Ages; includes “responsa” that were addressed to Jewish communities in medieval Poland.
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  177. Kupfer, Franciszek, and Tadeusz Lewicki, eds. Źródła hebrajskie do dziejów Słowian i niektórych ludów środkowej i wschodniej Europy. Wroclaw, Poland: Ossolineum, 1956.
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  179. Edition of Hebrew sources for the history of Slavs and various other people of central and Eastern Europe. Provides information on the Jews’ coming to the present territory of Poland in the early Middle Ages. A basic source of information on the organization and economy of the early Slavonic states.
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  181. Oelsner, Ludwig, ed. “Schlesische Urkunde der Juden.” Archiv für Kunde Oesterreichischer Geschichtsquellen 31 (1864): 58–192.
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  183. Edition of charters and privileges relating to the history of Jews in Silesia.
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  185. Wyrozumska, Bożena, ed. The Jews in Medieval Cracow: Selected Records from Cracow Municipal Books. Kraków: Polska Akademia Umiejętności, 1995.
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  187. Edition of records on the Jews from the medieval municipal books of Kraków, with a historical preface and extensive commentary. Indispensable for the history of the Jewish settlement in medieval Kraków.
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  189. Settlement
  190.  
  191. It is worth mentioning here a few articles that offer general reflections on the development of Jewish communities in medieval Poland, analyzing the circumstances of their emergence and steady growth throughout the Middle Ages. Schiper 1932 is a starting point for any analysis of the geographical location and demography of the Jewish population in medieval Poland, while Samsonowicz 1989, Wyrozumski 1991, and Wyrozumski 1993 summarize recent Polish and international research in the area.
  192.  
  193. Samsonowicz, Henryk. “The Jewish Population in Poland during the Middle Ages.” Dialectics and Humanism: Polish Philosophical Quarterly 16.11 (1989): 35–42.
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  195. Concise article with general reflections on the history of Jews in medieval Poland.
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  197. Schiper, Ignacy. “Rozwój ludności żydowskiej na ziemiach dawnej Rzeczypospolitej.” In Żydzi w Polsce odrodzonej. Vol. 1. Edited by I. Schiper, A. Tartakow, and A. Hafftka, 21–36. Warsaw: n.p., 1932.
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  199. Study on the settlement of Jews in medieval and early modern Poland; offers demographic analysis of the growth of Jewish communities in Poland.
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  201. Wyrozumski, Jerzy. “Żydzi w Polsce średniowiecznej.” In Żydzi w dawnej Rzeczypospolitej: Materiały z konferencji “Autonomia Żydów w Rzeczypospolitej Szlacheckiej; Międzywydziałowy Zakład Historii i Kultury Żydów w Polsce, Uniwersytet Jagielloński 22–26 IX 1986. Edited by Andrzej Link-Lenczowski and Tomasz Polański, 129–135. Wroclaw, Warsaw, and Kraków, Poland: Ossolineum, 1991.
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  203. Introductory article on the Jews in medieval Poland, in an important collection of studies on Jewish autonomy in the early modern Commonwealth of Poland and Lithuania.
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  205. Wyrozumski, Jerzy. “The Jews in Medieval Poland.” In The Jews in Old Poland 1000–1795. Edited by Antony Polonski, Jakub Basista and Andrzej Link-Lenczkowski, 13–22. London and New York: I. B. Tauris, 1993.
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  207. Short presentation of the historical circumstances of the Jewish migration to medieval Poland, their settlement, and their status.
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  209. Legal Status
  210.  
  211. In medieval Poland, as in other countries of Western Christianity, the Jews enjoyed the special legal status of “royal servants” (servi camerae) and were granted privileges that secured their autonomy and separateness. The problem is discussed in any major study on the Polish Jews and in a number of analytical articles. The first articles on the organization and position of the Jews in medieval Poland were produced more than a century ago (Schorr 1899 and Kutrzeba 1901). More recently, Horn 1997 offers a good historiographical overview of the policy of Polish medieval monarchs toward the Jews, while Zaremska 2000 reexamines the organization of Jewish communities. Thirteenth-century privileges, which laid the foundation for Jewish autonomy in Greater Poland and Silesia and were later extended to the whole Polish kingdom, have recently been studied in Kowalska 1998 and Zaremska 2000.
  212.  
  213. Horn, Maurycy. “Jewish Jurisdiction’s Dependence on Royal Power in Poland and Lithuania up to 1548.” Acta Poloniae Historica 76 (1997): 5–17.
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  215. Recent reexamination of relations between the Jews and Polish monarchs in the Middle Ages. Reconstructs the status of Polish Jews as described in ducal and royal privileges.
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  217. Janeczek, Andrzej. “Żydzi i Ormianie—dwie gminy religijno-prawne w krajobrazie etnicznym późnośredniowiecznej Polski.” In Animarum cultura: Studia nad kulturą religijną na ziemiach polskich w średniowieczu; Vol. 1: Struktury kościelno-publiczne. Edited by Halina Manikowska and Wojciech Brojer, 271–298. Colloquia Mediaevalia Varsoviensia 4. Warsaw: Instytut Historii Polskiej PAN, 2008.
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  219. Recent comparative study on the position of Jews and Armenians in late medieval Poland, their ethnic and religious identity, and legal autonomy.
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  221. Kowalska, Zofia. “Die grosspolnischen und schlesischen Judenschutzbriefe des 13. Jahrhunderts im Verhältnis zu den Privilegien Kaiser Fridrichs II (1238) und Herzog Fridrichs II von Österreich (1244): Filiation der Dokumente und inhaltliche Analyse.” Zeitschrift für Ostmittelauropa-Forschung 47 (1998): 1–20.
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  223. Thorough analysis of charters issued for the Jews in 13th-century Silesia and Greater Poland. Demonstrates the direct influence of the privileges of Emperor Frederick II and Duke Frederick of Austria on the legislation of Polish dukes.
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  225. Kutrzeba, Stanisław. “Stanowisko prawne Żydów w Polsce w XV stuleciu.” Przewodnik Naukowy i Literacki 29 (1901): 1007–1018, 1147–1156.
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  227. Seminal study on the legal position of Jews in 15th-century Poland.
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  229. Schorr, Mojżesz. “Organizacja Żydów w Polsce od najdawniejszych czasów aż do 1772 r.” Kwartalnik Historyczny 13 (1899): 482–520, 734–775.
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  231. Examination of the organization of Jewish communities in medieval and early modern Poland.
  232. Find this resource:
  233. Zaremska, Hanna. “Uwagi o organizacji gmin żydowskich w średniowiecznej Polsce.” In Aetas media–aetas moderna: Studia ofiarowane profesorowi Henrykowi Samsonowiczowi w siedemdziesiątą rocznicę urodzin. Edited by Halina Manikowska, Agnieszka Batoszewicz and Wojciech Fałkowski, 147–164. Warsaw: Instytut Historyczny Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego, 2000.
  234. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  235. This article offers general reflections on the organization of Jewish communities in medieval Poland.
  236. Find this resource:
  237. Zaremska, Hanna. “Statut Bolesława Pobożnego dla Żydów: Uwagi w sprawie genezy.” Roczniki Dziejów Społeczno-Gospodarczych 64 (2004): 107–134.
  238. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  239. A thorough reexamination of the Kalisz statute of 1264 granted to the Jews in Greater Poland by Duke Bolesław the Pious. Analyzes the origins of that privilege and its concessions to the Jews from a broad European perspective.
  240. Find this resource:
  241. Economy
  242.  
  243. The important role of the Jews in the economy of medieval Poland has been widely acknowledged. Polish Jews, like their coreligionists in other territories of medieval Europe, acted as merchants, bankers, moneylenders, minters, and artisans in the service of Polish monarchs. The economic role of Jews was thoroughly analyzed in the classical studies of Schiper 1911 and Schiper 1937, which still remain the starting point for further research (see also Litman 1984). In recent decades, various aspects of the economic activity of Polish Jews in the Middle Ages have been examined by Horn 1983. Gieysztor 1980 offers a good overview of the topic. The recent study on the Jews of Wrocław by Goliński 2006 presents opportunities to analyze the role of the Jews in moneylending and credit operations.
  244.  
  245. Gieysztor, Aleksander. “Les Juifs et leur activités économiques en Europe orientale.” In Gli ebrei nell’alto medioevo. By Centro italiano di studi sull’alto medioevo, 489–522. Settimane di studio del Centro italiano di studi sull’alto medioevo 26. Spoleto, Italy: Centro italiano di studi sull’alto medioevo, 1980.
  246. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  247. General reflections on Jewish economic activities in east-central Europe.
  248. Find this resource:
  249. Goliński, Mateusz. Wrocławskie spisy zastawów, długów i mienia żydowskiego z 1453 roku: Studium z historii kredytu i kultury materialnej. Wroclaw, Poland: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Wrocławskiego, 2006.
  250. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  251. A study of the late medieval history of credit and material culture based on lists of the pledges, loans, and goods of the Wrocław Jews collected in 1453, after the preaching of the Franciscan friar John Capistrano.
  252. Find this resource:
  253. Horn, Maurycy. “Działalność gospodarcza Żydów polskich w średniowieczu na tle rozwoju osadnictwa.” Biuletyn Żydowskiego Instytut Historycznego 126.7 (1983): 74–77.
  254. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  255. Concise description of the economic activities of Polish Jews and their relation to the growth of settlement in medieval Poland.
  256. Find this resource:
  257. Litman, Jacob. The Economic Role of Jews in Medieval Poland: The Contribution of Yitzhak Schipper. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1984.
  258. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  259. Thorough study of Jewish economy in medieval Poland, based on the research of Ignacy Schiper.
  260. Find this resource:
  261. Piechotka, Maria, and Kazimierz Piechotek. Oppidum Judaeorum: Żydzi w przestrzeni miejskiej dawnej Rzeczypospolitej. Warsaw: Krupski i S-ka, 2004.
  262. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  263. A popular presentation of the settlement of Jews in the towns of medieval Poland and the early modern Rzeczpospolita.
  264. Find this resource:
  265. Schiper, Ignacy. Studia nad stosunkami gospodarczymi Żydów w Polsce podczas średniowiecza. Lviv, Austrian Empire: Fundusz konkursowy im. Wawelberga, 1911.
  266. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  267. Study of the economic role of the Jews in medieval Poland.
  268. Find this resource:
  269. Schiper, Ignacy. Dzieje handlu żydowskiego na ziemiach polskich. Warsaw: Centrala Związku Kupców, 1937.
  270. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  271. Extensive and still-relevant analysis of Jewish trade in the Polish territories. Reprinted in 1990 (Kraków: Krajowa Agencja Wydawnicza).
