API tools faq
paste
jonstond2

African Christianity (African Studies)

jonstond2
Jun 17th, 2017
739
0
Never
Add comment
Not a member of Pastebin yet? Sign Up, it unlocks many cool features!
text 179.03 KB | None | 0 0
raw download clone embed print report
  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. Christianity in Africa goes back to the earliest days of the church, when it spread along the Mediterranean and Red Sea coastlands of north and northeast Africa and their hinterlands. Subsequently displaced by Islam in the 7th and 8th centuries, the ancient Coptic and Orthodox churches nevertheless remain active in Egypt, Ethiopia, and Eritrea today. Further south, Christianity was introduced later by European Christian missions, initially on the heels of Portuguese expansion into the Kingdom of the Kongo and Angola in the 16th century, the slave trade in the ensuing centuries, and the general expansion of European influence and colonialism in the 19th and 20th centuries in an explosive combination of “Christianity, Commerce and Civilization.” While conversion to Christianity increased with the extension of formal European colonial rule, Western education, and new economic opportunities, Africans interpreted the new faith in the light of their own religious concerns and concepts and made it their own. In the process, Western missionaries were slowly displaced by African evangelists, who helped translate the Bible, interpret it for themselves, and spread the faith far beyond the mission compounds. In the process, African Christians struggled for control of the church and its messages, often emphasizing charismatic prophecy and healing, founding thousands of new churches and popular movements within mission Protestantism and Catholicism, and playing prominent roles in contemporary African society and politics. In seeking to understand African Christianity, then, we need to understand its origins in the ancient church as well as the processes by which European missionaries and African converts of diverse religious hues have reinterpreted and reformed it to establish a varied and vibrant Christian religious presence today. The literature on African Christianity is huge and often characterized by diverse colonial and religious perspectives and biases, requiring one to read it critically. For more on African religions, see the related Oxford Bibliographies articles on African Traditional Religion and Islam in Africa.
  4.  
  5. General Overviews
  6.  
  7. While earlier studies of Christianity in Africa focused on the roles of European missions and missionaries in establishing Christianity in Africa, historians now tend to stress the roles of African converts, catechists, translators, and evangelists in interpreting Christianity, spreading it to their neighbors, and establishing new Christian movements and churches that are as distinctly African as they are Christian. Two recent studies by leading church scholars, Hastings 1994 and Sundkler and Steed 2000, stand out and can be supplemented by briefer studies on Africa generally (Isichei 1995), West Africa (Sanneh 1983), South Africa (Chidester 1992), and contemporary Africa (Hastings 1979).
  8.  
  9. Chidester, David. Religions of South Africa. London: Routledge, 1992.
  10. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  11. A wide-ranging synthesis of the literature on the diverse religions of South Africa that stresses their historical development and social significance in the context of colonial rule and apartheid.
  12. Find this resource:
  13. Hastings, Adrian. A History of African Christianity, 1950–1975. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1979.
  14. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511563171Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  15. A study that both predates and updates Hastings 1994, but neglects the recent proliferation of evangelical, charismatic, and Pentecostal churches. Focuses on the relations of church and state, the Africanization of mission churches, and independent churches during the period of nationalism and independence.
  16. Find this resource:
  17. Hastings, Adrian. The Church in Africa, 1450–1950. Oxford: Clarendon, 1994.
  18. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  19. A magisterial historical synthesis of the formative period of African Christianity written by one of its foremost scholars. Focuses on the influences of Africans and African ideas on the mission enterprise, conversion, religious innovation, and church life, but it neglects to cover the earlier history of the northern African church as well as the profusion of Christian movements since 1950. The bibliography provides a series of illuminating bibliographic essays on a wide range of subjects.
  20. Find this resource:
  21. Isichei, Elizabeth. A History of Christianity in Africa: From Antiquity to the Present. London: SPCK, 1995.
  22. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  23. A brief popular account that focuses on both the worlds missionaries came from as well as the African worlds in which they worked, including the critical roles played by African evangelists, catechists, and teachers in developing the new faith.
  24. Find this resource:
  25. Sanneh, Lamin. West African Christianity: The Religious Impact. London: Hurst, 1983.
  26. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  27. This text by a notable scholar of both Christianity and Islam concentrates on the religious dimensions of West African Christianity and the roles of both missionaries and Africans in its spread and development. Concludes with a rare discussion of the historical relations between Christianity and traditional religion and Islam.
  28. Find this resource:
  29. Sundkler, Bengt, and Christopher Steed. A History of the Church in Africa. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
  30. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511497377Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  31. Following a brief survey of early Christianity in northern Africa, this massive work zeroes in on the same period surveyed in Hastings 1994, but it lacks that work’s integrating narrative and conceptual frameworks. More useful as a series of local case studies, the work focuses on the African converts who reinterpreted Christianity, propagated it, and established their own churches amid the turmoil of the slave trade, conquest, and colonial rule.
  32. Find this resource:
  33. Conceptual Approaches
  34.  
  35. African religious beliefs and practice vary widely. Mbiti 1991 is a pioneering study of African religions, while Ray 2000 provides a broad introduction to African religious beliefs and practices, and p’Bitek 1970 mounts an influential critique of earlier Western scholarship. Ter Haar 2009 discusses the relationship between spiritual and secular power in African thought.
  36.  
  37. Mbiti, John S. An Introduction to African Religion. 2d ed. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 1991.
  38. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  39. An early text on African religious beliefs and practices by a leading Kenyan theologian that played an important role in establishing the study of African religion on its own terms. First published in 1975.
  40. Find this resource:
  41. p’Bitek, Okot. African Religions and Western Scholarship. Kampala, Uganda: East African Literature Bureau, 1970.
  42. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  43. An influential critique of the earlier Western scholarly tendency to assess African religions on European and Christian rather than African terms.
  44. Find this resource:
  45. Ray, Benjamin C. African Religions: Symbol, Ritual, Community. 2d ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2000.
  46. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  47. An ethnographically based introduction to African religious beliefs, practices, authorities, and ethics. First published in 1976.
  48. Find this resource:
  49. ter Haar, Gerrie. How God Became African: African Spirituality and Western Secular Thought. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009.
  50. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  51. Critically examines the significance of African concepts of the spirit world in their ongoing interactions with Christianity.
  52. Find this resource:
  53. Review Articles
  54.  
  55. Review articles provide valuable assessments of the literature, identifying major trends and theoretical interests. Fernandez 1978, Ranger 1986, Hastings 2000, and Maxwell 2006 survey the literature on African religious movements broadly at different points of time, while Etherington 1996 surveys the later literature on southern Africa, and Meyer 2004 explores more recent literature on the emergence of Pentecostal and charismatic churches.
  56.  
  57. Etherington, Norman. “Recent Trends in the Historiography of Christianity in Southern Africa.” Journal of Southern African Studies 22.2 (1996): 201–219.
  58. DOI: 10.1080/03057079608708487Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  59. Emphasizes the role of Christianity in the establishment of and opposition to white supremacy, African agency, the process of conversion, the rise of syncretic movements, and the development of Black Theology in works published in the 1980s and 1990s.
  60. Find this resource:
  61. Fernandez, James W. “African Religious Movements.” Annual Review of Anthropology 7 (1978): 195–234.
  62. DOI: 10.1146/annurev.an.07.100178.001211Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  63. Reviews the literature up to 1976. One of the first review essays to advocate integrating the study of African Christianity into the study of African religious movements more broadly through ethnographic study of the African religious imagination. See also Meyer 2004.
  64. Find this resource:
  65. Hastings, Adrian. “African Christian Studies, 1967–1999: Reflections of an Editor.” Journal of Religion in Africa 30 (2000): 30–44.
  66. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  67. A broad review of the academic literature on African Christianity that takes up where Fernandez 1978 leaves off, tracking a shift from mission histories to those of African Christians, religious initiatives, and independent churches. See also Maxwell 2006.
  68. Find this resource:
  69. Maxwell, David. “Writing the History of African Christianity: Reflections of an Editor.” Journal of Religion in Africa 36 (2006): 379–399.
  70. DOI: 10.1163/157006606778941977Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  71. Takes up where Hastings 2000 leaves off, pointing to the increasing interest in studies of religious change in general and the dramatic rise of evangelical and Pentecostal movements.
  72. Find this resource:
  73. Meyer, Birgit. “Christianity in Africa: From African Independent to Pentecostal-Charismatic Churches.” Annual Review of Anthropology 33 (2004): 447–474.
  74. DOI: 10.1146/annurev.anthro.33.070203.143835Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  75. Following Fernandez 1978, traces shifts in the anthropological study of African Christianity from an earlier focus on African Initiated or Independent Churches to one on newer foreign-inspired Pentecostal and charismatic ones.
  76. Find this resource:
  77. Ranger, Terence O. “Religious Movements and Politics in Sub-Saharan Africa.” African Studies Review 29 (1986): 1–69.
  78. DOI: 10.2307/523964Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  79. A wide-ranging survey of African religious movements with an emphasis on their political dimensions.
  80. Find this resource:
  81. Anthologies
  82.  
  83. While often uneven, collections of articles provide a wide variety of conceptual approaches and case studies for the study of religious change. Ranger and Kimambo 1972 provides early examples of approaches to the study of traditional religious movements, while Baëta 1968 gives numerous examples of earlier approaches to the study of Christian churches. More recent attempts to conceptualize the study of African Christianity and religious change more broadly include van Binsbergen and Schoffelers 1985; Blakely, et al. 1994; Spear and Kimambo 1999; Maxwell and Lawrie 2002; and Falola 2005.
  84.  
  85. Baëta, C. G., ed. Christianity in Tropical Africa: Studies Presented and Discussed at the Seventh International African Seminar, University of Ghana, April 1965. London: Oxford University Press, 1968.
  86. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  87. An early collection of papers that explore the impact of missions and the development of African Christianity, theology, and independent churches.
  88. Find this resource:
  89. Blakely, Thomas D., Walter E. A. van Beek, and Dennis L. Thomson, eds. Religion in Africa: Experience and Expression. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 1994.
  90. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  91. Multidisciplinary approaches to the study of African religion focusing on the concepts of translation, comparison, and instrumentality.
  92. Find this resource:
  93. Falola, Toyin, ed. Christianity and Social Change in Africa: Essays in Honor of J. D. Y. Peel. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press, 2005.
  94. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  95. A wide-ranging collection of papers on the work of one of the most creative scholars of African religious change, focusing on the extraordinary religious encounters and dynamism among Yoruba in Africa and the New World.
  96. Find this resource:
  97. Maxwell, David, and Ingrid Lawrie, eds. Christianity and the African Imagination: Essays in Honour of Adrian Hastings. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2002.
  98. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  99. An important collection honoring the work of the leading Catholic scholar of African Christianity in which leading scholars pursue issues relating to mission, conversion, and popular belief in Africa.
  100. Find this resource:
  101. Ranger, T. O., and I. N. Kimambo, eds. The Historical Study of African Religion. London: Heinemann, 1972.
  102. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  103. An influential set of explorations in precolonial African religious history.
  104. Find this resource:
  105. Spear, Thomas, and Isaria N. Kimambo, eds. East African Expressions of Christianity. Oxford: James Currey, 1999.
  106. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  107. Dual introductions provide conceptual frameworks for studying the development of Christianity in Africa and African theology followed by case studies on African interpretations of Christianity in both mainline and independent churches.