  272. Find this resource:
  273. Regional Studies
  274.  
  275. There is a growing number of studies on the history of Jews in various regions and towns of medieval Poland. Rosenthal 1960 presents the emergence of the oldest Jewish communities in Silesia. Recently, two collections of articles devoted to the Jews in Little Poland (Kiryk 1991) and Greater Poland (Topolski and Modelski 1999) have been published. Bałaban 1931–1936 remains the most extensive and still important account of the Jewish community in Kraków and Kazimierz, which was the biggest Jewish settlement in medieval Poland. Zaremska 2001 on the Jewish settlement in medieval Kraków is an important supplement to Bałaban’s gigantic work. Many textbooks on the history of major Polish towns include separate sections on the settlement of Jews. The history of the Jewish community in Wrocław has been recently presented by Ziątkowski 2000, while the presence of Jews in the medieval towns of Upper Silesia is discussed by Kowalska 1995.
  276.  
  277. Bałaban, Majer. Historia Żydów w Krakowie i na Kazimierzu: 1304–1868. 2 vols. Kraków: Nadzieja, 1931–1936.
  278. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  279. Exhaustive study of the Jewish community in Kraków and Kazimierz from 1304 to 1868. Reprinted in 1991.
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Kiryk, Feliks, ed. Żydzi w Małopolsce: Studia z dziejów osadnictwa i życia społecznego. Przemysl, Poland: PWN, 1991.
  282. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  283. A collection of articles on the history of Jews in Little Poland from the Middle Ages to the 20th century; focuses on the Jewish settlements and their role in the social life of that province.
  284. Find this resource:
  285. Kowalska, Zofia. “Die jüdische Bevölkerung in den oberschlesischen Städten des Mittelalters.” In Stadtgeschichte Oberschlesiens: Studien zur städtischen Entwicklung und Kultur einer ostmitteleuropäischen Region vom Mittelalter bis zum Vorabend der Industiralisierung. Edited by Thomas Wünsch, 75–92. Berlin: Gebr. Mann Verlag, 1995.
  286. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  287. Comprehensive study of the Jewish communities in the medieval towns of Upper Silesia.
  288. Find this resource:
  289. Leśniak, Franciszek. “Skupiska żydowskie w miastach małopolskich do końca XVI wieku.” In Żydzi w Małopolsce. Studia z dziejów osadnictwa i życia społecznego. Edited by Feliks Kiryk, 13–36. Przemysl, Poland: PWN, 1991.
  290. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  291. Reexamination of research on the Jewish settlement in the towns of Little Poland to the end of the 16th century.
  292. Find this resource:
  293. Rosenthal, Franciszek. “Najstarsze osiedla żydowskie na Śląsku.” Biuletyn Żydowskiego Instytutu Historycznego 34 (1960): 3–27.
  294. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  295. Study on the oldest Jewish communities in Silesia.
  296. Find this resource:
  297. Topolski, Jerzy, and Krzysztof Modelski, eds. Żydzi w Wielkopolsce na przestrzeni dziejów. Poznan, Poland: Wydawnictwo Poznańskie, 1999.
  298. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  299. A collection of articles on the history of Jews in Greater Poland from the Middle Ages to the 20th century. Presents the development of the Jewish communities in western Poland, their location, legal position, social structure, and economy.
  300. Find this resource:
  301. Zaremska, Hanna. “Jewish Street (platea Judeorum) in Cracow: The 14th–the First Half of the 15th C.” Acta Poloniae Historica 83 (2001): 26–57.
  302. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  303. A successful attempt at reconstructing the location and functioning of the Jewish settlement in medieval Kraków.
  304. Find this resource:
  305. Ziątkowski, Leszek. Dzieje Żydów we Wrocławiu. Wroclaw, Poland: Wydawnictwo Dolnośląskie, 2000.
  306. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  307. Chronological narrative of the history of Jews in Wroclaw.
  308. Find this resource:
  309. Jewish-Christian Relations
  310.  
  311. A recent overview of Jewish-Christian relations in medieval Poland is offered by Zaremska 2008, with references to earlier literature. Bobowski 1989, Drabina 1989, and Cetwiński 2001 analyze the rise and spread of anti-Jewish sentiment in medieval Silesia and discuss the pogroms this triggered.
  312.  
  313. Bobowski, Kazimierz. “Ze studiów nad prześladowaniami i pogromami Żydów na Śląsku w dobie średniowiecza.” Śląski Kwartalnik Historyczny: Sobótka 44.1 (1989): 5–11.
  314. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  315. Concise overview of anti-Jewish pogroms in medieval Silesia.
  316. Find this resource:
  317. Cetwiński, Marek. “Narodziny antysemickich stereotypów: Pogromy Żydów na Śląsku w XIV–XV wieku.” In Śląski tygiel: Studia z dziejów polskiego średniowiecza. By Marek Cetwiński, 299–314. Czestochowa, Poland: Wydawnictwo Wyższej Szkoły Pedagogicznej, 2001.
  318. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  319. A survey of the rise of anti-Semitic stereotypes in late medieval Silesia. Collects and analyzes historical circumstances of anti-Jewish pogroms in that province.
  320. Find this resource:
  321. Drabina, Jan. “Kościół wobec Żydów na średniowiecznym Śląsku.” Śląski Kwartalnik Historyczny: Sobótka 44.1 (1989): 13–43.
  322. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  323. Thorough examination of the attitude of the Catholic Church toward the Jews in medieval Silesia.
  324. Find this resource:
  325. Zaremska, Hanna. “Żydzi wobec chrześcijan w średniowiecznej Polsce.” In Animarum cultura: Studia nad kulturą religijną na ziemiach polskich w średniowieczu. Vol. 1: Struktury kościelno-publiczne. Edited by Halina Manikowska and Wojciech Brojer, 191–228. Colloquia Mediaevalia Varsoviensia 4. Warsaw: Instytut Historii Polskiej Akademii Nauk, 2008.
  326. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  327. A thorough analysis of the attitude of Jews toward Christians in medieval Poland, based upon a reinterpretation of Christian and Jewish sources. Provides good insight into the social and religious life of Jewish communities and discusses how the Ashkenazi diaspora functioned within Polish Christian society.
  328. Find this resource:
  329. Germans
  330.  
  331. Starting from the end of the 12th century, the western territories of Poland (Silesia, Great Poland) became areas of intensive German settlement. Polish dukes invited German peasants and burghers, offering them land and special privileges (see Schlesinger 1975 and Higounet 1989). The growth of German colonization was accompanied by the extension of arable lands and the reorganization of the economic system of the Piast duchies. Throughout the 13th century, German settlers played a leading role in the establishment of a network of new towns and villages that enjoyed separate jurisdiction and autonomy. Special judicial and economic rights formed the corpus of the so-called German law and were described in the municipal charters granted by Polish dukes (Kuhn 1968, Menzel 1977, Willoweit and Schich 1980, Bogucka and Samsonowicz 1986). Apart from the settlement of German peasants and burghers, the territories of Poland witnessed an inflow of German knights who offered their service to Polish dukes (Cetwiński 1980–1982, Jurek 1996)
  332.  
  333. Bogucka, Maria, and Henryk Samsonowicz. Dzieje miast i mieszczaństwa w Polsce przerozbiorowej. Wroclaw, Poland: Ossolineum, 1986.
  334. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  335. A detailed study of Polish towns and townspeople in the Middle Ages and early modern period, which offers insight into the emergence and growth of Polish towns, their social and economic structure, as well as the development of city institutions and separate laws. Discusses the role of German settlers in the establishment of medieval Poland.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. Cetwiński, Marek. Rycerstwo śląskie do końca XIII wieku. 2 vols. Wroclaw, Poland: Ossolineum, 1980–1982.
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  339. Examines the rise of knightly clans in Silesia to the end of the 13th century, drawing attention to the settlement of foreign German knights and their service to the Piast dukes in that province.
  340. Find this resource:
  341. Higounet, Charles. Les Allemands en Europe centrale et orientale au Moyen Age. Paris: Aubier, 1989.
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  343. Thorough study of the history of German settlement in eastern European countries in the Middle Ages. German translation by Manfred Fasol, Die deustche Ostsiedlung im Mittelalter (Berlin: Siedler, 1986, reprinted 1990).
  344. Find this resource:
  345. Jurek, Tomasz. Obce rycerstwo na Śląsku do połowy XIV wieku. (Foreign knights in Silesia to the middle of the 14th century.) Poznan, Poland: Poznańskie Towarzystwo Przyjaciół Nauk, 1996.
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  347. A detailed study of the settlement of foreign knights in Silesia until the middle of the 14th century.
  348. Find this resource:
  349. Kuhn, Walter. Die deutschrechtlichen Städte in Schlesien und Polen in der ersten Hälfte des 13. Jahrhunderts. Marburg am Lahn, Germany: Herder-Institut, 1968.
  350. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  351. Authoritative study on the growth of the town in 13th-century Silesia.
  352. Find this resource:
  353. Menzel, Joseph Joachim. Die schlesischen Lokationsurkunden des 13. Jahrhunderts: Studien zum Urkundwesen zur Siedlungs-, Rechts- und Wirschaftsgeschichte einer ostdeutschen Landschaft im Mittelalter. Quellen und Darstellungen zur schlesischen Geschichte, 19. Würzburg, Germany: Holzner, 1977.
  354. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  355. Detailed analysis of the 13th-century municipal charters for Silesian towns.
  356. Find this resource:
  357. Schlesinger, Walter, ed. Die deutsche Ostsiedlung des Mittelalters als Problem der europäischen Geschichte. Sigmaringen, Germany: Jan Thorbecke Verlag, 1975.
  358. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  359. A collection of studies on German colonization in east central Europe in the Middle Ages, with an important contribution by Stanisław Trawkowski on the settlement of German peasants in medieval Poland (pp. 355–368).
  360. Find this resource:
  361. Willoweit, Dietmar, and Winfried Schich, eds. Studien zur Geschichte des sächsisch-magdeburischen Rechts in Deutschland und Polen. Frankfurt am Main, Germany, and Bern, Switzerland: Peter Lang, 1980.
  362. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  363. Collection of studies on the implantation of Magdeburg municipal laws in Germany and Poland.
  364. Find this resource:
  365. Ruthenians
  366.  
  367. The extension of the Polish kingdom into Red Ruthenia in the 1340s for the first time brought thousands of Orthodox Ruthenians under the rule of Polish monarchs. In the late Middle Ages Red Ruthenia became an area of intensive Polish, Jewish, and German settlement (Janeczek 1991, Jawor 2000). Major towns such as Lviv and Halicz were populated by various ethnic and religious groups, which developed a system of peaceful coexistence and cooperation (Wünsch 1999, Janeczek and Wünsch 2004).
  368.  
  369. Janeczek, Andrzej. Osadnictwo pogranicza polsko-ruskiego: Województwo bełskie od schyłku XIV do początku XVII w. Wroclaw, Poland: Ossolineum, 1991.
  370. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  371. Detailed examination of the settlement on the Polish-Ruthenian borderland from the end of the 14th century to the beginning of the 17th.
  372. Find this resource:
  373. Janeczek, Andrzej, and Thomas Wünsch, eds. On the Frontier of Latin Europe: Integration and Segregation in Red Ruthenia, 1350–1600. Warsaw: Institute of Archeology and Ethnology, Polish Academy of Sciences, 2004.
  374. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  375. Collection of articles on the formation of the multiethnic and multireligious society of Red Ruthenia in the Middle Ages; includes a number of case studies on the coexistence of various ethnic and religious groups in that province.
  376. Find this resource:
  377. Jawor, Grzegorz. Osady prawa wołoskiego i ich mieszkańcy na Rusi Czerwonej w późnym średniowieczu. Lublin, Poland: UMCS, 2000.
  378. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  379. Study of the establishment of the so-called Wallachian villages in Red Ruthenia in the late Middle Ages.
  380. Find this resource:
  381. Wünsch, Thomas. “Ostsiedlung in Rotrussland vom 14.–16. Jahrhundert: Problemaufriss für die kulturgeschichte Erforschung eines Transformazionsprozesses in Ostmittelauropa (mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der terra Halicz).” Österreichische Osthefte 41 (1999): 47–82.
  382. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  383. Overview of settlement in late medieval Red Ruthenia, presented against the background of transformation processes in east central Europe.
  384. Find this resource:
  385. Armenians
  386.  
  387. The first Armenians may have arrived in Polish lands in the 11th century, soon after their country had been partitioned by the Byzantine Empire and Turkey in 1080. When in the 1340s the Polish kingdom expanded eastward, Armenian communities existed in some Ruthenian towns. In the 15th century, major settlements of Armenians were located along the trade route from Gdańsk to the Black Sea (Kraków, Warsaw, Gdańsk, Lviv, Zamość). Like Greeks, Armenians played an important role in the international trade with the Black Sea colonies of Caffa. The elite of the Armenian community was formed by merchants who developed international trade with Turkey and Persia. The largest community of Armenians was established in Lviv, where they constituted the third largest ethnic and religious group, after Orthodox Ruthenians and Catholic Poles. In 1356 King Casimir the Great issued a privilege for the Armenian population of Lviv, granting them freedom in trade and independence from local jurisdiction. A chronological account of the history of Armenians in Poland is presented in Zakrzewska-Dubasowa 1982 and Stopka 2000. The best overviews of the history of the Armenian Church in Poland are provided by Petrowicz 1971 (in Italian), Stopka 1984 and Stopka 2008 (in Polish). Medieval laws granted to the Armenians by Polish kings are examined by Oleś 1966. Wyrozumska 2003 offers an edition of the records from the municipal registers about the Armenians in medieval Kraków.
  388.  
  389. Dachkévytch, Ya. R. “L’établissement des Armeniéns en Ukraine pendant les XIe–XVIIIe siècles.” Revue des Etudes Armeniéns n.s 6 (1968): 329–367.
  390. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  391. Chronological narrative of the Armenian settlement in the Ruthenian territories of Poland and Lithuania.
  392. Find this resource:
  393. Oleś, Marian. The Armenian Law in the Polish Kingdom (1356–1519). Rome: Edizioni Hosianum, 1966.
  394. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  395. Thorough study of the special legislation for Polish Armenians.
  396. Find this resource:
  397. Ormiańska Biblioteka Cyfrowa.
  398. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  399. Bibliographical information on the history of Polish Armenians as well as some digital copies of historical works are available on the website of the Armenian Digital Library.
  400. Find this resource:
  401. Petrowicz, Gregorio. Le chiesa armena in Polonia, I: 1350–1624. Rome: Istituto degli Studi Ecclesiastici, 1971.
  402. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  403. Textbook on the history of the Armenian Church in Poland, 1350–1624.
  404. Find this resource:
  405. Stopka, Krzysztof. “Kościół ormiański na Rusi w wiekach średnich.” Nasza Przeszłość 62 (1984): 27–95.
  406. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  407. A concise study of the medieval history of the Armenian Church in Ruthenia.
  408. Find this resource:
  409. Stopka, Krzysztof. Ormianie w Polsce dawnej i dzisiejszej. Kraków: Księgarnia Akademicka, 2000.
  410. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  411. A study of the history of Armenians in medieval and contemporary Poland. A good starting point for research.
  412. Find this resource:
  413. Stopka, Krzysztof. “Kultura religijna Ormian polskich (struktury i stosunki kościelno-publiczne).” In Animarum cultura: Studia nad kulturą religijną na ziemiach polskich w średniowieczu. Vol. 1: Struktury kościelno-publiczne. Edited by Halina Manikowska and Wojciech Brojer, 229–270. Colloquia Mediaevalia Varsoviensia 4. Warsaw: Instytut Historii PAN, 2008.
  414. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  415. Recent overview of the religious culture of Polish Armenians in the Middle Ages, analyzing the structures of the Armenian Church and its religious life.
  416. Find this resource:
  417. Wyrozumska, Bożena, ed. Ormianie w średniowiecznym Krakowie: Wypisy źródłowe. Kraków: PAU, 2003.
  418. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  419. Edition of records from the Kraków town registers related to the Armenians in 14th- and 15th-century Kraków.
  420. Find this resource:
  421. Zakrzewska-Dubasowa, Mirosława. Ormianie w dawnej Polsce. Lublin, Poland: Wydawnictwo Lubelskie, 1982.
  422. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  423. A popular work on the history of Polish Armenians and their contribution to the culture of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
  424. Find this resource:
  425. Tartars
  426.  
  427. The first Tartars came to Lithuania in the first half of the 13th century. They were mostly prisoners who had been taken captive in wars waged against the Golden Horde. Hundreds of them were brought to Lithuania, organized in tents, and settled in bigger castles. Some Tartars were made slaves, while others formed regular units of light cavalry in the Lithuanian army. In the 15th and 16th centuries, political upheavals in the Crimea brought about mass migration of Tartars, who came to Lithuania and Poland in search of asylum. There they were offered personal freedom, land, and special laws that protected their religious and cultural diversity. Genealogical information about Tartar families in Poland is provided by Dziadulewicz 1929. The first comprehensive history of the Tartars in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was Kryczyński 1938. Chronological narratives of the Tartar settlement in Lithuania and Poland are offered by Borawski 1986 and Tyszkiewicz 1989. General overviews of the history, culture, and identity of Polish and Lithuanian Tartars are Borawski and Dubliński 1986, Bohdanowicz 1997, and Warmińska 1999. The special legal position of Tartars in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania is examined by Sobczak 1984.
  428.  
  429. Bohdanowicz, Leon. “Tatarzy muzułmanie w Polsce. Gdansk, Poland: Niezależne Wydawnictwo Rocznik Tatarów w Polsce, 1997.
  430. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  431. Comprehensive presentation of the history and culture of the Polish Tartars.
  432. Find this resource:
  433. Borawski, Piotr, and Aleksander Dubliński. Tatarzy polscy, dzieje, obrzędy, legendy, tradycje. Warsaw: Wydawnictwo Iskry, 1986.
  434. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  435. Study of the Polish Tartars, their history, customs, legends, and traditions.
  436. Find this resource:
  437. Borawski, Piotr. Tatarzy w dawnej Rzeczypospolitej. Warsaw: Ludowa Spółdzielnia Wydawnicza, 1986.
  438. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  439. Popular presentation of the history of the Tartars in medieval and early modern Poland.
  440. Find this resource:
  441. Dziadulewicz, Stanisław. Herbarz rodzin tatarskich w Polsce. Wilno, Poland: Komitet Funduszu Kultury Narodowej, 1929.
  442. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  443. Lexicon of the coats of arms of Tartar families in Poland.
  444. Find this resource:
  445. Kryczyński, Stanisław. Tatarzy litewscy: Próba monografii historyczno-etnograficznej. Rocznik Tatarski 3. Warsaw: n.p. 1938.
  446. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  447. Classic work on the history of the Lithuanian Tartars.
  448. Find this resource:
  449. Sobczak, Jacek. Położenie prawne ludności tatarskiej w Wielkim Księstwie Litewskim. Warsaw and Poznan, Poland: PWN, 1984.
  450. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  451. A study of the legal status of the Tartars in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the Middle Ages and early modern period.
  452. Find this resource:
  453. Tyszkiewicz, Jan. Tatarzy na Litwie i w Polsce: Studia z dziejów XIII–XVIII w. Warsaw: PWN, 1989.
  454. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  455. The best historical study of the Tartars in Lithuania and Poland from the 13th century to the 18th.
  456. Find this resource:
  457. Warmińska, Katarzyna. Tatarzy polscy—tożsamość religijna i etniczna. Kraków: Universitas, 1999.
  458. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  459. A study of the religious and ethnic identity of the Polish Tartars.
  460. Find this resource:
  461. Karaites
  462.  
  463. The Karaites were the smallest ethnic and religious minority in medieval Poland and Lithuania. The beginnings of the Karaite settlement in Poland and Lithuania date back to the end of the 14th century, when their first community was settled in Troki by Grand Duke Vytautas. The later expeditions of Vytautas to the Crimea were followed by the arrival of new Karaim migrants. Like those of the Tartars, their colonies were established mostly along the border with the Teutonic state in Prussia. General overviews of the history of the Karaites in Poland are presented in Zajączkowski 1961 (English), Szyszman 1989 (French), Kobeckaité 1997 (Lithuanian), and Pełczyński 2004 (Polish). A recent and thorough analysis of the Karaite settlement in medieval Poland and Lithuania, their organization and legal status, is offered by Gąsiorowski 2008 (Polish).
  464.  