  108. Find this resource:
  109. van Binsbergen, Wim, and Mathew Schoffelers, eds. Theoretical Explorations in African Religion. London: KPI, 1985.
  110. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  111. An attempt to develop new semiotic, material, structural, and transactional approaches to the study of African religion.
  112. Find this resource:
  113. Bibliographies
  114.  
  115. There are a number of comprehensive bibliographies on different aspects of African Christianity. Bibliographies that list books and articles in African studies generally include the quarterly International African Bibliography and annual Africa Bibliography, while the online quarterly African Studies Abstracts Online abstracts articles in books and journals. Religions worldwide are included in the online database Religion Index One: Periodicals. Comprehensive lists of books and articles on Catholic missions are included in Streit and Dindinger 1951–1954 and updated annually in Bibliografia Missionari, while material on protestant missions is continually updated in the quarterly International Review of Mission. Young 1993 provides a select annotated list of books and articles of African theology.
  116.  
  117. Africa Bibliography.
  118. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  119. Comprehensive listing of books and articles on African social and environmental sciences, the humanities, and the arts organized by region and subject. Now published by Cambridge University Press in conjunction with the International African Institute. Online version is fully searchable. Published annually from 1984.
  120. Find this resource:
  121. African Studies Abstracts Online.
  122. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  123. A comprehensive bibliography that publishes abstracts of articles on all aspects of African studies from journals and books. Organized by region and subject. Available exclusively online. Published quarterly by the African Studies Centre, Leiden, from 2003.
  124. Find this resource:
  125. Bibliografia Missionari. Rome: Pontificia Università Urbaniana, 1934–.
  126. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  127. A comprehensive bibliography of Catholic mission publications published annually, now edited by W. Henkel and J. Metzler. Published annually by the Pontificia Università Urbaniana in Rome from 1934.
  128. Find this resource:
  129. International African Bibliography.
  130. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  131. A comprehensive listing of books, articles, and papers in African studies, organized by region, country, and subject published in conjunction with the School of Oriental and African Studies, London. Online version is fully searchable. Published quarterly from 1971.
  132. Find this resource:
  133. International Review of Mission.
  134. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  135. Includes an extensive listing of publications on protestant missions in each issue. Available online from ProQuest and other sources. Published quarterly by the World Council of Churches, Commission on World Mission and Evangelism, International Missionary Council in Edinburgh from 1912.
  136. Find this resource:
  137. Religion Index One: Periodicals.
  138. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  139. The American Theological Library Association (ATLA) Religion Database indexes journal articles, book reviews, and collections of essays in all fields of religion worldwide. Published by the American Theological Library Association from 1949 (available online as ATLA Religion Database with ATLA Serials).
  140. Find this resource:
  141. Streit, Robert, and Johannes Dindinger, eds. Bibliotheca Missionum. Vols. 15–20, Afrikanische Missionsliteratur. Freiburg, Germany: Herder, 1951–1954.
  142. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  143. An invaluable compendium of all known documents and publications from Catholic missionaries in Africa, updated annually in Bibliografia Missionari.
  144. Find this resource:
  145. Young, Josiah U. African Theology: A Critical Analysis and Annotated Bibliography. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1993.
  146. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  147. A critical evaluation of books and articles of African theology published from 1955 to 1992, including such subjects as the Christianization of African traditional religion, the Africanization of Christianity, and the impact of Black Theology in South Africa.
  148. Find this resource:
  149. Reference Works
  150.  
  151. There are a number of excellent reference books covering Africa generally as well as Christianity specifically. Bongmba 2012 and Irele and Jeyifo 2010 provide encyclopedic coverage of African thought and religions. Akyeampong and Gates 2012 and the Dictionary of African Christian Biography profile a large number of leading Christian figures. McLeod 2006 and Cross and Livingstone 1997 cover Christianity generally, while Neill, et al. 1971 focuses on British and American missions and Marthaler 2003 on Catholicism.
  152.  
  153. Akyeampong, Emmanuel K., and Henry Louis Gates Jr., eds. Dictionary of African Biography. 6 vols. New York: Oxford University Press, 2012.
  154. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  155. A collection of over two thousand biographies of leading African figures (with many more soon to be made available online), including Catholic, Coptic, Ethiopian Orthodox, Independent, Muslim, and Protestant leaders, scholars, and prophets.
  156. Find this resource:
  157. Bongmba, Elias K., ed. The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to African Religions. Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, 2012.
  158. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  159. Presents a range of articles on different disciplinary perspectives to the study of African religious beliefs and practices, African religious traditions, historical developments, and contemporary issues.
  160. Find this resource:
  161. Cross, F. L., and E. A. Livingstone, eds. Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. 3d ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997.
  162. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  163. An authoritative and encyclopedic work with broad coverage of Christianity worldwide. First published in 1957.
  164. Find this resource:
  165. Dictionary of African Christian Biography.
  166. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  167. A collaborative online collection of thousands of biographies of African Christian leaders, evangelists, and lay workers.
  168. Find this resource:
  169. Irele, F. Abiola, and Biodun Jeyifo, eds. The Oxford Encyclopedia of African Thought. 2 vols. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010.
  170. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  171. Collected articles on African religious and secular thought.
  172. Find this resource:
  173. Marthaler, Berard, ed. New Catholic Encyclopedia. 2d ed. 15 vols. New York: Thomson-Gale, 2003.
  174. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  175. A wide-ranging encyclopedia, including entries on the early church, Orthodoxy, Islam, and Protestantism worldwide.
  176. Find this resource:
  177. McLeod, Hugh, ed. World Christianities, c. 1914–c. 2000. The Cambridge History of Christianity 9. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
  178. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  179. Includes articles on colonialism and missions, independent churches in Africa, African Christianity (colonial and postcolonial), the African diaspora, apartheid, Pentecostal and evangelical movements, and relations with Muslims.
  180. Find this resource:
  181. Neill, Stephen, Gerald H. Anderson, and John Goodwin, eds. The Concise Dictionary of the Christian World Mission. Nashville: Abington, 1971.
  182. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  183. Basic reference for British and American missionary organizations, biographies, topical subjects, and bibliographies.
  184. Find this resource:
  185. Journals
  186.  
  187. Two types of journals are noted here. The first is academic journals that feature scholarly articles about African religion, including the Journal of Religion in Africa, the International Review of Mission, Social Sciences and Missions, and the Bulletin of the Society for African Church History. The other is newsletters of mission societies that published detailed contemporary reports from missionaries in the field and include such titles as Central Africa, the Church Missionary Review, Congo Mission News, and Inland Africa, among many others. (See Bibliographies for listings of articles in these and other journals.)
  188.  
  189. Bulletin of the Society for African Church History. 1963–.
  190. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  191. Scholarly journal published annually since 1963.
  192. Find this resource:
  193. Central Africa. 1883–1964.
  194. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  195. Monthly newsletter published by the Universities’ Mission to Central Africa in London from 1883 to 1964. Available from the American Theological Library Association (ATLA) serials preservation program.
  196. Find this resource:
  197. Church Missionary Review. 1830–1927.
  198. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  199. Monthly newsletter published by the Church Missionary Society in London from 1830 to 1927. Name changed from Church Missionary Record to Church Missionary Intelligencer and Record in 1876, Church Missionary Intelligencer in 1891, and Church Missionary Review in 1907. Available online from JSTOR, ProQuest, and other major subscription sites.
  200. Find this resource:
  201. Congo Mission News. 1913–1970.
  202. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  203. Newsletter published quarterly by the Congo Protestant Council in Kinshasa from 1913 to 1970.
  204. Find this resource:
  205. Inland Africa. 1896–1985.
  206. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  207. Newsletter published quarterly by the Africa Inland Mission in Philadelphia from 1896 to 1985. Changed name from Hearing and Doing in 1916.
  208. Find this resource:
  209. International Review of Mission. 1912–.
  210. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  211. Scholarly journal published quarterly by World Missionary Conference (1912–1962) and the Commission on World Mission and Evangelism of the World Council of Churches (1962–present) in Edinburgh.
  212. Find this resource:
  213. Journal of Religion in Africa. 1967–.
  214. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  215. Scholarly journal published quarterly in Leiden from 1967.
  216. Find this resource:
  217. Social Sciences and Missions. 1995–.
  218. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  219. Interdisciplinary scholarly journal focusing on the social and political aspects of missions published from 1995. Originally Le Fait Missionnaire, its name was changed to Social Sciences and Missions in 2007.
  220. Find this resource:
  221. Primary Sources
  222.  
  223. There are a number of different kinds of primary sources available. The most comprehensive are the collections of original documents, letters, and essays written by missionaries and preserved in mission, government, and local archives. General guides to these archives are detailed under Archives. Occasionally, select documents are brought together in Published Collections. And individuals often published their letters, journals, and narratives, as discussed in Published Letters and Narrative Accounts.
  224.  
  225. Archives
  226.  
  227. Unpublished mission and church documents exist in many national and local archives throughout Africa, Europe, and North America, but the most extensive collections are usually those of individual mission societies, such as the Catholic White Fathers in Rome; the Church Missionary Society, the London Missionary Society, the Methodist Missionary Society, the United Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, and the Universities’ Mission to Central Africa in Britain; and the Africa Inland Mission in the United States. General guides to these and other archives in Europe and Britain include Mundus Gateway to Missionary Collections in the United Kingdom, International Council on Archives 1970–1983, Guides to Materials for West African History in European Archives (1962–1973), Matthews and Wainwright 1971, and Keen 1968, while South 1989 surveys some additional ones in the United States. Specific finding guides for individual collections can often be located online or at the collections.
  228.  
  229. Guides to Materials for West African History in European Archives. 5 vols. London: University of London, Athlone, 1962–1973.
  230. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  231. These guides provide guidance to national and local archives containing material on West African history, with individual volumes on Belgium and Holland, Portugal, Italy, France, and Britain.
  232. Find this resource:
  233. International Council on Archives. Guide to the Sources of the History of Africa. 9 vols. Zug, Switzerland: Inter Documentation, 1970–1983.
  234. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  235. A guide to European libraries and archives containing material on Africa, with individual volumes on Germany, Spain, France, Italy, the Vatican, Scandinavia, and the Netherlands.
  236. Find this resource:
  237. Keen, Rosemary A. A Survey of the Archives of Selected Missionary Societies. London: Historical Manuscripts Commission, 1968.
  238. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  239. Surveys nineteen mission societies in the United Kingdom.
  240. Find this resource:
  241. Matthews, Noel, and M. Doreen Wainwright. A Guide to Manuscripts and Documents in the British Isles Relating to Africa. Edited by J. D. Pearson. London: Oxford University Press, 1971.
  242. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  243. Useful for the archives of the Church Missionary Society at Birmingham University; the London Missionary Society and Methodist Missionary Society at the School of Oriental and African Studies; the United Society for the Propagation of the Gospel at Rhodes House, Oxford; and the Universities’ Mission to Central Africa.
  244. Find this resource:
  245. Mundus Gateway to Missionary Collections in the United Kingdom.
  246. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  247. An online guide to over four hundred collections of documents, personal papers, photographs and artifacts in archives, libraries, and record offices throughout the United Kingdom; it also includes links to resources in Europe, Africa, Asia, and the United States.
  248. Find this resource:
  249. South, Aloha, comp. Guide to Non-federal Archives and Manuscripts in the United States Relating to Africa. 2 vols. London: Hans Zell, 1989.
  250. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  251. A guide to state and local archives arranged alphabetically by state.
  252. Find this resource:
  253. Published Collections
  254.  
  255. There are a number of published collections of documents, particularly for the Portuguese from the 15th century in southwestern (Brásio 1952–1988 and Brásio 1966–1968) and southeastern Africa (Theal 1898–1903, Documentos sobre os Portugueses em Moçambique e na Africa Central, 1497–1840).
  256.  
  257. Brásio, António D., ed. Monumenta Missionária Africana: África Ocidental. 15 vols. Lisbon, Portugal: Agencia Geral do Ultramar, 1952–1988.
  258. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  259. Portuguese documents relating to the Catholic Church in Angola and Kongo from 1471 to 1699. In Portuguese, with some of the later volumes also available in English (1958–2004).
  260. Find this resource:
  261. Brásio, António, ed. Angola. 2 vols. Pittsburgh, PA: Duquesne University Press, 1966–1968.
  262. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  263. Selected records of the Holy Ghost Fathers in Angola from 1596 to 1881.
  264. Find this resource:
  265. Documentos sobre os Portugueses em Moçambique e na Africa Central, 1497–1840. 9 vols. Lisbon, Portugal: Centro de Estudos Históricos Ultramarinos, 1962–1989.
  266. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  267. An ongoing project collecting and translating documents relating to the history of Mozambique and Central Africa from Portuguese, Italian, and French archives. Nine volumes covering the period 1497–1615 have been published to date. In Portuguese and English.
  268. Find this resource:
  269. Theal, George McCall, comp. Records of South-Eastern Africa. 9 vols. Cape Town: Government of the Cape Colony, 1898–1903.
  270. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  271. Now somewhat dated collection of documents relating to the early history of southeastern Africa. See also Documentos sobre os Portugueses em Moçambique e na Africa Central, 1497–1840.
  272. Find this resource:
  273. Published Letters and Narrative Accounts
  274.  
  275. There are countless personal accounts by missionaries relating their experiences in Africa (see Bibliographies), but note that there are often several versions, editions, and translations of varying authenticity. As an example, there are numerous accounts by the prominent missionary and traveler David Livingstone, including original letters (Livingstone 1940, Livingstone 1959, Livingstone 1961, and Livingstone 1990), contemporary journals (Livingstone 1960, Livingstone 1963, Livingstone 1992, and Livingstone 1874), and retrospective memoirs written after the fact (Livingstone 1857). Such accounts were extremely numerous and very popular in the 19th and early 20th centuries, but were often prone to bias and hyperbole.
  276.  
  277. Livingstone, David. Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa: Including a Sketch of Sixteen Years’ Residence in the Interior of Africa, and a Journey from the Cape of Good Hope to Loanda on the West Coast; Thence across the Continent, Down the River Zambesi, to the Eastern Ocean. London: John Murray, 1857.
  278. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  279. Livingstone’s memoirs of his travels from 1840 to 1856, which were subsequently widely translated and published in numerous editions throughout Britain, Europe, and the United States. Corresponds with his journals (Livingstone 1960 and Livingstone 1963) and letters (Livingstone 1940, Livingstone 1959, Livingstone 1961, and Livingstone 1990), with which it can be compared.
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Livingstone, David. The Last Journals of David Livingstone, in Central Africa, from 1865 to His Death: Continued by a Narrative of His Last Moments and Sufferings, Obtained from His Faithful Servants Chuma and Susi. Edited by Horace Waller. 2 vols. London: John Murray, 1874.
  282. DOI: 10.5962/bhl.title.60091Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  283. Livingstone’s final journals, from 1865 to 1873, partly corresponding to his letters (Livingstone 1940 and Livingstone 1990).
  284. Find this resource:
  285. Livingstone, David. Some Letters from Livingstone, 1840–1872. Edited by David Chamberlin. London: Oxford University Press, 1940.
  286. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  287. Some of Livingstone’s letters from 1840 to 1872, partly corresponding to his journals (Livingstone 1874, Livingstone 1960, Livingstone 1963, and Livingstone 1992) and his memoirs (Livingstone 1857).
  288. Find this resource:
  289. Livingstone, David. Family Letters, 1841–1856. Edited by I. Schapera. London: Chatto & Windus, 1959.
  290. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  291. His private letters, 1841–1856, corresponding to his missionary letters (Livingstone 1961), journals (Livingstone 1960 and Livingstone 1963), and memoirs (Livingstone 1857).
  292. Find this resource:
  293. Livingstone, David. Private Journals, 1851–1853. Edited by I. Schapera. London: Chatto & Windus, 1960.
  294. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  295. His private journals, 1851–1853, partly corresponding to all his journals and his memoirs (Livingstone 1857).
  296. Find this resource:
  297. Livingstone, David. Livingstone’s Missionary Correspondence, 1841–1856. Edited by I. Schapera. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1961.
  298. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  299. His mission letters, 1841–1856, corresponding to his private letters (Livingstone 1959) and memoirs (Livingstone 1857).
  300. Find this resource:
  301. Livingstone, David. African Journal, 1853–1856. Edited by I. Schapera. London: Chatto & Windus, 1963.
  302. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  303. His journal, 1853–1856, corresponding in part to all his letters and memoirs (Livingstone 1857).
  304. Find this resource:
  305. Livingstone, David. David Livingstone: Letters and Documents, 1841–1872; The Zambian Collection at the Livingstone Museum, Containing a Wealth of Restored, Previously Unknown or Unpublished Texts. Edited by Timothy Holmes. Livingstone, Zambia: Livingstone Museum, 1990.
  306. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  307. Many of his letters, 1841–1872, corresponding to his other letters, journals, and memoirs.
  308. Find this resource:
  309. Livingstone, David. David Livingstone’s Shire Journal, 1861–1864. Edited by Gary W. Clendennen. Aberdeen, UK: Scottish Cultural, 1992.
  310. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  311. His penultimate journals, 1861–1864, corresponding to his letters (Livingstone 1940 and Livingstone 1990).
  312. Find this resource:
  313. Historical Background
  314.  
  315. The wider historical background to Christianity in Africa is provided by such authoritative general historical collections as Fage and Oliver 1975–1986 and UNESCO 1981–1993 and various regional ones, such as Ajayi and Crowder 1976–1987; Birmingham and Martin 1983–1998; Marcus 2002; Naylor 2009; Oliver, et al. 1963–1976; and Hamilton, et al. 2010–2011 (Cambridge History of South Africa).
  316.  
  317. Ajayi, J. F. A., and Michael Crowder, eds. History of West Africa. 2 vols. 2d ed. London: Longman, 1976–1987.
  318. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  319. A pathbreaking, multiauthored regional history of West Africa, particularly strong for the era of the slave trade and early missions between the 15th and 19th centuries. Third edition of Volume 1 published in 1985.
  320. Find this resource:
  321. Birmingham, David, and Phyllis M. Martin, eds. The History of Central Africa. 3 vols. London: Longman, 1983–1998.
  322. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  323. Authoritative multiauthored history of Central Africa, broadly defined to include former French Equatorial, Belgian, and British Central Africa from the Central African Republic to Angola, Zambia, Zimbabwe, and Mozambique (excluding Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda), from earliest times to the present.
  324. Find this resource:
  325. Fage, John D., and Roland Oliver, eds. Cambridge History of Africa. 8 vols. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1975–1986.
  326. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  327. A multiauthored collection featuring leading British-trained scholars. Volumes 3–5 cover the era of the slave trade and early missions, while Volumes 6–8 span the eras of colonial rule and independence. See also UNESCO 1981–1993.
  328. Find this resource:
  329. Hamilton, Carolyn, Bernard K. Mbenga, Robert Ross, Anne Kelk Mager, and Bill Nasson, eds. The Cambridge History of South Africa. 2 vols. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2010–2011.
  330. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  331. A two-volume set that is likely to set the standard for South African history and historiography for the foreseeable future. Volume 1 covers the earliest times to 1885, while Volume 2 covers the period from 1885 to 1994. Supplants earlier Monica Wilson and Leonard Thompson, eds., Oxford History of South Africa (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1969–1971).
  332. Find this resource:
  333. Marcus, Harold G. A History of Ethiopia. Rev. ed. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002.
  334. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  335. A comprehensive history of Ethiopia, though weak on the Coptic Church. First published in 1994.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. Naylor, Phillip C. North Africa: A History from Antiquity to the Present. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2009.
  338. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  339. An up-to-date survey of the northern littoral of Africa that encompasses the rise and fall of North African Christianity.
  340. Find this resource:
  341. Oliver, Roland, Gervase Mathew, Vincent Harlow, et al., eds. History of East Africa. 3 vols. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1963–1976.
  342. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  343. An early, but now dated, synthesis covering Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda. Volume 2 spans most of the colonial period.
  344. Find this resource:
  345. UNESCO. General History of Africa. 8 vols. London: Heinemann, 1981–1993.
  346. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  347. A multiedited, multiauthored collection of historical essays, largely by leading African scholars. Volumes 5–6 cover the era of the slave trade, while Volumes 7–8 cover the period of colonial rule and independence. See also Fage and Oliver 1975–1986.
  348. Find this resource:
  349. African Religions, Thought, and Belief
  350.  
  351. In spite of the oft-predicted demise of African traditional religious beliefs and practices in the face of the slave trade, Islam, Christianity, commerce, colonialism, education, development, and modernity, traditional religious beliefs remain a vital force in Africa in the 21st century, and they continue to exert considerable influence over Christianity. What follows provides only the briefest introduction to these complex, diverse, and enduring religious systems. For a more extensive account, see the related Oxford Bibliographies article on African Traditional Religion.
  352.  
  353. African Traditional Religion
  354.  
  355. Africans widely believe in the power of ancestral spirits and spiritual forces to influence their daily lives, and much religious practice is designed to seek to gain their support. Ray 2000 provides a basic introduction, while Evans-Pritchard 1956, Griaule 1965, Lienhardt 1961, and Zahan 1979 provide ethnographic descriptions of several African religions.
  356.  
  357. Evans-Pritchard, E. E. Nuer Religion. Oxford: Clarendon, 1956.
  358. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  359. The classic ethnographic account of an African religion.
  360. Find this resource:
  361. Griaule, Marcel. Conversations with Ogotemmêli: An Introduction to Dogon Religious Ideas. London: Oxford University Press, 1965.
  362. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  363. An influential account of Dogon symbolic cosmology. First published in French as Dieu d’eau: Entretiens avec Ogotemmêli (Paris: Editions du Chêne, 1948).
  364. Find this resource:
  365. Lienhardt, Godfrey. Divinity and Experience: The Religion of the Dinka. Oxford: Clarendon, 1961.
  366. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  367. An ethnographic description focused on the sources of spiritual power and how people seek to harness it.
  368. Find this resource:
  369. Ray, Benjamin C. African Religions: Symbol, Ritual, Community. 2d ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2000.
  370. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  371. An introduction to African religious beliefs and practices. First published in 1976.
  372. Find this resource:
  373. Zahan, Dominique. The Religion, Spirituality, and Thought of Traditional Africa. Translated by Kate Ezra Martin and Lawrence M. Martin. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979.
  374. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  375. An exposition on African spirituality. First published in French as Religion, spiritualité et pensée africaines (Paris: Payot, 1970).
  376. Find this resource:
  377. Traditional Religion, the Slave Trade, and Colonialism
  378.  