  465. Gąsiorowski, Stefan. Karaimi w Koronie i na Litwie w XV–XVIII wieku. Kraków: Wydawnictwo Austeria, 2008.
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  467. A detailed study of the Karaites in the medieval Polish kingdom and in the early modern Commonwealth of Poland and Lithuania. Based upon a careful analysis of scattered sources, examines settlement, economy, and legal status of the Karaites, their relations with other religious groups, organization, and culture. Rich in documentation and outstanding in historical interpretation
  468. Find this resource:
  469. Kizilov, Mikhail. “The Arrival of the Karaites (Karaims) to Poland and Lithuania: A Survey of Sources and Critical Analysis of Existing Theories.” Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi 12 (2002/2003): 29–45.
  470. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  471. Reexamination of historiographical theories on the date and circumstances of the arrival of the first Karaites in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.
  472. Find this resource:
  473. Kobeckaité, Halina. Lietuvos Karaimai. Vilnius, Lithuania: Baltos Iankos, 1997.
  474. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  475. Recent Lithuanian study of the Lithuanian Karaites, offering a thorough reexamination of the problem.
  476. Find this resource:
  477. Pełczyński, Grzegorz. Karaimi Polscy. Poznan, Poland: PTDN, 2004.
  478. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  479. Popular study of the Polish Karaites.
  480. Find this resource:
  481. Szyszman, Simon. Les Karaïtes d’Europe. Acta Universitatis Uppsaliensis: Studia Multiethnica Upsaliensia 7. Uppsala, Sweden: Centre d’études multiethnicques de l’Université d’Upsal, 1989.
  482. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  483. Chronological account of the history of the Karaites in Europe, with a chapter on their settlement in Poland and Lithuania.
  484. Find this resource:
  485. Tyszkiewicz, Jan. “Karaimi litewscy w czasach Witolda i sprawa przywileju datowanego rokiem 1388.” Studia Źródłoznawcze 36 (1997): 45–64.
  486. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  487. Article on the settlement of the first Karaites in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the privilege granted to them by Grand Duke Vytautas.
  488. Find this resource:
  489. Zajączkowski, Ananiasz. Karaims in Poland. History, Language, Folklore, Science. Paris: Mouton, 1961.
  490. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  491. Collection of studies of the history and culture of Karaites in Poland.
  492. Find this resource:
  493. Orthodox Church
  494.  
  495. The Orthodox Church took the second position, after the Roman Catholic Church, among denominations present in the territory of medieval Poland. Within international historiography there has been a long debate on the beginnings of Eastern Orthodoxy in Poland. Some historians claim that it was implanted by the Byzantine missionary Saint Methodius and his clergy, who operated in Little Poland from the end of the 9th century and even established a separate diocese in Kraków. This concept, however, lacks substantial evidence and has been rejected by most modern Polish historians. In the 1340s, King Casimir the Great annexed the territories of Red Ruthenia with Lviv and Halicz to his monarchy. They were inhabited by Orthodox Ruthenians and had a well-developed ecclesiastical structure associated with the Orthodox province of Kiev.
  496.  
  497. Overviews
  498.  
  499. Mironowicz 2001, Mironowicz 2003, Mironowicz 2006, and Chomik 2000 provide overviews of the history of the Orthodox Church in Poland. Bieńkowski 1969 offers a good analysis of the territorial structure of the Orthodox Church in medieval and early modern Poland, tracing the establishment and later development of particular Orthodox dioceses. Kłoczowski 1997 is a collection of studies of various aspects of the spread of Christianity in Kiev Ruthenia.
  500.  
  501. Bieńkowski, Lubomir. “Organizacja Kościoła wschodniego w Polsce.” In Kościół w Polsce: Studia nad historią Kościoła katolickiego w Polsce. Vol. 2, Part 2. Edited by Jerzy Kłoczowski, 781–1049. Kraków: Znak, 1969.
  502. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  503. The most extensive study on the organization of the Orthodox Church in medieval and early modern Poland
  504. Find this resource:
  505. Chodynicki, Kazimierz. Kościół prawosławny a Rzeczpospolita Polska 1370–1632. Warsaw: n.p., 1934.
  506. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  507. Classic overview of relations between the Orthodox Church and Poland in the period 1370–1632.
  508. Find this resource:
  509. Chomik, Piotr, ed. Kościół prawosławny w dziejach Rzeczypospolitej i krajów sąsiednich. Bialystok, Poland: Zakład Historii Kultur Pogranicza Instytutu Socjologii Uniwersytetu w Białymstoku, 2000.
  510. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  511. Collection of essays on the history of the Orthodox Church in Poland and in neighboring countries.
  512. Find this resource:
  513. Kłoczowski, Jerzy, ed. Chrześcijaństwo Rusi Kijowskiej, Białorusi, Ukrainy i Rosji (X–XVII w). Kraków: PAU, 1997.
  514. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  515. Collection of articles on Christianity in Kiev Rus, Byelorus, Ukraine, and Russia from the 10th century to the 17th century.
  516. Find this resource:
  517. Mironowicz, Antoni. The Orthodox Church and the Byelorussian People. Bialystok, Poland: Brotherhood of Sts. Cyril and Methodius in Poland, 2001.
  518. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  519. A detailed overview of the history of the Orthodox Church in Poland.
  520. Find this resource:
  521. Mironowicz, Antoni. Kościół prawosławny w państwie Piastów i Jagiellonów. (The Orthodox Church in the Piast and Jagiellonian state) Bialystok, Poland: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Białostockiego, 2003.
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  523. Chronological narrative of the history of the Orthodox Church from the missions of Saints Cyril and Methodius in the 9th century to the end of the 16th century
  524. Find this resource:
  525. Mironowicz, Antoni. Kościół prawosławny w Polsce. Bialystok, Poland: Białoruskie Towarzystwo Historyczne, 2006.
  526. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  527. Recent textbook on the Orthodox Church in Poland.
  528. Find this resource:
  529. Secondary Literature
  530.  
  531. The best general studies on relations between the Catholic and Orthodox populations in the territories of medieval and early modern Poland and Lithuania are Czermak 1903 and Kamieniecki 1911. Important contributions to research on the place of the Orthodox Church and the position of its bishops in late medieval Poland have been made by Trajdos 1983 and Trajdos 1985. Krochmal 2007 is a good recent case study of coexistence and conflicts between Orthodox and Catholics in the border town of Przemyśl.
  532.  
  533. Czermak, Wiktor. “Sprawa równouprawnienia schizmatyków i katolików na Litwie (1432–1563 r.).” In Rozprawy Akademii Umiejętności Wydziału Historyczno-Filozoficznego, Vol. 2/19. By Akademia Umiejętności, 348–397. Kraków: Akademia Umiejętności, 1903.
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  535. Classic analysis of the legal position of the Orthodox population in Lithuania in the 15th and 16th centuries. Presents the process of granting the Orthodox Ruthenians full political rights.
  536. Find this resource:
  537. Kamieniecki, Witold. “Ograniczenia wyznaniowe w prawodawstwie Wielkiego Księstwa Litewskiego.” Przegląd Historyczny 13 (1911): 266–282.
  538. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  539. Examination of legal restrictions on the Orthodox population in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.
  540. Find this resource:
  541. Krochmal, Jacek. “Catholic-Orthodox Relations in the diocese of Przemyśl, 1350–1600.” In Lithuania and Ruthenia: Studies of a Transcultural Communication. Edited by Stefan Rohdewald, David Frick and Stefan Wiedekehr, 210–231. Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz, 2007.
  542. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  543. A case study of coexistence between Orthodox Ruthenians and Catholic Poles in the border town of Przemyśl in the Middle Ages and early modern period.
  544. Find this resource:
  545. Trajdos, Tadeusz Marian. Kościół katolicki na ziemiach ruskich Korony i Litwy za panowania Władysława Jagiełły (1386–1434). Wroclaw, Poland: Ossolineum, 1983.
  546. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  547. A detailed study of the organization of the Roman Catholic Church in the Ruthenian territories of Poland and Lithuania under the reign of King Władysław Jagiełło (1386–1434).
  548. Find this resource:
  549. Trajdos, Tadeusz M. “Metropolici kijowscy Cyprian i Grzegorz Camblak a problemy Cerkwi prawosławnej w państwie polsko-litewskim u schyłku XIV i w pierwszej ćwierci XV wieku.” Balcanica Posnaniensia 2 (1985): 211–234.
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  551. Article on the role of the two Kiev Orthodox metropolitans Cyprian and Gregory Camblak and their attempts to strengthen the position of the Orthodox Church under the reign of Władysław Jagiełło.
  552. Find this resource:
  553. Trajdos, Tadeusz M. “Biskupi prawosławni w monarchii Jagiełły.” Nasza Przeszłość 66 (1986): 107–155.
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  555. Examines the role of Orthodox bishops under the monarchy of King Władysław Jagiełło (1386–1434).
  556. Find this resource:
  557. Heresy
  558.  
  559. Until the outbreak of the Hussite revolution in 1419, heresy was little known in Polish society. In contrast to western Europe or even to neighboring Bohemia, Polish lands remained almost untouched by the spread of the powerful religious movements of the Cathars or Waldensians. In the 14th century, activity of the latter was recorded in the Polish borderlands of western Pomerania and Silesia, but there is little evidence that Waldensians operated within the Polish kingdom proper. The province of Silesia became notorious for the spread of the Free Spirit heresy associated with the Beguines and Begards. The trial of Beguines in Świdnica in 1332 is a well-known example of the dissemination of the Free Spirit doctrine within the territory that belonged to the Polish church province of Gniezno. In the 15th century, the Hussite doctrine radiated from neighboring Bohemia and gained some popularity among Poles.
  560.  
  561. Overviews
  562.  
  563. International textbooks on religious history do not give a coherent picture of the spread of medieval heresies in Poland. They usually explain the appointment of the first papal inquisitors for the Polish kingdom in 1318 and the dissemination of Hussite ideas in 15th-century Poland. For a long time the only study on heresy in medieval Poland was Mikulka 1969. Dobrowolski 1924 remains the standard narrative regarding heretical groups operating in medieval Poland. The beginnings of medieval heresy were examined by Swoboda 1970. Bylina 1985 analyzes the attitude of medieval Poles toward heresy and reconstructs an image of the heretic. Concise presentation of religious dissent in medieval Poland is offered by Marinelli 1993 and Kras 2004, while Szymański 2007 provides the first detailed account of heretical movements in Silesia.
  564.  
  565. Bylina, Stanisław. “Wizerunek heretyka w Polsce średniowiecznej.” Odrodzenie i reformacja w Polsce 30 (1985): 5–23.
  566. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  567. A thorough study of the concept of heresy and the image of the heretic in medieval Poland.
  568. Find this resource:
  569. Dobrowolski, Kazimierz. “Pierwsze sekty religijne w Polsce.” Reformacja w Polsce 3 (1924): 3–24.
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  571. The first critical study of medieval heresy in pre-Reformation Poland, which is still a starting point for research.
  572. Find this resource:
  573. Kras, Paweł. “Pro fidei defensione contra modernos haereticos. Hérétiques et inquisiteurs en Pologne au Moyen Âge” Heresis 40 (2004): 69–94.
  574. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  575. Recent comprehesive reexamination of research on heresy and inquisition in medieval Poland.
  576. Find this resource:
  577. Marinelli, Luigi. “Su valdismo, husitismo et inquisizione nelle terre polaccche.” In La valdesia di Novgorod: Giudaizzanti e prima riforma (sec. XV). Edited by Cesare de Michelis, 173–203. Turin, Italy: Claudiana, 1993.
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  579. A detailed study of the Waldensians and Hussites in medieval Poland and their persecution by the inquisition.
  580. Find this resource:
  581. Mikulka, Jaromir. Polské země a herese v dobĕ před reformaci. Prague: Československa Akademia Věd, 1969.
  582. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  583. Chronological narrative of the history of heresy in medieval Poland, with extensive coverage of the spread of Hussite ideas.
  584. Find this resource:
  585. Swoboda, Wincenty. “Początki herezji na ziemiach polskich.” In Europa-Słowiańszczyzna-Polska. Edited by Juliusz Bardach, et al., 385–396. Poznan, Poland: UAM, 1970.
  586. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  587. Examination of the earliest records concerning heretics in medieval Poland.
  588. Find this resource:
  589. Szymański, Jarosław. Ruchy heretyckie na Śląsku w XIII–XIV wieku. Katowice, Poland: Fundacja Zamek Chudów, 2007.
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  591. Recent Polish study of heresy in 13th- and 14th-century Silesia. Offers a reexamination of the history of the Waldensians in that province. Follows the results of international scholarship, but the interpretation of the doctrine of Silesian Waldensians may seem controversial.
  592. Find this resource:
  593. Waldensians
  594.  
  595. In the first half of the 14th century, Silesia became notorious for the spread of Waldensian belief. The first traces of Waldensian presence are recorded in the second decade of that century. There are various documents related to the persecution of Waldensians by the bishop of Wrocław. The fragmentary interrogations of the trial in Świdnica provide interesting information on the organization and doctrine of the Waldensians who settled in Silesia. As Alexander Patschovsky has demonstrated, most Waldensians came to east central Europe in the second half of the 13th century together with a vast wave of German settlers. They fled their homeland to avoid persecution that threatened their lives and prosperity. In Bohemia and the western borderlands of Poland, German Waldensians established a network of communities that maintained strong contacts. Well-organized communities of Waldensians were established in the northwestern parts of the Polish kingdom. An investigation conducted by Peter Zwicker in 1391–1392 revealed hundreds of German Waldensians living in western Pomerania. A few of the interrogated Waldensians lived in the Polish kingdom.
  596.  
  597. Overviews
  598.  
  599. Most textbooks on the history of the Waldensians (Gonnet and Molnàr 1973, Schneider 1981, Merlo 1991, Molnàr 1991) include sections on the spread of Waldensian communities in east central Europe (Austria, Bohemia, Silesia, western Pomerania), but they do not discuss the presence of Waldensians in Poland. Actually, the activity of Waldensians is recorded almost exclusively from 14th-century Silesia and western Pomeriania, territories that at the time were outside the Polish state.
  600.  
  601. Gonnet, Jean, and Amedeo Molnàr. Les vaudois au Moyen Age. Turin, Italy: Claudiana, 1973.
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  603. The most detailed study on the medieval Waldensians, with a section devoted to their activity in eastern Europe.
  604. Find this resource:
  605. Merlo, Grado Giovanni. Valdesi e valdismi medievali. Itinerari e proposte ricerca. Turin, Italy: Claudiana, 1991.
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  607. Historiographical examination of recent research on medieval Waldensians. Presents results of recent international research and poses methodological problems.
  608. Find this resource:
  609. Molnàr, Amedeo. Valdenstí: Evropsky rozmer jejich vzdoru. Prague: Kalich, 1991.
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  611. Textbook on the history of the Waldensians, their origins, dissemination, organization, social structure, doctrine, and religious life.
  612. Find this resource:
  613. Schneider, Martin. Europäisches Waldensertum im 13. und 14. Jahrhundert: Gemeinschaftsform, Frömmigkeit, Sozialer Hintergrund. Arbeiten zur Kirchengeschichte 51. Berlin and New York: de Gruyter, 1981.
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  615. A comprehensive study of the Waldensian communities in late medieval Germany and eastern European territories settled by Germans. Discusses their organization, social structure, and forms of religious life.
  616. Find this resource:
  617. Sources
  618.  
  619. Fragmentary evidence of the spread of Waldensians in Polish lands is collected in the edition of the register of Peter Zwicker (Kurze 1975), who in 1392–1394 carried out interrogations of Waldensians in western Pomerania, and in records of the inquisition against Waldensians in Świdnica in 1315 (Patschovsky 1980).
  620.  
  621. Kurze, Dietrich, ed. Quellen zur Ketzergeschichte Brandenburgs und Pommerns. Berlin and New York: de Gruyter, 1975.
  622. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  623. Principal edition of documents related to heretics in late medieval Brandenburg and western Pomerania; includes the register of the inquisitor Peter Zwicker, who in 1392–1394 interrogated hundreds of Waldensians from the diocese of Kamień. An indispensable source for the history of Waldensians in the late Middle Ages.
  624. Find this resource:
  625. Patschovsky, Alexander, ed. “Waldenserverfolgung in Sweidnitz 1315.” Deutsches Archiv für Erforschung des Mittelaters 36 (1980): 137–176.
  626. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  627. Edition of fragmentary records of a heresy trial of a group of Waldensians from Świdnica (lower Silesia), which took place in 1315.
  628. Find this resource:
  629. Secondary Literature
  630.  
  631. The history of Waldensians recorded in Zwicker’s registers is thoroughly treated by Biller 2001 and Swoboda 1973. Wyrozumski 1977 presents a general but somewhat outdated history of Waldensians in medieval Poland, collecting and analyzing all available sources. The activity of Waldensians in Silesia is discussed by Szymański 2004. In addition, the interesting case of Stephan of Marchia, a Waldensian imprisoned in Silesia and tried at the end of the 14th century, is analyzed by Potkowski 1972. Szymański 2004 describes unedited manuscripts in the Library of Wrocław University that are related to the persecution of Waldensians in 14th-century Silesia.
  632.  
  633. Biller, Peter. “Waldenses in German-Speaking Areas in the Later 14th Century: The View of an Inquisitor.” In The Waldenses 1170–1530: Between a Religious Order and a Church. By Peter Biller, 277–291. Variorum Collected Studies Series 676. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2001.
  634. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  635. The best analysis of the organization and life of Waldensians in western Pomerania, based upon the register of the inquisitor Peter Zwicker.
  636. Find this resource:
  637. Potkowski, Edward. “Heretic Stephan of Marchia.” Studi Medievali ser. 3.13 (1972): 281–290.
  638. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  639. Case study of Stephan of Marchia, a Waldensian interrogated in 1398.
  640. Find this resource:
  641. Swoboda, Wincenty. “Waldensi na Pomorzu Zachodnim i w Nowej Marchii w świetle protokołów szczecińskiej inkwizycji z lat 1392–1394.” Materiały Zachodniopomorskie 19 (1973): 493–509.
  642. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  643. A study of the Waldensians in western Pomerania, based upon the inquisitorial register of Peter Zwicker from the years 1392–1394.
  644. Find this resource:
  645. Szymański, Jarosław. “‘Articuli secte Waldensium’ na tle antyheretyckich zbiorów rękopiśmiennych Biblioteki Uniwersytetu Wrocławskiego.” Studia Źródłoznawcze 42 (2004): 85–96.
  646. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  647. Presentation of the manuscripts from the Library of Wrocław University related to inquisitorial activities against Waldensians in 14th-century Silesia, with editions of formulas used in heresy trials.
  648. Find this resource:
  649. Wyrozumski, Jerzy. “Z dziejów waldensów w Polsce średniowiecznej Zeszyty Naukowe Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego 259 (1977), Prace Historyczne 56: 39–51.
  650. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  651. A comprehensive examination of the history of Waldensians in medieval Poland.
  652. Find this resource:
  653. Beguines
  654.  
  655. The Beguines established a network of houses only in the province in Silesia, which in the 13th century became an area of intensive German colonization. Outside Silesia the influence of the Beguines was very limited. Despite the attempts of local dukes and their wives to establish new Beguine houses in other parts of Poland (Kraków, Poznań, Sandomierz) or in the Teutonic state in Prussia, their existence turned out be a short-lived experiment, and most of those houses were closed soon after the deaths of their founders. At the beginning of the 14th century, some German Beguines and Begards were accused of disseminating the Free Spirit heresy, which was condemned by the Council of Vienna in 1312. In the 1330s, followers of the Free Spirit were found in the Beguine house in Świdnica in Silesia. In 1332 the Beguines from Świdnica were interrogated by the papal inquisitor John Swenkefeld. The register of their trial sheds light on their doctrine and religious practice and remains one of the best sources for the history of the Free Spirit heresy.
  656.  
  657. Overviews
  658.  
  659. The classic treatment of the Beguine movement and the Free Spirit heresy is Grundmann 1995. In addition, Lerner 1972 offers a thorough examination of heresy charges against the Beguines from Świdnica (Sweidnitz) in 1332. Within Polish historiography, Wyrozumski 1971 and Lapis and Lapis 1972 cover the history of Beguines and Begards in late medieval Poland. More recently, the impact of Free Spirit heresy on Polish Beguines has been discussed by Trupinda 1996 and Szymański 2007.
  660.  
  661. Grundmann, Herman. The Religious Movements in the Middle Ages. Translated by Steven Rowan. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1995.
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  663. This seminal work on female piety and religious movements in the Middle Ages discusses the origins and growth of the Beguines, with a section devoted to the origins of the Free Spirit heresy.
  664. Find this resource:
  665. Lapis, Bohdan, and Danuta Lapis. “Beginki w Polsce w XIII–XV wieku.” Kwartalnik Historyczny 79.3 (1972): 521–544.
  666. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  667. Classic study of the Beguines in Poland from the 13th century to the 15th, including a thorough analysis of the trial of the Świdnica Beguines in 1332.
  668. Find this resource:
  669. Lerner, Robert E. The Heresy of the Free Spirit in the Later Middle Ages. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972.