  379. Africa’s increasing incorporation into the wider world from the 16th to 20th centuries as a result of the slave trade, expansion of commerce, spread of Islam and Christianity, and colonial conquest and rule challenged traditional beliefs and practices, but only rarely displaced them. Janzen 1982 and Baum 1999 demonstrate the resilience of traditional religions during the slave trade, while Allman and Parker 2005 explores their transformations. Peires 1989 explicates a tragic millenarian response to colonial conquest; Greene 2002 and Peel 2000 explore the encounters between traditional religion, colonialism, and Christianity; and Fields 1985 and Luongo 2011 demonstrate the critical role traditional beliefs in witchcraft and colonial reactions to them played in ongoing resistance to colonial rule.
  380.  
  381. Allman, Jean, and John Parker. Tongnaab: The History of a West African God. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2005.
  382. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  383. Traces the spread and transformations of a local ancestral cult from the era of the slave trade to the 21st century.
  384. Find this resource:
  385. Baum, Robert M. Shrines of the Slave Trade: Diola Religion and Society in Precolonial Senegambia. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.
  386. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  387. A deep history of a Senegalese religion and its continued resilience throughout the era of the slave trade.
  388. Find this resource:
  389. Fields, Karen. Revival and Rebellion in Colonial Central Africa: Revisions to the Theory of Indirect Rule. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985.
  390. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  391. A pioneering analysis of the ways that traditional religious practices were effective in countering colonial ideology and domination.
  392. Find this resource:
  393. Greene, Sandra E. Sacred Sites and the Colonial Encounter: A History of Meaning and Memory in Ghana. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2002.
  394. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  395. A penetrating analysis of how an African people adapted their traditional religious beliefs and ritual practices in response to missionary activity and colonialism.
  396. Find this resource:
  397. Janzen, John M. Lemba, 1650–1930: A Drum of Affliction in Africa and the New World. New York: Garland, 1982.
  398. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  399. Explores the continuing influence of an African ritual and its successful transfer to the New World during the era of the slave trade.
  400. Find this resource:
  401. Luongo, Katherine. Witchcraft and Colonial Rule in Kenya, 1900–1955. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011.
  402. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511997914Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  403. A detailed study of Kamba ideas about witchcraft, colonial attempts to criminalize it, and finally the colonial rulers’ willingness to utilize them to seek to counter anticolonial resistance.
  404. Find this resource:
  405. Peel, J. D. Y. Religious Encounter and the Making of the Yoruba. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2000.
  406. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  407. In systematically tracing the history of Yoruba Christianity during the 19th century, Peel demonstrates its local religious and political roots in an ongoing dialogical process of religious reform and creativity.
  408. Find this resource:
  409. Peires, J. B. The Dead Will Arise: Nongqawuse and the Great Xhosa Cattle-Killing Movement of 1856–7. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989.
  410. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  411. Colonial defeat precipitated human disaster in this revealing account of a 19th-century Xhosa millenarian movement.
  412. Find this resource:
  413. Traditional Religion Today
  414.  
  415. Far from supplanting traditional beliefs, political democratization and economic liberalism often encouraged them as people employed familiar concepts to come to terms with political and economic disruption. Gordon 2012 tracks the ongoing influence of spiritual forces over two centuries, while Ngubane 1977 focuses on the roles of women in interceding with them; Rush 2013 explores the continuing global vitality of Vodun. Geschiere 1997, Ashforth 2005, and West 2005 address the seeming paradox of the modern resurgence of witchcraft in terms of peoples’ ongoing understanding of political power, in terms of invisible spiritual powers, while Behrend 2011 traces the development of a charismatic movement within the Catholic Church that organized witch hunts to combat their influence.
  416.  
  417. Ashforth, Adam. Witchcraft, Violence, and Democracy in South Africa. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005.
  418. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  419. Sees witchcraft as a means of combating “spiritual insecurity” in 21st-century urban Soweto.
  420. Find this resource:
  421. Behrend, Heike. Resurrecting Cannibals: The Catholic Church, Witch-Hunts, and the Production of Pagans in Western Uganda. Woodbridge, UK: James Currey, 2011.
  422. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  423. A fascinating ethnography of the Uganda Martyrs Guild, a charismatic Catholic lay movement that deployed the power of the Holy Spirit to combat the witchcraft seen as responsible for HIV/AIDs in the kingdom of Tooro.
  424. Find this resource:
  425. Geschiere, Peter. The Modernity of Witchcraft: Politics and the Occult in Postcolonial Africa. Translated by Peter Geschiere and Janet Roitman. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1997.
  426. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  427. Views witchcraft as a potent idiom to explain political corruption and exploitation in modern Cameroonian politics. First published in French as Sorcellerie et politique en Afrique: La viande des autres (Paris: Karthala, 1995).
  428. Find this resource:
  429. Gordon, David M. Invisible Agents: Spirits in a Central African History. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 2012.
  430. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  431. An innovative study of the spiritual basis of social and political action from the slave trade to contemporary Pentecostalism in Zambia.
  432. Find this resource:
  433. Ngubane, Harriet. Body and Mind in Zulu Medicine: An Ethnography of Health and Disease in Nyuswa-Zulu Thought and Practice. New York: Academic Press, 1977.
  434. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  435. A critical examination of women as healers and mediators between life and death in 20th-century Zulu society.
  436. Find this resource:
  437. Rush, Dana. Vodun in Coastal Benin: Unfinished, Open-Ended, Global. Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 2013.
  438. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  439. A study of contemporary Vodun religion and art, whose influence stretches across West Africa and the Atlantic, that stresses its continual development amid global influences.
  440. Find this resource:
  441. West, Harry G. Kupilikula: Governance and the Invisible Realm in Mozambique. Chicago: Chicago University Press, 2005.
  442. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  443. Witchcraft as a language of power employed by people to address political repression in rural Mozambique.
  444. Find this resource:
  445. Early Christianity in Africa
  446.  
  447. Christianity first spread during the early years of the church from Palestine and Rome into Egypt and North Africa, where it flourished until it was displaced by the expansion of Islam from the 7th century, though Coptic and Orthodox enclaves continue to exist in Egypt and Ethiopia in the early 21st century, as surveyed in Finneran 2002.
  448.  
  449. Finneran, Niall. The Archaeology of Christianity in Africa. Stroud, UK: Tempus, 2002.
  450. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  451. A preliminary synthesis of the published sources on the archaeology of Christianity in Roman North Africa, Coptic Egypt, Medieval Nubia, the Ethiopian highlands, and colonial sub-Saharan Africa.
  452. Find this resource:
  453. Egypt
  454.  
  455. Christianity spread initially among the Greek-speaking Jewish communities of Alexandria (Finneran 2005, Frankfurter 2007, Pearson and Goehring 1986) and subsequently to Upper Egypt and Nubia. The Coptic Church became firmly established until the Muslim conquest in 639 reduced Copts to a minority in Egypt today (Meinardus 1999, O’Mahony 2006, Meinardus 2006). Following the Muslim conquest, subsequent attempts to convert Northern Africans to Western Christianity have largely failed (Sharkey 2008). See related Oxford Bibliographies articles North Africa to 600 CE, North Africa, 600 CE to 1800, and Egypt.
  456.  
  457. Finneran, Niall. Alexandria: A City and Myth. Stroud, UK: Tempus, 2005.
  458. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  459. A general introduction that explores the “Christianization” of a cosmopolitan Egyptian-Greek-Roman-Jewish-Muslim city.
  460. Find this resource:
  461. Frankfurter, David. “Christianity and Paganism, I: Egypt.” In Constantine to c. 600. Edited by Augustine Casiday and Frederick W. Norris, 173–188. Cambridge History of Christianity 2. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
  462. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  463. Traces an “active conversation” between Egyptian and Christian traditions and the assimilation of Christian institutions and ideas into the Egyptian landscape.
  464. Find this resource:
  465. Meinardus, Otto F. A. Two Thousand Years of Coptic Christianity. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1999.
  466. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  467. An extensive survey of the history, traditions, theology, and structures of the Coptic Orthodox Church from its beginnings to today.
  468. Find this resource:
  469. Meinardus, Otto F. A. Christians in Egypt: Orthodox, Catholic, and Protestant Communities Past and Present. Cairo, Egypt: American University in Cairo Press, 2006.
  470. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  471. A compilation of the principle Christian churches, monasteries, and religious institutions in Egypt today.
  472. Find this resource:
  473. O’Mahony, Anthony. “Coptic Christianity in Modern Egypt.” In Eastern Christianity. Edited by Michael Angold, 488–510. Cambridge History of Christianity 5. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
  474. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  475. A review of reform movements within the Coptic Church and the position of the church as a minority in Egypt today.
  476. Find this resource:
  477. Pearson, Birger A., and James E. Goehring, eds. The Roots of Egyptian Christianity. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1986.
  478. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  479. Papers that discuss the sources and historical contexts of the development of Christianity in Egypt from its origins to the Muslim conquest in the 7th century.
  480. Find this resource:
  481. Sharkey, Heather J. American Evangelicals in Egypt: Missionary Encounters in an Age of Empire. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2008.
  482. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  483. A study of 19th- and 20th-century American Presbyterian missionaries that explores their social and political influence in spite of their general failure to convert Egyptian Muslims.
  484. Find this resource:
  485. North Africa
  486.  
  487. Outside of Egypt in North Africa, Western Catholicism spread under the aegis of the Roman Empire from the 3rd century until the expansion of Islam largely obliterated the church in the late 7th century, as detailed in Leone 2007 and Shaw 1995, while Rebillard 2012 reveals how fluid ethnic and religious identities were during the early period. The earliest history of the church is seen through one of its most famous figures, the Berber bishop and theologian Saint Augustine of Hippo (Augustine 2002, Brown 2000). See also related Oxford Bibliographies articles North Africa to 600 CE and North Africa, 600 CE to 1800.
  488.  
  489. Augustine. The Confessions of St. Augustine. Translated and edited by Albert Cook Outler. Mineola, NY: Dover, 2002.
  490. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  491. Written c. 397 by North Africa’s foremost Christian convert and theologian (pp. 354–430), The Confessions combines autobiography and theology in a critical primary source for the spread of Christianity in North Africa.
  492. Find this resource:
  493. Brown, Peter. Augustine of Hippo: A Biography. Rev. ed. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000.
  494. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  495. A valuable synthesis of Augustine’s life and thought in the context of late Roman North Africa. First published in 1967.
  496. Find this resource:
  497. Leone, Anna. “Christianity and Paganism, IV: North Africa.” In Constantine to c. 600. Edited by Augustine Casiday and Frederick W. Norris, 231–247. Cambridge History of Christianity 2. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
  498. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  499. Views the expansion of Christianity in North Africa in terms of the progressive acquisition of religious and secular power by the clergy from the 4th century to the Muslim conquest of Carthage in 698.
  500. Find this resource:
  501. Rebillard, Éric. Christians and Their Many Identities in Late Antiquity, North Africa, 200–450 CE. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2012.
  502. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  503. Argues that Jewish, pagan, and Christian identities in the late Roman world were blurred by ethnic, social, and gender differences in pluralistic societies.
  504. Find this resource:
  505. Shaw, Brent D. Rulers, Nomads and Christians in Roman North Africa. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 1995.
  506. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  507. Collected papers on Roman social, economic, and cultural relationships in rural North Africa.
  508. Find this resource:
  509. Nubia
  510.  