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  671. The best thorough analysis of the Free Spirit heresy and its attribution to the Beguine movement. A separate section discusses the 1332 trial of the Beguines of Świdnica. Reprinted in 1993.
  672. Find this resource:
  673. Szymański, Jarosław. Ruchy heretyckie na Śląsku w XIII-XIV wieku Katowice, Poland: Fundacja Zamek Chudów, 2007.
  674. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  675. A study of heretical movements in Silesia in the 13th and 14th centuries, offering an reexamination of heresy accusations against Silesian Beguines, with an extensive treatment of the Świdnica case.
  676. Find this resource:
  677. Trupinda, Janusz. “Herezja wolnego ducha na ziemiach polskich i w Prusach.” In Władcy, mnisi, rycerze. Edited by Błażej Śliwiński. 341–362. Gdansk, Poland: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Gdańskiego, 1996.
  678. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  679. A reevaluation of the Free Spirit heresy in medieval Poland and Prussia, providing new arguments for the spread of heretical Beguines and Begards.
  680. Find this resource:
  681. Wyrozumski, Jerzy. “Beginki i begardzi w Polsce.” Zeszyty Naukowe Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego 261.35 (1971), Prace Historyczne: 7–22.
  682. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  683. First presentation of the history of Beguines and Begards in Poland; presents the locations of Beguine houses, their founders and activities.
  684. Find this resource:
  685. Sources
  686.  
  687. The 1332 inquisitorial register of John of Schwenkenfeld with the interrogations of the Świdnica Beguines was published in Ulanowski 1889. It remains the standard edition for the history of the Świdnica Beguines. The Ulanowski edition was translated into English and published by Leff 1967.
  688.  
  689. Leff, Gordon. Heresy in the Later Middle Ages: The Relation of Heterodoxy to Dissent c. 1250–c.1450. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1967.
  690. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  691. English translation of the heresy trial of Beguines from Świdnica (1332), pp. 721–740..
  692. Find this resource:
  693. Ulanowski, Bolesław, ed. “Examen testium super vita et moribus Beguinarum per inquisitorem hereticae pravitatis in Sweydnitz anno 1332 factum.” In Scriptores rerum Polonicarum, Vol. 13. By Akademia Umiejętności, 233–255. Kraków: Akademia Umiejętności, 1889.
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  695. The edition of the interrogations of the Beguines from Świdnica (1332) based upon a copy of the original register of the inquisitor John of Schwenkenfeld from the Archive of the Kraków Chapter. The basic source of information about the doctrine and religious practices of Beguines accused of the Free Spirit heresy.
  696. Find this resource:
  697. Secondary Literature
  698.  
  699. Various aspects of the history of the Beguine movement in medieval Poland have been discussed in Polish historiography. The activities of Beguines and Begards were analyzed by Mazur 1968, by Maciejewski 1995, which presents the opening and closing of the Begard house in Kaszczorek in the diocese of Włocławek, and by Cetwiński 2001, which discusses the presence of Beguines in the Silesian town of Jawor. The relation between Begards and heresy is examined by Kielar 1970; Kielar found in the Library of Wrocław University a treatise against the Begards produced in the mid-14th century by the Dominican Henry Havrer.
  700.  
  701. Cetwiński, Marek. “Beginki i begardzi w Jaworze w 1357 roku?” In Śląski tygiel: Studia z dziejów polskiego średniowiecza. By Marek Cetwiński, 195–202. Czestochowa, Poland: Wydawnictwo Wyższej Szkoły Pedagogicznej, 2001.
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  703. Short examination of the existence of Beguines and Begards in the Silesian town of Jawor in the mid-14th century.
  704. Find this resource:
  705. Kielar, Paweł. “Traktat przeciwko beghardom Henryka Havrer.” Studia Theologica Varsoviensia 8.2 (1970): 231–252.
  706. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  707. The treatise of the Dominican Henry Havrer against the Begards.
  708. Find this resource:
  709. Maciejewski, Jacek. “Likwidacja bractwa begardów w Kaszczorku w świetle ugody z biskupem włocławskim z 1320 roku.” Nasza Przeszłość 84 (1995): 5–12.
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  711. The closing of the Begards’ fraternity in Kaszczorek in the light of an agreement with the bishop of Włocławek in 1320.
  712. Find this resource:
  713. Mazur, Zygmunt. “Ordinatio Beguinarum in mortalitate.” Śląski Kwartalnik Historyczny Sobótka 23 (1968): 449–451.
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  715. Draws attention to the social role of Beguines in 15th-century Wrocław.
  716. Find this resource:
  717. Hussites
  718.  
  719. The geographical proximity of Bohemia, the similarity in languages, common ethnic origins, and close political and economic contacts provided favorable opportunities for the rapid spread of the Hussite doctrine in 15th-century Poland. The first inflow of Hussite ideas and books was possible thanks to the tight scholarly links established between Poland and Bohemia in the second half of the 14th century. Polish clergy looked upon the activity of Hussites in Bohemia with suspicion and fear. The growth of this large religious movement in the neighboring country posed a serious threat to the position of the Roman Catholic Church in Poland. But not until the leader of the Bohemian Reformation, John Hus, had been burnt in Constance did the Polish clergy consider the Hussite movement a heresy. Small groups of Polish Hussites, composed of nobles and townspeople, emerged in the 1430s and operated mostly in Greater Poland and Cuyavia. The administration of Communion sub utraque specie remained a distinctive sign of attachment to the Hussite doctrine. Some Polish Hussites were advocates of a poor church, criticizing the Catholic clergy for their wealth and supporting the secularization of church property. Only a few of them, however, went so far as to demand that a priest should possess no personal belongings except clothing and food.
  720.  
  721. Overviews
  722.  
  723. Great interest in the Polish Hussites arose in the second half of the 19th century and was stimulated by the publication of the 15th-century ecclesiastical registers that record the heresy trials of Polish advocates of Hussite doctrine. After World War II, a couple of textbooks were published that present the rise and fall of Polish Hussitism. Historians inspired by the Marxist concept of class struggle (Macek 1955, Maleczyńska 1959) argued that Hussite ideas gained much popularity in 15th-century Poland. More balanced evaluation of Polish Hussitism is presented in later studies (Mikulka 1964, Macek 1973). A new reexamination of available sources and thorough discussion of 15th-century Polish Hussites is offered by Kras 1998. Bylian and Gładkiewicz 1999 is a collection of studies by Polish and Czech historians on various aspects of the Hussite impact on 15th-century Poland. Šmahel 1993, a recent extensive study of the Hussite revolution, gives an authoritative account of the inflow of Hussite doctrine into Poland.
  724.  
  725. Bylina, Stanisław, and Ryszard Gładkiewicz, Ryszard, eds. Echa husytyzmu w Polsce. Materialy z konferencji naukowej, Kłodzko, 27–28 wrzesnia 1996. Warsaw: Instytut Historii PAN and Centrym Badań Bohemistycznych i Śląskoznawczych, 1999.
  726. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  727. Collection of articles concerning the echoes of Hussitism in medieval Poland.
  728. Find this resource:
  729. Kras, Paweł. Husyci w piętnastowiecznej Polsce. Lublin, Poland: Towarzystwo Naukowe KUL, 1998.
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  731. Study of the Polish Hussites Analyzing the geographical and social range of Hussite influence in 15th-century Poland and political and religious relations between Hussite Bohemia and Poland.
  732. Find this resource:
  733. Macek, Jaroslav. Husyci na Pomorzu i w Wielkopolsce. Warsaw: Książka i Wiedza, 1955.
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  735. A popular study of the impact of Hussitism in Poland. The first part analyzes political relations between Poland and Hussite Bohemia and the military campaign of Hussite units in Teutonic Prussia in 1433. The second part presents the activity of Polish Hussites. The third presents the wide and strong influence of Hussite religious and social doctrines on Polish society.
  736. Find this resource:
  737. Macek, Jaroslav. Jean Hus et les traditions hussites dans XVe–XIXe siécles. Paris: Plon, 1973.
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  739. A thorough examination of the international impact of the Hussite movement from the 15th century to the 19th, including a chapter on the influence of the Hussite doctrine on 15th-century Poland.
  740. Find this resource:
  741. Maleczyńska, Ewa. Ruch husycki w Czechach i w Polsce. Warsaw: Wiedza Powszechna, 1959.
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  743. Extensive study of the Hussite movement in Bohemia and Poland, inspired by the Marxist historiographical concept of class struggle. Presents the origins and growth of the Hussite doctrine and analyzes the socioeconomic background of its development, arguing that the Hussite movement gained more popularity in 15th-century Poland.
  744. Find this resource:
  745. Mikulka, Jaromir. “Husitské revolučni hnutí a Polsko.” In Češi a Poláci v minulosti. Edited by Josef Macurek. 119–199. Prague: Academia, 1964.
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  747. A detailed analysis of relations between Hussite Bohemia and Poland.
  748. Find this resource:
  749. Šmahel, František. Husitská revoluce. 4 vols. Prague: Karolinum, 1993.
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  751. The most extensive study of the Hussite revolution in Bohemia. The last volume presents the spread of Hussite doctrine outside Bohemia, including a chapter on the Polish Hussites. Reprinted in 1996. German translation by Thomas Krzenck, Die Hussitische Revolution, edited by Alexander Patschovsky (3 vols.; Hannover, Germany: Hahnsche Buchhandlung, 2002).
  752. Find this resource:
  753. Sources
  754.  
  755. Most information on the Polish Hussites comes from the 15th-century ecclesiastical registers of Gniezno province. They are examined in Ulanowski 1894–1918, Chodyński 1884, Kunkel 1920, and Nowacki 1934. A selection of sources for the history of Hussites in Poland in Polish translation was published in Heck and Maleczyńska 1953.
  756.  
  757. Chodyński, Stanisław, ed. Monumenta historica dioecesis Wladislaviensis, IV. Wloclawek, Poland: Seminarium diocesanum Wladislaviae, 1884.
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  759. Edition of the register of Bishop Zbigniew Oleśnicki of Włocławek, including the records of the trial of Hussites from Cuyavia in 1480.
  760. Find this resource:
  761. Heck, Roman, and Ewa Maleczyńska, eds. Ruch husycki w Polsce: Wybór tekstów źródłowych (do r. 1454). Wroclaw, Poland: Ossolineum, 1953.
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  763. Popular edition of selected sources on the history of the Hussite movement in Poland in Polish translation, with historical commentary.
  764. Find this resource:
  765. Kunkel, Adolf, ed. “Gnesner Hussitenverhöre 1450–1452.” Mitteilungen des Institüts für Österreichische Geschichtsforschung 38 (1920): 314–325.
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  767. Edition of interrogations of Polish Hussites from the archdiocese of Gniezno, which took place in 1450–1452.
  768. Find this resource:
  769. Nowacki, Jan. “Biskup poznanski Andrzej Bninski w walce z husytami ze Zbaszynia: Nieznane karty z procesów husyckich roku 1439.” Roczniki Historyczne 10 (1934): 245–278.
  770. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  771. First critical examination of the heresy trials against Polish Hussites conducted by Andrew Bniński, Bishop of Poznań in 1439, along with an edition of inquisitorial registers.
  772. Find this resource:
  773. Ulanowski, Bolesław, ed. Acta capitulorum necnon iudiciorum ecclesiasticarum selecta. Monumenta Medii Aevi Historica Res Gestas Poloniae Illustrantia 13, 16, 18. Kraków: Akademia Umiejętności, 1894–1918.
  774. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  775. Basic edition of selected records from the ecclesiastical registers of Gniezno province, including those of the 15th-century heresy trials of Polish Hussites.
  776. Find this resource:
  777. Secondary Literature
  778.  
  779. The study of Polish Hussitism has been pursued mostly by Polish, Czech, and German historians and has resulted in numerous case studies. General accounts of relations between Hussite Bohemia and Poland are offered by Machilek 1974 and Kras 2002. Bylina 1992 and Kras 1999 give a balanced evaluation of the spread of Hussite doctrine in Poland. The communities of Polish Utraquists in Cuyavia are studied in Bylina 2005. The catalogue of Poles accused of Hussite heresy before the ecclesiastical court was published in Kras 2002.
  780.  
  781. Bylina, Stanisław. “L’Utraquisme en Pologne à la fin du XVe siècle.” In The Bohemian Reformation and Religious Practice, V/1. Edited by David R. Holeton and Zdeněk David, 237–243. Prague: Czech Academy of Sciences, 2005.
  782. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  783. Reexamination of recent Polish scholarship on the late 15th-century Hussite communities in Cuyavia. Also available online.
  784. Find this resource:
  785. Bylina, Stanisław. “Problem ohlasu husitství v Polském králoství.” In Jihlava a Basilejská kompaktatá: Sborník příspěvků z mezinár; sympozia k 555. výročí přijetí Basilejských kompaktát. By Muzeum Vysočiny, 135–149. Jihlava, Czechoslovakia: Muzeum Vysočiny, 1992.
  786. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  787. Study of the problem of Hussitism in the Polish kingdom and reexamination of Polish Hussitism.
  788. Find this resource:
  789. Kras, Paweł. “Hussitism and the Polish Nobility.” In Lollardy and the Gentry in the Later Middle Ages. Edited by Margaret Aston and Collin Richmond, 183–198. Stroud, UK: Ashgate, 1997.
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  791. Study of the role of Polish nobles in the promotion of Hussite doctrine in late medieval Poland.
  792. Find this resource:
  793. Kras, Paweł. “Hussites in Fifteenth-Century Poland.” In Geist, Gessellschaft, Kirche im 13.-16. Jahrhundert. Edited by František Šmahel, 177–189. Colloquia mediaevalia Pragensia 1. Prague: Center for Medieval Studies, 1999.
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  795. Article summarizing the author’s book on the spread of Hussite ideas in 15th-century Poland.
  796. Find this resource:
  797. Kras, Paweł. “Polish-Czech Relations in the Hussite Period— Religious Aspects”. In Papers from the Fourth International Symposium on The Bohemian Reformation and Religious Practice under the Auspices of The Philosophical Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic held at Vila Lanna, Prague, 26–28 June 2000. Edited by Zdenĕk V. David and David R. Holeton, 177–192. Prague: Czech Academy of Sciences, 2002.
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  799. Reevaluation of Polish-Czech contacts in the Hussite period and their influence on the spread of Hussite ideas in 15th-century Poland. Also available online.
  800. Find this resource:
  801. Kras, Paweł. “Katalog husytów i osób podejrzewanych o husytyzm w piętnastowiecznej Polsce.” Archiwa, Biblioteki i Muzea Kościelne 74 (2000): 177–234.
  802. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  803. Catalogue of Poles considered Hussites or suspected of heresy in 15th-century Poland.
  804. Find this resource:
  805. Machilek, Franz. “Böhmen, Polen und die hussitische Revolution.” Zeitschrift für Ostforschung 23 (1974): 401–429.
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  807. Comparative study of relations between Bohemia and Poland in the period of the Hussite revolution. Provides an interesting evaluation of the Hussite doctrine’s effect on Polish society.
  808. Find this resource:
  809. Heresy of Andrzej Gałka of Dobczyn
  810.  
  811. Andrzej Gałka of Dobczyn has a special place in the study of religious dissent in medieval Poland. In 1420 he enrolled at the University of Kraków and for the next thirty years or so was associated with that institution. In 1449 Gałka was accused of heresy and had to flee Poland, first for Silesia and later for Hussite Bohemia. His doctrine and theological inspirations remain under discussion. Some scholars called him a Wyclifite, stressing the unique intellectual character of his heresy (Świderska 1957, Kras 2005, Strzelczyk 2006); others consider him a Hussite who was inspired by the ideas of the Hussite revolution (Kolbuszewski 1964). Various attempts have been made to explain the origins of his anticlerical ideas. Wünsch 1995 argues that Gałka’s heresy should be analyzed in the context of the struggle for conciliarist reform within the University of Kraków. Recent reexamination of Gałka’s case is offered by Knoll 2009.
  812.  
  813. Knoll, Paul W. “‘The Worst Heretic’: Andrzej Gałka of Dobczyn in the Academic and Ecclesiastical Context of Mid-15th Century Kraków and Poland.” Polish Review 44.1 (2009): 3–28.
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  815. Good overview of Polish and international scholarship on the heresy of Andrzej Gałka.
  816. Find this resource:
  817. Kolbuszewski, Stanisław. Herezja kanonika Jędrzeja Gałki. Wroclaw, Poland: Ossolineum, 1964.
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  819. The only extensive monograph to date on Andrzej Gałka. Offers an analysis of his life and academic career in Kraków and associates his doctrine with the spread of Hussite ideas in Poland.
  820. Find this resource:
  821. Kras, Paweł. “Wyclif’s Tradition in Fifteenth Century Poland: The Heresy of Andrzej Gałka of Dobczyn.” In Papers from Fifth International Symposium on The Bohemian Reformation and Religious Practice under the Auspices of The Philosophical Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic held at Vila Lanna, Prague, 19–22 June 2002. Edited by David R. Holeton and Zdenek David, 191–210. Prague: Czech Academy of Sciences, 2005.
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  823. Description of the career of Andrzej Gałka at the University of Kraków. The author analyzes Wyclif’s inspiration of his doctrine, stressing the intellectual character of his heresy. Available online.
  824. Find this resource:
  825. Strzelczyk, Jerzy. “Andrzej [Jędrzej, Andreas] Gałka von Dobczyn: ein polnischer Wyclif-Anhänger um die Mitte des 15. Jahrhunderts.” In Konfessionelle Pluralität als Herausforderung: Koexistenz und Konflikt im Spätmittelalter und Früher Neuzeit. Winfried Eberhard zum 65. Geburstag. Edited by Joachim Bahlcke, Karen Lambrecht and Hans-Christian Mane, 71–83. Leipzig: Leipzig University Press, 2006.
  826. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  827. Reexamination of research on the life and ideas of Andrzej of Dobczyn.
  828. Find this resource:
  829. Świderska, Hanna M. “A Polish Follower of Wiclif in the XVth cent.” University of Birmingham Journal 6 (1957): 88–92.
  830. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  831. First scholarly treatment in English of Andrzej Gałka’s heresy.
  832. Find this resource:
  833. Wünsch, Thomas. “‘Ne pestifera doctrina corrumpat gregem dominicum’: Zur Konfrontation zwischen Wyclifismus und Konziliarismus im Umkreis der Universität Krakau in der ersten Hälfte des 15. Jahrhunderts.” Zeitschrift für Ostmitteleuropa-Forschung 44.1 (1995): 5–26.
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  835. Analysis of Gałka’s heresy against the backround of the conflict between the Wyclifite doctrine and conciliarist ideas at the University of Kraków.
  836. Find this resource:
  837. Inquisition
  838.  
  839. In medieval Poland the persecution of heretics was carried out by bishops and papal inquisitors. The first papal inquisitors for Poland were appointed by Pope John XXII in 1318. In 1327 the office of papal inquisition in Poland was reserved exclusively for Dominicans, and the province of Polish Dominicans was granted the right to appoint new inquisitors. Recent research has demonstrated that the persecution of heresy remained mostly in the domain of Polish bishops and the role of Dominican inquisitors was rather auxiliary. The structure and forms of antiheretical operations in medieval Poland are widely discussed in studies on heresy (see Heresy). Kras 2006 provides a comparative overview of the functioning of the medieval inquisition in western Christianity and presents the persecution of heresy in Poland as an integral element of the inquisitorial system, which had been formed in the 13th century. The establishment and activity of papal inquisition in medieval Poland is analyzed by Kras 2004. In addition, Szymański 2007 offers a reexamination of the repression of heretics in 13th- and 14th-century Silesia.
  840.  
  841. Kras, Paweł. Ad abolendam diversarum haeresium pravitatem: System inkwizycyjny w średniowiecznej Europie. Lublin, Poland: Wydawnictwo KUL 2006.
  842. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  843. Recent comparative study on the formation of the inquisitorial system in medieval Europe, analyzing the repression of heresy in Poland from a wide European perspective.
  844. Find this resource:
  845. Kras, Paweł. “Dominican Inquisitors in Mediaeval Poland.” In Praedicatores, Inquisitores I, The Dominicans and the Mediaeval Inquisition; Acts of the 1st International Seminar on the Dominicans and the Inquisition, Rome, 23–25 February 2002. Edited by Arturo Palacios-Bernal. 249–310. Rome: Istituto storico domenicano, 2004.
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  847. Study of Dominican inquisitors in late medieval Poland, their careers in the order, and preachers and antiheretical activities, with a bio-bibliographical catalogue of Dominican inquisitors in 14th- and 15th-century Poland.
  848. Find this resource:
  849. Szymański, Jarosław. Ruchy heretyckie na Śląsku w XIII–XIV wieku. Katowice, Poland: Fundacja Zamek Chudów, 2007.
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  851. Detailed study of heresy and inquisition in 13th- and 14th-century Silesia.