  511. During the 5th and 6th centuries, Christianity spread up the Nile to Nubia, where it became the court religion and survived the Muslim conquest into the 16th century, as attested by a remarkable archaeological record detailed in Adams 1977 and Welsby 2002. See also related Oxford Bibliographies article Northeastern African States, c. 1000 BCE–1800 CE.
  512.  
  513. Adams, William Y. Nubia: Corridor to Africa. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1977.
  514. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  515. Comprehensive archaeologically based study of Nubia from paleolithic times through the Pharaonic and Christian eras to the present stressing continuities in Nubian culture under successive foreign influences.
  516. Find this resource:
  517. Welsby, Derek A. The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia: Pagans, Christians and Muslims along the Middle Nile. London: British Museum, 2002.
  518. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  519. Authoritative study of the Christian period, c. 500–1500, that incorporates much new material unearthed after the publication of Adams 1977 to construct an expanded synthesis of the period.
  520. Find this resource:
  521. Ethiopia
  522.  
  523. The Ethiopian Orthodox Church is one of the oldest Christian churches in the world, originating in Axum in northern Ethiopia in the 4th century and spreading south with the Solomonid dynasty from the 13th century, and it remains a vibrant presence in Ethiopia today alongside a large Muslim and much smaller Jewish population, in spite of attempts by Jesuit and other missions to implant Western Christianity. Abbink 2003 is an extensive bibliography of Christianity in Ethiopia. See also related Oxford Bibliographies article “Ethiopia.”
  524.  
  525. Abbink, Jon. A Bibliography on Christianity in Ethiopia. Leiden, The Netherlands: African Studies Centre, 2003.
  526. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  527. An extensive bibliography with entries in multiple languages on the history, texts, art, and architecture of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church.
  528. Find this resource:
  529. Axum and the Origins of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, 4th–13th Centuries
  530.  
  531. The Kingdom of Axum (Aksum) rose to prominence in the later 1st millennium BCE and came to dominate the Red Sea in the early centuries CE, when it was an important trade partner with both the Roman and Byzantine Empires, and it adopted Christianity as the state religion in the 4th century CE. With its extensive urban complex and towering inscribed stele, Axum has been the subject of more than a dozen archaeological expeditions, which have left detailed field reports with their findings (e.g., Munro-Hay 1989, Phillipson 2000) together with subsequent analytical syntheses placing the findings in wider historical perspective (Munro-Hay 1991, Phillipson 2009, and Phillipson 2012), allowing the reader an unparalleled opportunity to understand the reasoning behind the findings. Ethiopia also has a substantial collection of manuscripts relating to the early church, the most famous of which, the Kebra Nagast, is critically examined in Munro-Hay 2005, while the sources of the Ethiopian Bible are examined in Ullendorff 1968 and religious art in Grierson 1993.
  532.  
  533. Grierson, Roderick A., ed. African Zion, the Sacred Art of Ethiopia. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1993.
  534. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  535. Christian religious art abounds in Ethiopia, as amply evidenced by this well-illustrated catalogue of an exhibition of Ethiopian paintings, manuscripts, icons, and crosses.
  536. Find this resource:
  537. Munro-Hay, S. C. Excavations at Aksum: An Account of Research at the Ancient Ethiopian Capital Directed in 1972–74 by the Late Dr Neville Chittick. London: British Institute in Eastern Africa, 1989.
  538. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  539. Detailed field report of the excavations of principal mortuary monuments in 1972–1974 by the British Institute in Eastern Africa. See also Phillipson 2000 for the continuation of these excavations in 1993–1997 and Munro-Hay 1991, Phillipson 2000, and Phillipson 2009 for interpretative syntheses.
  540. Find this resource:
  541. Munro-Hay, Stuart. Aksum: An African Civilisation of Late Antiquity. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1991.
  542. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  543. Based on the excavations of 1972–1974 reported in Munro-Hay 1989, synthesis and analysis of it and previous work on the rise and fall of the kingdom. Established a chronology based on coinage, but compare Phillipson 2009.
  544. Find this resource:
  545. Munro-Hay, Stuart. Quest for the Ark of the Covenant: The True History of the Tablets of Moses. London: I. B. Tauris, 2005.
  546. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  547. An intriguing Ethiopian mystery is the claim made by the 14th-century text Kebra Nagast (The Glory of Kings) that the Ethiopian monarchy descends from Solomon and Sheba, during whose reign the Ark of the Covenant and the Ten Commandments were transported to Axum. Munro-Hay convincingly demonstrates that these claims are false, that the legend probably derives from an earlier Egyptian account, and that its main claims were added to support an ascendant Solomonid dynasty.
  548. Find this resource:
  549. Phillipson, David W. Archaeology at Aksum, Ethiopia, 1993–7. 2 vols. London: British Institute in Eastern Africa, 2000.
  550. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  551. The final field report of extensive archaeological excavations of Axum continuing on from 1972–1974 in 1993–1997.
  552. Find this resource:
  553. Phillipson, David W. Ancient Churches of Ethiopia: Fourth–Fourteenth Centuries. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2009.
  554. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  555. An elegantly presented chronological and typological analysis that traces the spread of Ethiopian churches from their origins in 4th-century Axum to their spread southwards to Lalibela and the rise of the Solomonid dynasty.
  556. Find this resource:
  557. Phillipson, David W. Foundations of an African Civilisation: Aksum and the Northern Horn, 1000 BC–AD 1300. Woodbridge, UK: James Currey, 2012.
  558. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  559. An impressive reinterpretation of the Axumite period from the late Stone Age to Axum’s transformation into medieval Ethiopia by Axum’s leading archaeologist.
  560. Find this resource:
  561. Ullendorff, Edward. Ethiopia and the Bible. London: Oxford University Press, 1968.
  562. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  563. A scholarly enquiry into the Arabian, Syrian, and Egyptian influences on the origins and development of Orthodox Christianity in Ethiopia.
  564. Find this resource:
  565. The Solomonid Dynasty, 1270–1974
  566.  
  567. The Axumite kingdom and succeeding Zagwe dynasty were supplanted in the late 13th century by a new Amharic Solomonid dynasty, justified by the Kebra Nagast (see Munro-Hay 2005, cited under Axum and the Origins of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, 4th–13th Centuries), that consolidated the Orthodox church and state into an enduring alliance that continued until 1974. The history, beliefs, practices, and organization of the church are detailed in Chaillot 2002 and Isaac 2013. The period is ably summarized in Crummey 2006, while Tamrat 1972 provides the fundamental framework, and Kaplan 1984 and Derat 2003 detail the role of monks in the establishment of the dynasty. Crummey 2000 provides a detailed analysis of how the state was sustained by tribute, and Erlich 2002 analyzes the relations between the Orthodox Church and the Egyptian Coptic Church, with which it was closely linked.
  568.  
  569. Chaillot, Christine. The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church Tradition. Paris: Inter-Orthodox Dialogue, 2002.
  570. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  571. Discusses church history, organization, literature, theology, liturgy, and monastic life of the church.
  572. Find this resource:
  573. Crummey, Donald. Land and Society in the Christian Kingdom of Ethiopia: From the Thirteenth to Twentieth Century. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2000.
  574. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  575. Painstakingly stitching together land registers, church documents, and royal chronicles, Crummey shows how church and state were sustained by the land taxes and tribute paid to them by the rural peasantry, drawing diverse peoples together in a centralized politico-religious system.
  576. Find this resource:
  577. Crummey, Donald. “Church and Nation: The Ethiopian Orthodox Täwahedo Church (from the Thirteenth to the Twentieth Century).” In Eastern Christianity. Edited by Michael Angold, 457–487. Cambridge History of Christianity 5. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
  578. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  579. Authoritative review of the relations between church and state in the Ethiopian highlands under the Solomonid Dynasty.
  580. Find this resource:
  581. Derat, Marie-Laure. Le domaine des rois éthiopiens, 1270–1527: Espace, pouvoir et monarchisme. Paris: Publications de la Sorbonne, 2003.
  582. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  583. A detailed study of the development of the Solomonid dynasty and the subsequent and often conflictual relations between church and state in the provinces of Amhara and Shawa.
  584. Find this resource:
  585. Erlich, Haggai. The Cross and the River: Ethiopia, Egypt, and the Nile. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2002.
  586. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  587. While the prime focus of this history concerns Egypt’s and Ethiopia’s contentious relations over the waters of the Nile, it also provides an excellent analysis of the fraught relations between the Coptic patriarchate of Alexandria and the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, which it long oversaw, from the medieval to modern era.
  588. Find this resource:
  589. Isaac, Ephraim. The Ethiopian Orthodox Täwahïdo Church. Lawrenceville, NJ: Red Sea, 2013.
  590. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  591. An analysis of the history, beliefs, and organization of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church.
  592. Find this resource:
  593. Kaplan, Steven. The Monastic Holy Man and the Christianization of Early Solomonic Ethiopia. Wiesbaden, Germany: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1984.
  594. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  595. Based on a meticulous analysis of medieval Ethiopian hagiographies in the classical Geez language, Kaplan explores the crucial roles played by Christian monks in the establishment of the Solomonid dynasty.
  596. Find this resource:
  597. Tamrat, Taddesse. Church and State in Ethiopia, 1270–1527. Oxford: Clarendon, 1972.
  598. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  599. The standard account of the closely linked roles of church and state in the establishment of the Solomonid dynasty as soldiers and missionaries expanded the boundaries of the state into adjoining Muslim areas from 1270 to 1527, before the Muslim onslaught of Ahmad Gran (1531–1543) temporarily brought it down.
  600. Find this resource:
  601. Orthodox Relations with Muslims
  602.  
  603. The Ethiopian Church has long coexisted with the other Abrahamic religions: Islam and Judaism. Islam has dominated the surrounding lowland areas and has periodically threatened the Christian state, most notably through the military efforts of Ahmad Gran in the 16th century (Trimingham 1952, Abir 1968). Desplat and Østebø 2013, Østebø 2012, Braukämper 2002, and Samatar 1992 focus on Muslim movements within Ethiopia, while Erlich 2007 and Erlich 2010 examine relations between Christian Ethiopia and its Muslim neighbors.
  604.  
  605. Abir, Mordechai. Ethiopia: The Era of the Princes; The Challenge of Islam and the Re-unification of the Christian Empire, 1769–1855. Harlow, UK: Longman, 1968.
  606. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  607. Authoritative study of the challenge posed by Islam and the disintegration of both the church and the state with increasing regional trade and the rise of powerful Oromo kingdoms in the southwest.
  608. Find this resource:
  609. Braukämper, Ulrich. Islamic History and Culture in Southern Ethiopia: Collected Essays. Münster, Germany: Lit Verlag, 2002.
  610. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  611. Analyzes the early history of Muslim movements in southeastern Ethiopia.
  612. Find this resource:
  613. Desplat, Patrick, and Terje Østebø, eds. Muslim Ethiopia: The Christian Legacy, Identity Politics, and Islamic Reformism. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013.
  614. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  615. A collection of essays that explores the history of Christian-Muslim relations in Ethiopia and the diversity of contemporary Muslim reform movements in challenging the centrality of Orthodox Christianity in Ethiopia.
  616. Find this resource:
  617. Erlich, Haggai. Saudi Arabia and Ethiopia: Islam, Christianity and Politics Entwined. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2007.
  618. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  619. A study of evolving relations between Ethiopian Christianity and its Muslim neighbor from the early 20th century to today.
  620. Find this resource:
  621. Erlich, Haggai. Islam and Christianity in the Horn of Africa: Somalia, Ethiopia, Sudan. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2010.
  622. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  623. Analyzes historical interaction between religion and politics in the Horn, and asks whether Islam and Christianity can coexist in the region.
  624. Find this resource:
  625. Østebø, Terje. Localising Salafism: Religious Change among Oromo Muslims in Bale, Ethiopia. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2012.
  626. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  627. Analyzes the rise of a local Salafi movement in the late 1960s and its dramatic expansion in the wake of the Marxist revolution in the 1990s.
  628. Find this resource:
  629. Samatar, Said S., ed. In the Shadow of Conquest: Islam in Colonial Northeast Africa. Trenton, NJ: Red Sea, 1992.
  630. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  631. Collected essays, two of which concern Islam in Oromo and Gondar.
  632. Find this resource:
  633. Trimingham, J. Spencer. Islam in Ethiopia. London: Oxford University Press, 1952.
  634. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  635. A wide-ranging study of Muslim history, peoples, and religious practices throughout the Horn of Africa, including an extended history of Islam’s relations with Ethiopian Christianity.
  636. Find this resource:
  637. Orthodox Relations with Jews
  638.  
  639. While Ethiopian Christianity traces its origins from Judaism, a small Falasha population continues to claim to be Jewish and has successfully immigrated to Israel. Nevertheless, there is widespread scholarly agreement that Ethiopian Jewry actually derives from the texts and practices of the Orthodox Church in the 14th and 15th centuries. Quirin 1992 bases its conclusions on local oral traditions, Shelemay 1989 on liturgical music, and Kaplan 1992 on religious texts, which are collected in Leslau 1951.
  640.  
  641. Kaplan, Steven. The Beta Israel (Falasha) in Ethiopia: From Earliest Times to the Twentieth Century. New York: New York University Press, 1992.
  642. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  643. Through a close analysis of Falasha Ge’ez religious texts, Kaplan finds the origins of this alleged “lost tribe” not in Israel, but in 15th–16th-century doctrinal debates within the Ethiopian Orthodox church.
  644. Find this resource:
  645. Leslau, Wolf. Falasha Anthology. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1951.
  646. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  647. Translated collection of Falasha Ge’ez texts that reveals them to be based on earlier Orthodox texts with no evidence of Talmudic, Hebrew, nor Old Testament origins.
  648. Find this resource:
  649. Quirin, James. The Evolution of the Ethiopian Jews: A History of the Beta Israel (Falasha) to 1920. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992.
  650. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  651. An analysis of Falasha oral traditions that traces their origins to a distinct religious caste within Orthodox Christianity.
  652. Find this resource:
  653. Shelemay, Kay Kaufman. Music, Ritual, and Falasha History. East Lansing, MI: African Studies Center, Michigan State University, 1989.
  654. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  655. A careful study of Falasha liturgy that concludes it was primarily a product of Ethiopian Christian monastic influences in the 14th and 15th centuries.
  656. Find this resource:
  657. Orthodox Encounters with Western Christianity, 19th–20th Centuries
  658.  
  659. While Eastern Orthodoxy has long endured in the Ethiopian highlands, it has been repeatedly challenged by Western Christianity. Jesuit missionaries attempted to convert Ethiopians to Western Catholicism in the 16th and 17th centuries (Pennec 2003, Cohen 2009, and Caraman 1985), while evangelical Protestant missionaries followed in the 19th and 20th centuries (Crummey 1972; Haile, et al. 1998; Fargher 1996). While rarely successful in the Orthodox highlands, they enjoyed some success among non-Christian peoples on the periphery of the empire, and, following the overthrow of the monarchy in 1974, some became influential in the new regime (Eide 2000, Donham 1999).
  660.  
  661. Caraman, Philip. The Lost Empire: The Story of the Jesuits in Ethiopia 1555–1634. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1985.
  662. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  663. While Jesuits missionaries were initially successful in converting the court to Catholicism, their success was short lived.
  664. Find this resource:
  665. Cohen, Leonardo. The Missionary Strategies of the Jesuits in Ethiopia, 1555–1632. Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2009.
  666. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  667. A detailed study of the Jesuit mission to convert Ethiopia to Catholicism in the aftermath of the Reformation that focuses on the ways that the Jesuits sought unsuccessfully to remold Orthodox beliefs and practices in the Roman manner. Yet, contra Pennec 2003, which sees the mission as ultimately a failure, Cohen stresses its enduring effects on both Ethiopia and Jesuit missions generally.
  668. Find this resource:
  669. Crummey, Donald. Priests and Politicians: Protestant and Catholic Missions in Orthodox Ethiopia, 1830–1868. Oxford: Clarendon, 1972.
  670. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  671. A comparative study of the attempts by Catholic and Protestant missions to extend Western Christian influence at a time of conflict and fragmentation within the Ethiopian church and state. Compares the approaches taken by the Anglicans, Catholics, and an assortment of Protestants in the ever-shifting fields of Ethiopian religious politics.
  672. Find this resource:
  673. Donham, Donald L. Marxist Modern: An Ethnographic History of the Ethiopian Revolution. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999.
  674. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  675. An innovative study of the coming of the Ethiopian revolution to a small community in southern Ethiopia, where local evangelists of the radically conservative Sudan Interior Mission ironically became the Marxist regime’s leading acolytes. See Eide 2000 and Fargher 1996.
  676. Find this resource:
  677. Eide, Øyvind M. Revolution and Religion in Ethiopia: The Growth and Persecution of the Mekane Yesus Church, 1974–85. Oxford: James Currey, 2000.
  678. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  679. Explores conflict between the amalgamated Lutheran Church in western Ethiopia, where it thrived among non-Orthodox Oromo, and the revolutionary Derg regime. See Donham 1999.
  680. Find this resource:
  681. Fargher, Brian. The Origins of the New Churches Movements in Southern Ethiopia, 1927–1944. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1996.
  682. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  683. A study of the evangelical Sudan Interior Mission that explicates its radical theology and missiology opposed to both the Ethiopian Orthodox Church and other protestant missions.
  684. Find this resource:
  685. Haile, Getatchew, Aasulv Lande, and Samuel Rubenson, eds. The Missionary Factor in Ethiopia. Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1998.
  686. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  687. A diverse collection of papers that explore the rationales of different Western Catholic and Protestant missionaries for converting Eastern Christians together with the attempts of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church to extend southwards, where it was often viewed as an unwanted extension of the Ethiopian state.
  688. Find this resource:
  689. Pennec, Hervé. Des Jésuites au royaume du prêtre Jean (Éthiopie): Stratégies, rencontres et tentatives d‘implantation 1495–1633. Lisbon, Portugal: Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, 2003.
  690. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  691. A thorough account of the Jesuit mission to convert Ethiopia to Western Christianity that resulted in the brief conversion of the court to Catholicism from 1621 to 1632 before it reverted to Orthodoxy and expelled the Jesuits. See Cohen 2009.
  692. Find this resource:
  693. The Kingdom of the Kongo, 15th–19th Centuries
  694.  
  695. One of the more remarkable episodes in African Christianity followed the arrival of the Portuguese in the Kingdom of the Kongo in 1485, when the king and most of the nobility quickly converted to Catholicism under the influence of Portuguese Jesuits and, later, Italian Capuchins. This was followed by a continuing dialogue between the Kongo and Christian faiths and the emergence of an enduring religious pluralism (see Published Collections for the extraordinarily rich documentary record of the period) that continues to the 21st century (see the separate Oxford Bibliographies article Democratic Republic of Congo (Zaire) for the literature on 19th- and 20th-century movements in Kongo). The Kongo Kingdom also quickly became one of the main sources of slaves and, together with the Yoruba, one of the most influential sources of African-American culture and religion (see the separate Oxford Bibliographies articles Kongo and the Coastal States of West Central Africa and Kongo Atlantic Diaspora). For the broad history of the period, see Hilton 1985. Gray 1990 discusses the activities of the Capuchins, while Thornton 2013, Bockie 1993, MacGaffey 1986, and MacGaffey 1983 map fundamental continuities in Kongo religious belief and ritual practice. Thornton 1998 presents the remarkable story of a Kongo prophetess possessed by the Catholic saint Anthony of Padua, who sought to restore order to the disintegrating kingdom. Fromont 2014 illustrates Kongolese religious art, and Sweet 2003 and Thornton and Heywood 2007 explore the influential roles played by Kongo in the creation of Afro-American religion throughout the New World.
  696.  
  697. Bockie, Simon. Death and the Invisible Powers: The World of Kongo Belief. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993.
  698. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  699. A perceptive study of 20th-century Kongo religious life in which belief in ancestral spirits easily coexists with Christian belief and practice. See MacGaffey 1986 for a related study.
  700. Find this resource:
  701. Fromont, Cécile. The Art of Conversion: Christian Visual Culture in the Kingdom of the Kongo. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2014.
  702. DOI: 10.5149/northcarolina/9781469618739.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  703. A beautifully illustrated study of Kongo religious art focused on Kongolese conversion to Christianity as expressed in ritual, regalia, clothing, and architecture.
  704. Find this resource:
  705. Gray, Richard. Black Christians and White Missionaries. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1990.
  706. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  707. An important study of the Capuchin missionaries in 17th-century Kongo, stressing the ways that Catholicism was appropriated by Africans, resulting in the emergence of a dynamic religious pluralism in Kongo and the New World.
  708. Find this resource:
  709. Hilton, Anne. The Kingdom of the Kongo. Oxford: Clarendon, 1985.
  710. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  711. A history of the Christian kingdom of the Kongo from 1485 to 1665, stressing the ways that centralizing monarchs sought to deploy trade wealth, religion, and foreign alliances to dominate regional politics.
  712. Find this resource:
  713. MacGaffey, Wyatt. Modern Kongo Prophets: Religion in a Plural Society. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1983.
  714. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  715. A penetrating study that views Kongolese Christian prophets as agents of change who rework categories of Kongolese thought to interpret the contemporary situation.
  716. Find this resource:
  717. MacGaffey, Wyatt. Religion and Society in Central Africa: The BaKongo of Lower Zaire. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986.
  718. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  719. A theoretically sophisticated and empirically rich ethnography of five centuries of Kongo religion fusing local and Catholic beliefs and practices in a unified worldview. See also Bockie 1993 and MacGaffey 1983.
  720. Find this resource:
  721. Sweet, James H. Recreating Africa: Culture, Kinship, and Religion in the African-Portuguese World, 1441–1770. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003.
  722. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  723. An imaginative and innovative study of the degree to which Kongo and other Central Africans were able to maintain their cultures and influence emerging Brazilian culture. See also Thornton and Heywood 2007.
  724. Find this resource:
  725. Thornton, John K. The Kongolese Saint Anthony: Dona Beatriz Kimpa Vita and the Antonian Movement, 1684–1706. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
  726. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511572791Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  727. The riveting story of a Kongo woman possessed by the spirit of Saint Anthony, the patron saint of both Portugal and Kongo. Practiced in both Kongo and Catholic beliefs, she sought to restore peace and order to Kongo amid the social and political disruptions caused by the slave trade that sent tens of thousands of Kongo into slavery in Brazil, the Caribbean, and North America.