  852. Find this resource:
  853. Secondary Literature
  854.  
  855. Only a few analytical studies discuss the structure, operating methods, and role of the inquisition in the struggle against heresy in medieval Poland. A general overview of Polish and international research is offered by Kras 1999. Koranyi 1930 analyzes the impact of the crucial antiheretical legislation of Emperor Frederick II on the laws against heretics issued by Silesian dukes and Polish kings in the late Middle Ages. The activity of the papal inquisition in Silesia, which persecuted Beguines and Waldensians, has attracted particular interest among historians. Mazur 1973 is the first concise account of Dominican inquisition in 14th-century Silesia. The life and inquisitorial activity of John of Schwenkenfeld in the 1330s is thoroughly examined by Szymański 2003.
  856.  
  857. Koranyi, Karol. “Konstytucje cesarza Fryderyka II przeciw heretykom i ich recepcja w Polsce.” In Księga pamiątkowa ku czci Władysława Abrahama, Vol. 1. By Uniwersytet Lwowski Jana Kazimierza, 317–340. Lviv, Polish Republic: Uniwersytet Lwowski Jana Kazimierza, 1930.
  858. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  859. Important contribution to the study of the spread of antiheretical legislation under Emperor Frederick II and its reception in late medieval Poland.
  860. Find this resource:
  861. Kras, Paweł. “Inkwizycja papieska w walce z husytyzmem na ziemiach polskich.” In Polskie echa husytyzmu. Edited by Stanisław Bylina and Ryszard Gładkiewicz, 88–115. Warsaw: Institute of History, Polish Academy of Sciences, 1999.
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  863. Study of the role of the papal inquisition in the persecution of Hussites in 15th-century Poland.
  864. Find this resource:
  865. Mazur, Zygmunt. “Powstanie i działalność inkwizycji dominikańskiej na Śląsku w XIV wieku.” Nasza Przeszłość 39 (1973): 181–191.
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  867. First concise study of the activity of the papal inquisition in 14th-century Silesia. Analyzes the appointment of the first inquisitors and their involvement in the struggle against heretics in that province.
  868. Find this resource:
  869. Szymański, Jarosław. “Joannes Swenkenfeldt: inquisitor et martyr.” Śląski Kwartaknik Historyczny Sobótka 58.1 (2003): 1–17.
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  871. New monograph about John of Schwenkenfeld, the second papal inquisitor in Silesia, who persecuted heretical Beguines and Waldensians in the 1330s and early 1340s.
  872. Find this resource:
  873. Religious Toleration
  874.  
  875. By the late Middle Ages, various ethnic and religious communities formed integral parts of the Polish-Lithuanian society, contributing to the variety of its culture. A long tradition of peaceful coexistence among various Christian and non-Christian religions gave rise to the mechanism of mutual acceptance and cooperation, which functioned well even in the period of the Reformation. In the 16th century, the medieval tradition of religious pluralism paved the way for the principle of religious freedom, which became the cornerstone of the Commonwealth’s legal system. It made it possible for many communities of different religions to respect their diversity and live side by side in peace. Neither the king nor the gentry questioned the right of non-Catholic believers to develop their religious practices. In the Middle Ages no general campaign of persecution was carried out to enforce Catholic uniformity throughout the whole country. Alongside political democracy, religious and ethnic pluralism constituted the most important feature of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the largest state in 16th-century Europe.
  876.  
  877. Overviews
  878.  
  879. In Polish and international historiography, the problem of religious toleration in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth has been widely discussed. Classical studies such as Jobert 1973, Tazbir 1973, and Tazbir 1980 offer good overviews of the historical process, which paved the way to the coexistence of various ethnic and religious groups in early modern Poland and Lithuania. Halecki 1958 remains a classic study of relations between the Catholic and Orthodox churches in the territory of Poland and Lithuania, analyzing various unionist tendencies in the history of eastern and western Christianity. General reflections on religious toleration in medieval Poland, its origins and models, are offered by Wyrozumski 1992, Drabina 1994, and Strzelczyk 1998.
  880.  
  881. Drabina, Jan. “Modele koegzystencji wyznaniowej w Polsce średniowiecznej.” Zeszyty Naukowe Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego–Studia Religiologica 27 (1994): 9–32.
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  883. Article on the models of coexistence of various ethnic and religious groups in the medieval state.
  884. Find this resource:
  885. Halecki, Oskar. From Florence to Brest, 1439–1596. Rome: Archon, 1958.
  886. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  887. Narrative of the history of the union between the Catholic and Orthodox churches from the Council of Florence in 1439 to the Union of Brest in 1596. Reprinted in 1968; Polish edition, Lublin, Poland: Instytut Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej, 1997.
  888. Find this resource:
  889. Jobert, Ambroise. De Luther à Mohila: La Pologne dans la crise de la chrétienté 1517–1648. Paris: Institut d’études slaves, 1973.
  890. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  891. Classical study on the multiethnic and multireligious society of Poland and Lithuania in the early modern period. Analyzes the origins of religious toleration and the peaceful coexistence of various religious communities. Polish edition, Warsaw: PAX, 1994.
  892. Find this resource:
  893. Strzeczyk, Jerzy. “Auf dem Wege zur Republik vieler Völker und Konfessionen. Katholieke und Orthodoxe im späten Mittelalter.” In Toleranz im Mittelalter. Edited by Alexander Patschovsky and Harold Zimmerman, 275–295. Veröftlichungen und Forschunge 45. Sigmaringen, Germany: Jan Thorbecke Verlag, 1998.
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  895. Concise analysis of the medieval tradition of toleration in Poland and Lithuania. Analyzes the historical process that led to the formation of the pluralist commonwealth of many nations and religions in the early modern period.
  896. Find this resource:
  897. Tazbir, Janusz. A State without Stakes: Polish Religious Tolerance in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. Translated by A. T. Jordan. New York: Kościuszko Foundation, 1973.
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  899. Basic study of religious toleration in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the period of the Reformation. Includes comments on the medieval tradition of religious pluralism in medieval Poland and Lithuania.
  900. Find this resource:
  901. Tazbir, Janusz. Tradycje tolerancji religijnej w Polsce. Warsaw: Książka i Wiedza, 1980.
  902. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  903. Classic collection of essays on the tradition of religious toleration in Poland.
  904. Find this resource:
  905. Wyrozumski, Jerzy. “Die Frage der Toleranz im mittelalterlichen Polen.” Zeszyty Naukowe Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego - Studia Germano- Polonica: 100 (1992): 7–19.
  906. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  907. General reflections on religious toleration in medieval Poland, its forms and restrictions.
  908. Find this resource:
  909. Secondary Literature
  910.  
  911. Among numerous case studies on the tradition of religious toleration in medieval Poland, Drabina 1992 and Drabina 1994 discuss the role of the Polish kings Casimir the Great (r. 1333–1370) and Władysław Jagiełło (r. 1386–1434) in securing the position of minority groups in the Polish kingdom. Mickūnaité 2006 offers a good reexamination of the religious policy of Grand Duke Vytautas toward religious and ethnic minorities in Lithuania at the end of the 14th century and first quarter of the 15th. Wacław 1991 is just one of many studies on relations between the Orthodox and Catholic churches in the period of the Council of Florence. It discusses the attitude of Ruthenians toward the project of church union. The attitude of Poles toward foreigners, examined by Strzelczyk 1993, provides an important dimension for the study of the place of ethnic and religious minorities in late medieval Polish society.
  912.  
  913. Drabina, Jan. “Koegzystencja religii i wyznań w Polsce w latach 1333–1370.” Zeszyty Naukowe Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego–Studia Religiologica 25.2 (1992): 37–50.
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  915. Study of the religious policy of King Casimir the Great (1333–1370), which secured the coexistence of various Christian and non-Christian denominations in the Polish kingdom.
  916. Find this resource:
  917. Drabina, Jan. “Religionspolitik von König Władysław Jagiełło im polnisch-lituanischen Reich in den Jahren 1385–1434.” Zeitschrift für Ostforschung 43 (1994): 161–173.
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  919. Analyzes the religious policy of King Władysław Jagiełło (1385–1434) in the Polish kingdom and grand duchy of Lithuania. Discusses the legal position of various religious groups in different parts of Jagiełło’s monarchy.
  920. Find this resource:
  921. Kosman, Marceli. “Tolerancja wyznaniowa na Litwie.” Odrodzenie i reformacja w Polsce 18 (1973): 95–123.
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  923. Concise study of religious toleration in Lithuania in the late medieval and early modern periods.
  924. Find this resource:
  925. Lübke, Christian. “‘Germania Slavica’ und ‘Polonia Ruthenica’: Religiöse Divergenz in ethno-kulturellen Grenz- und Kontaktzonen des mittelalterlichen Osteuropa (8.–16. Jahrhundert).” In Grenzräume und Grenzüberschreitungen im Vergleich: Der Osten und der Westen des mittelalterlichen Lateineuropa. Edited by Klaus Herbers and Nikolaus Jaspert, 175–189. Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 2007.
  926. DOI: 10.1524/9783050048475Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  927. Comparative overview of research on the German settlement in Poland and Polish settlement in Red Ruthenia. Discusses the possibilities of parallel studies of colonization models.
  928. Find this resource:
  929. Mickūnaité, Giedré. Making a Great Ruler: Grand Duke Vytautas of Lithuania. Budapest: Central European University Press, 2006.
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  931. Monograph on Grand Duke Vytautas of Lithuania. Separate sections offer reexamination of his policy toward various religious and ethnic groups in Lithuania.
  932. Find this resource:
  933. Strzelczyk, Jerzy. “Die Wahrnehmung des Fremden im mittlealterlichen Polen.” In Die Begegnung des Westens mit dem Osten: Kongressakten des 4. Symposions des Mediävistnverbandes in Köln 1991 aus Anlass des 1000. Todesjahr der Kaiserin Theophanu. Edited by Odilo Engels and Peter Schreiner, 203–220. Sigmaringen, Germany: Jan Thorbecke Verlag, 1993.
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  935. General overview of attitudes toward foreigners in medieval Poland. Discusses the place of ethnic minorities in medieval Polish society.
  936. Find this resource:
  937. Wacław, Hryniewicz. “The Florentine Union: Reception and Rejection; Some Reflections on Unionist Tendencies among Ruthenians.” In Christian Unity: The Council of Ferrara-Florence, 1438/39–1989. Edited by Giuseppe Alberigo, 521–554. Leuven, Belgium: Leuven University Press, 1991.
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  939. Intriguing overview of the attitudes of Ruthenians toward union with Rome in the period of the Council of Florence.
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