  728. Find this resource:
  729. Thornton, John K. “Afro-Christian Syncretism in the Kingdom of the Kongo.” Journal of African History 54 (2013): 53–77.
  730. DOI: 10.1017/S0021853713000224Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  731. Examines how Kongolese authorities were instrumental in the development of the church and the resulting reconciliation of Christian and Kongolese elements, wherever possible, into an enduring syncretic tradition.
  732. Find this resource:
  733. Thornton, John K., and Linda M. Heywood. Central Africans, Atlantic Creoles, and the Foundation of the Americas, 1585–1660. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
  734. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  735. Argues that Central Africans, and especially Kongo Christians, played influential roles in the early development of African-American cultures and religions throughout the New World. See Sweet 2003, though he argues that Kongo generally, not just Christians, were influential.
  736. Find this resource:
  737. Mission Christianity
  738.  
  739. Unlike most world religions, Christianity has always exhibited a strong impetus to proselytize and convert others. Such an impetus received an increased emphasis during the 19th and 20th centuries with the expansion of European imperial trade and conquest, when missions became part of the drive to extend “Christianity, Commerce, and Civilization” to the far corners of the world. The modern missionary movement also rode the combined waves of 18th- and 19th-century Protestant evangelical revival and increased competition among Protestant and Catholic denominations. Much of the subsequent literature has thus focused on celebrating the heroic achievements of European economic and political power, civilization, and religious beliefs. Such an approach is too simplistic, however, and ignores the vast array of different religious denominations, orders, and missionary organizations, each with its own distinctive theology and strategy; the differences between different colonial orders; and the wide diversity of African societies and historical situations with which the missionaries interacted. Significantly, it also neglects African religious perspectives, the critical roles played by African evangelists, and the complex religious interactions that occurred between missionaries and Africans in creating distinctively African Christian religious movements. As a result, mission is now seen as a much more dynamic process of historical and religious encounter and interaction among different faiths, peoples, regimes, and individuals. A critical overview of the literature is provided in Strayer 1976. For broad historical coverage of missions generally, see Hastings 1994 and Sundkler and Steed 2000 (both cited under General Overviews) together with Groves 1948–1958. The roles of missions in the expansion of empire are explored in Etherington 2005, while Hansen 1984 looks at tensions between missions and colonial authorities. Elphick and Davenport 1997, Maxwell 1999, and Spear and Kimambo 1999 offer comparative studies of different missions, while Strayer 1976 explores themes of African agency.
  740.  
  741. Elphick, Richard, and Rodney Davenport, eds. and comps. Christianity in South Africa: A Political, Social, and Cultural History. Oxford: James Currey, 1997.
  742. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  743. Articles by Hodgson (pp. 68–88) and Etherington (pp. 89–106) provide sensitive analyses of the violent historical dynamics of religious interaction and conversion on the 19th-century South African colonial frontier.
  744. Find this resource:
  745. Etherington, Norman, ed. Missions and Empire. Oxford History of the British Empire Companion Series. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.
  746. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  747. A collection that critically examines the links between “the Bible and the flag” in the 19th- and 20th-century British Empire. The introduction provides a historiographical and analytical overview, with succeeding essays focused on the diverse experiences of Western missionaries and their converts, respectively.
  748. Find this resource:
  749. Groves, C. P. The Planting of Christianity in Africa. 4 vols. London: Lutterworth, 1948–1958.
  750. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  751. A once-standard ecclesiastical history of the main institutions and individuals involved in the spread of Christianity in Africa, but its exclusive focus on European colonial institutions, individuals, and ideas is now severely dated.
  752. Find this resource:
  753. Hansen, Holger Bernt. Mission, Church, and State in a Colonial Setting: Uganda, 1890–1925. New York: St. Martin’s, 1984.
  754. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  755. A detailed case study of the fraught relations between churches and state in colonial Africa as Catholics, Anglicans, and the colonial state faced off against one another for control of the colonial “jewel” of Buganda.
  756. Find this resource:
  757. Maxwell, David. Christians and Chiefs in Zimbabwe: A Social History of the Hwesa People, c. 1870s–1990s. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1999.
  758. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  759. In comparing Irish Pentecostals and Catholics, Maxwell sees their relative impact as due less to their dramatically differing theologies and practices than to competing interests within Hwesa society, as different factions sought to employ the new faiths to their own benefit.
  760. Find this resource:
  761. Sharkey, Heather J. Cultural Conversions: Unexpected Consequences of Christian Missionary Encounters in the Middle East, Africa, and South Asia. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2013.
  762. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  763. An introduction to recent mission history that extends beyond the mission project to the often-unintended consequences of the missionary encounter in which converts often played a determining role. The introduction provides a useful survey of the current state of the field, while individual essays by Gordon, Landau, and de Lorenzi provide African case studies.
  764. Find this resource:
  765. Spear, Thomas, and Isaria N. Kimambo, eds. East African Expressions of Christianity. Oxford: James Currey, 1999.
  766. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  767. Articles by Waller (pp. 83–126) and Smythe (pp. 129–149) contrast the lack of success of the evangelical African Inland Mission in Maasai with the success of Catholic White Fathers in Fipa due to the relative success of the missionaries in integrating themselves within local society.
  768. Find this resource:
  769. Strayer, Robert. “Mission History in Africa: New Perspectives on an Encounter.” African Studies Review 19.1 (1976): 1–15.
  770. DOI: 10.2307/523849Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  771. An important critical review of the literature on mission history as it was shifting from earlier studies focused on European attempts to plant Christianity in Africa to nationalist studies that focused on African roles in interpreting and spreading the faith, and finally to studies of African religious history focused on the creative encounter between European and African religious beliefs and practices seen in the proliferation of African independent churches.
  772. Find this resource:
  773. Catholic Missions in Africa
  774.  
  775. Catholic missions were among the earliest in Africa, as noted in the sections Ethiopia and the Kingdom of the Kongo, 15th–19th Centuries. Catholic missions usually represented international orders and a universal church that emphasized neo-scholastic theology, liturgical conformity, and ultramontane beliefs that stressed papal and priestly authority over Biblical interpretation. Yet many Catholic mission priests were also heavily influenced by such folk practices as the veneration of saints, Marion devotion, and ritual healing, practices that resonated with African beliefs. Delacroix 1956–1959 and Metzler 1971–1976 provide broad overviews of Catholic missionary endeavors worldwide, which were not always viewed favorably by colonial authorities (Foster 2013) or African converts (Creary 2011). The Society of the Missionaries of Africa, commonly known as the White Fathers, were the most prominent international missionary order in Africa. Its early history is detailed in Shorter 2006 and Nolan 2012, while Renault 1994 provides a biography of its founder and Smythe 2006 a revealing study of White Father proselytization in one Tanzanian community.
  776.  
  777. Creary, Nicholas M. Domesticating a Religious Import: The Jesuits and the Inculturation of the Catholic Church in Zimbabwe, 1879–1980. New York: Fordham University Press, 2011.
  778. DOI: 10.5422/fordham/9780823233342.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  779. A study focused on Jesuit attempts to adapt Catholicism to local culture, which often met with uneven responses from Africans and the reciprocal incorporation of African elements into Catholicism.
  780. Find this resource:
  781. Delacroix, S., ed. Histoire universelle des missions catholiques. 4 vols. Paris: Grund, 1956–1959.
  782. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  783. A general history of Catholic missions worldwide.
  784. Find this resource:
  785. Foster, Elizabeth A. Faith in Empire: Religion, Politics and Colonial Rule in French Senegal, 1880–1940. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2013.
  786. DOI: 10.11126/stanford/9780804783804.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  787. Contrary to popular conceptions, missionaries and colonial officials often disagreed in their goals and assessments of the “civilizing mission,” as shown in this study of conflict between Spiritan missionaries and anticlerical French colonial officials in Senegal.
  788. Find this resource:
  789. Metzler, J., ed. Sacrae Congregationis de Propaganda Fide memoria rerum, 1622–1972. 3 vols. Rome: Herder, 1971–1976.
  790. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  791. These wide-ranging studies of the central Catholic body responsible for missionary work throughout the world are a critical resource for Catholic mission history.
  792. Find this resource:
  793. Nolan, Francis. The White Fathers in Colonial Africa (1919–1939). Nairobi, Kenya: Paulines, 2012.
  794. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  795. A thorough review of the growth and development of the White Fathers. See also Shorter 2006.
  796. Find this resource:
  797. Renault, François. Cardinal Lavigerie: Churchman, Prophet, and Missionary. Translated by John O’Donohue. London: Athlone, 1994.
  798. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  799. A critical biography of the founder of the Society of Missionaries of Africa (SMA), popularly known as the White Fathers and White Sisters, one of the largest and most extensive international missionary orders in Africa.
  800. Find this resource:
  801. Shorter, Aylward. Cross and Flag in Africa: The “White Fathers” during the Colonial Scramble, 1892–1914. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 2006.
  802. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  803. An extensively researched study of the early days of the White Fathers, their frequent opposition to British, French, and German colonial authorities, and the process of mutual selective adaptation of missionaries and Africans to each other in the large mission communities they established. See also Nolan 2012.
  804. Find this resource:
  805. Smythe, Kathleen R. Fipa Families: Reproduction and Catholic Evangelization in Nkansi, Ufipa, 1880–1960. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 2006.
  806. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  807. An informed study of White Father missionaries and how they were able to insert themselves into Fipa society and encourage Fipa to become Catholics.
  808. Find this resource:
  809. Protestant Missions in Africa
  810.  
  811. In contrast to the Catholics, Protestant missionaries represented a wide array of different denominations, nationalities, and organizations. There were a number of different English Anglican, Baptist, and Methodist mission organizations, as shown in Carey 2010; various German, Scandinavian, and North American Lutheran organizations; Scottish Presbyterians; American, Australian, and Canadian evangelicals; and many more. While some were aligned with the ruling colonial power, many were not. Yet Protestant missions often shared their evangelical fervor and pietistic Christ-centered concerns and their beliefs in individual salvation, the struggle between God’s word and Satan’s, and the coming end of the world. Most importantly, they differed from Catholics in believing in the priesthood of all believers and the ability of everyone to read the Bible and interpret it for themselves, which led them to put a heavy emphasis on translating the Bible into local languages, establishing schools to teach literacy, training local teachers, catechists, and evangelists, and developing local churches. The literature on Protestant missions is divided between missiologists, who usually write from a missionary perspective and focus on the faith, theology, and strategies of individual missions and missionaries, and religious studies scholars, who view individual missions and the wider mission movement within the broader historical contexts of European imperial expansion. An example of the former is Murray 1985, while Elphick 2012 and Ajayi 1965 are exemplary of the latter. More recently, scholars have focused on the religious encounter between Europeans and Africans, an approach advocated in Strayer 1978. Cox 2008 provides a recent overview of British Protestant missions, while Campbell 1995 provides a fascinating contrast of an African American mission.
  812.  
  813. Ajayi, J. F. Ade. Christian Missions in Nigeria, 1841–1891: The Making of a New Elite. London: Longman, 1965.
  814. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  815. A pathbreaking book that transformed the studies of missions by focusing on the crucial roles played by Africans, often freed slaves, in their propagation and the creation of a new Christian educated African elite.
  816. Find this resource:
  817. Campbell, James T. Songs of Zion: The African Methodist Episcopal Church in the United States and South Africa. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995.
  818. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  819. A penetrating history of the African American African Methodist Episcopal Church and its missionary work in South Africa, where the encounter between African American missionaries and Africans forces us to rethink the conventional wisdom concerning mission and conversion.
  820. Find this resource:
  821. Carey, Hilary M. God’s Empire: Religion and Colonialism in the British World, c. 1801–1908. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
  822. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  823. An expansive study of the wide variety of British protestant missions and their activities throughout the British Empire.
  824. Find this resource:
  825. Cox, Jeffrey. The British Missionary Enterprise since 1700. London: Routledge, 2008.
  826. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  827. A broad ecclesiological synthesis of British Protestant missions focused on the histories of individual missions and missionaries at home and abroad, which points out, significantly, that the majority of missionaries were female and nonwhite.
  828. Find this resource:
  829. Elphick, Richard. The Equality of Believers: Protestant Missions and the Racial Politics of South Africa. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2012.
  830. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  831. A sweeping analysis of the complex and convoluted ways that protestant missions were imbricated in the racial politics of South Africa over four centuries of white colonial rule.
  832. Find this resource:
  833. Murray, Jocelyn. Proclaim the Good News: A Short History of the Church Missionary Society. London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1985.
  834. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  835. A balanced study of one of the most important British missions.
  836. Find this resource:
  837. Strayer, Robert W. The Making of Mission Communities in East Africa: Anglicans and Africans in Colonial Kenya, 1875–1935. London: Heinemann, 1978.
  838. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  839. A rare study of mission stations, with their complex of churches, schools, and health facilities, as social, political, and religious communities, and the creative religious encounter that occurred between European and African missionaries and their converts that pays as close attention to the worlds of the missionaries as to those of the converts.
  840. Find this resource:
  841. Wright, Marcia. German Missions in Tanganyika, 1891–1941: Lutherans and Moravians in the Southern Highlands. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971.
  842. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  843. Surveys a variety of German Lutheran missions in colonial Tanganyika.
  844. Find this resource:
  845. Conversion
  846.  
  847. If the Christian message was selectively transmitted by missionaries, it was also received selectively by Africans as they listened to the message preached by the missionaries, interpreted it for themselves, and imbued it with meaning within the context of their own values and experiences in an ongoing dialectical process. Whatever the missionaries’ intents, Africans ultimately determined what was accepted, especially as they obtained increased access to Bibles translated into their own vernacular and cultural idioms. Translation was the operative concept, as missionaries sought to convey their own values and beliefs in African words and concepts, with meanings shifting as Christian concepts acquired new meanings in the minds of African converts. Yet African meanings were also altered. While African religions tended to be this-worldly, unitary, and instrumental, Christianity was other-worldly, dualistic, and expressive, leading many Africans to seek to balance African concerns for health and moral regeneration with Christian ones for individual salvation, offering new religious means to combat ancient maladies as well as new ones fomented by colonial rule. Yet at the same time, missions offered young men, women, and slaves new opportunities to gain education, employment, and influence in the new colonial order. Interpretations of conversion have ranged widely in their attempts to come to terms with this complex process. While missionaries often saw conversion as an intensely individual matter of the heart in which converts were cleansed of primitive idolatry and accepted Christ and European ways, historians have tended to view the process more instrumentally, as Africans sought to avail themselves of the secular benefits of missionary education and medicine along with religious powers of combating adversity and evil within the new colonial order. A significant shift in this view occurred with the publications of Robin Horton (Horton 1971, as discussed by Ifkenga-Metuh 1987 and Hefner 1993), who stressed the “rationality of conversion” as people adapted traditional beliefs to an expanding world, while others stressed the Africanization of Christianity through syncretism and adaptation (Peel 1968, Kaplan 1986). This focus on African religious views came under attack in the influential work of Jean and John Comaroff (Comaroff and Comaroff 1991–1997) that returned to earlier views focused on the role of missions in imposing colonial hegemony over Africans. The authors’ work has been widely criticized for neglecting African and religious dimensions of conversion (Peterson 2011, Landau 1995, Peel 2000, and Volz 2011, all cited under Popular Evangelism), however, and subsequent thinking has focused on the concept of “translation” (Sanneh 2009, Landau 1999). An illuminating comparative analysis of conversion in Europe is detailed in Fletcher 1998.
  848.  
  849. Comaroff, Jean, and John Comaroff. Of Revelation and Revolution. 2 vols. London: University of Chicago Press, 1991–1997.
  850. DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226114477.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  851. Though widely cited and overtheorized, views mission Christianity in Tswana rather conventionally as an alien imposition to ensure colonial hegemony by creating colonial subjects in a process characterized as the “colonization of consciousness.” For alternative views that give greater recognition to African roles in the colonial encounter, see Peterson 2011, Landau 1995, Peel 2000, and Volz 2011, all cited under Popular Evangelism.
  852. Find this resource:
  853. Fletcher, Richard. The Barbarian Conversion: From Paganism to Christianity. New York: Henry Holt, 1998.
  854. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  855. A wide-ranging history of conversion in 3rd- to 14th-century Europe that provides a valuable comparative study of the complex historical processes involved that parallel those in Africa. Originally published in Britain as The Conversion of Europe (London: HarperCollins, 1997).
  856. Find this resource:
  857. Hefner, Robert W., ed. Conversion to Christianity: Historical and Anthropological Perspectives on a Great Transformation. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993.
  858. DOI: 10.1525/california/9780520078352.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  859. Comparative studies of conversion that critique and build on Robin Horton’s important studies (Horton 1971 as discussed by Ifkenga-Metuh 1987).
  860. Find this resource:
  861. Horton, Robin. “African Conversion.” Africa 41.2 (1971): 85–108.
  862. DOI: 10.2307/1159421Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  863. An influential article that viewed Christianity and Islam as catalysts for changes already underway within African societies as traditional African means of explanation, prediction, and control adapted to an expanding world. For an elaboration of Horton’s views and answer to his critics, see his “On the Rationality of Conversion,” Africa 45.3–4 (1975): 219–235, 373–399 and, for the wider debate, Ifkenga-Metuh 1987 and Hefner 1993.
  864. Find this resource:
  865. Ifkenga-Metuh, Emefie. “The Shattered Microcosm: A Critical Survey of Explanations of Conversion in Africa.” In Religion, Development and African Identity. Edited by Kirsten Holst Peterson. Uppsala, Sweden: Scandinavian Institute of African Studies, 1987.
  866. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  867. A critical review of the debate over the Horton thesis (Horton 1971) of African conversion.
  868. Find this resource:
  869. Kaplan, Steven. “The Africanization of Missionary Christianity: History and Typology.” Journal of Religion in Africa 16 (1986): 166–186.
  870. DOI: 10.1163/157006686X00128Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  871. Discusses attempts by foreign missionaries to adapt Christianity to African culture through processes of toleration, translation, assimilation, Christianization, acculturation, and incorporation.
  872. Find this resource:
  873. Landau, Paul S. “‘Religion’ and Christian Conversion in African History: A New Model.” Journal of Religious History 23.1 (1999): 8–30.
  874. DOI: 10.1111/1467-9809.00071Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  875. An intricate argument for interpreting conversion as translation. See Sanneh 2009.
  876. Find this resource:
  877. Peel, J. D. Y. “Syncretism and Religious Change.” Comparative Studies in Society and History 10 (1968): 121–141.
  878. DOI: 10.1017/S0010417500004771Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  879. A significant analysis of Yoruba conversion as a creative interactive process of dialectical syncretism, as opposed to older views of acculturation.
  880. Find this resource:
  881. Peterson, Derek R. “Conversion and the Alignments of Colonial Culture.” Social Sciences and Missions 24.2–3 (2011): 207–232.
  882. DOI: 10.1163/187489411X583272Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  883. An extended critique of Comaroff and Comaroff 1991–1997 that interprets “conversion” not as the “colonization of consciousness” but as a creative process by which Africans were able to critique the colonial order.
  884. Find this resource:
  885. Sanneh, Lamin. Translating the Message: The Missionary Impact on Culture. 2d ed. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 2009.
  886. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  887. An influential study by a leading African religious scholar that places conversion to Christianity in Africa within a worldwide context of conversion throughout history as an ongoing process of translation of the faith into different cultures and historical contexts. First published in 1989.
  888. Find this resource:
  889. Evangelism
  890.  
  891. As Sanneh 2009 points out (see Conversion), “translation” was the operative concept as both missionaries and Africans sought to render Christian terminology, concepts, beliefs, and rituals into African terms, in the process of which they inevitably became reinterpreted and transformed. This was done first by African evangelists, who were responsible for interpreting the new faith to their brethren, and subsequently by European and African translators who sought to render the word into local languages and concepts, and finally by musicians responsible for rendering the word in music.
  892.  
  893. Popular Evangelism
  894.  
  895. While foreign missionaries were responsible for the initial converts, the primary task was quickly taken over by African evangelists, catechists, teachers, pastors, priests, and intellectuals who were able to communicate easily in their own languages and translate the new and strange faith into familiar terms. Yet the critical roles played by African evangelists in spreading, interpreting, and appropriating the new faith were rarely or only briefly acknowledged in mission histories until Pirouet made it the central focus of her work (Pirouet 1978). Subsequent studies have elaborated on this phenomenon at length, including the role of evangelists in adapting local cosmologies (Gray 1990), the importance of political authorities in appropriating Christianity as a state religion (Landau 1995), the role of Yoruba Christian intellectuals in redefining both the faith and Yoruba identity (Peel 2000), the significance of local social relationships in the acceptance of Christianity (Volz 2011), the role of converts in forging new Christian communities (Bradford 2012), and the role of ex-slaves in converting their countrymen to Christianity (Maxwell 2013).
  896.  
  897. Bradford, Tolly. Prophetic Identities: Indigenous Missionaries on British Colonial Frontiers, 1850–75. Vancouver, Canada: University of British Columbia Press, 2012.
  898. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  899. A comparative biography of two men who were instrumental in the forging of new Christian communities embracing both evangelical Christianity and modernity in British Columbia and South Africa.
  900. Find this resource:
  901. Gray, Richard. Black Christians and White Missionaries. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1990.
  902. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  903. Focuses on the roles of African evangelists and cosmologies in Kongo struggles with disease, misfortune, and appropriation of Christianity.
  904. Find this resource:
  905. Landau, Paul Stuart. The Realm of the Word: Language, Gender, and Christianity in a Southern African Kingdom. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 1995.
  906. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  907. In this sophisticated study, Landau argues (contra Comaroff and Comaroff 1991–1997, cited under Conversion) that the success of Christianity in Tswana was due not to the missionaries but to the ability of Tswana rulers, evangelists, and women to create a new ecclesiastical polity based on learning, literacy, and civilization to defend themselves against the South African threat.
  908. Find this resource:
  909. Maxwell, David. “Freed Slaves, Missionaries and Respectability: The Expansion of the Christian Frontier from Angola to Belgian Congo.” Journal of African History 54.1 (2013): 79–102.
  910. DOI: 10.1017/S0021853713000030Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  911. As in West Africa and East Africa earlier, freed slaves from Angola returned home to play important roles in converting their countrymen to Christianity and in challenging European missionaries’ control of the church.
  912. Find this resource:
  913. Peel, J. D. Y. Religious Encounter and the Making of the Yoruba. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2000.
  914. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  915. A penetrating analysis by one of the leading scholars of African religion of the complex cultural negotiations undertaken by Yoruba religious scholars in the translation of European Christianity into Yoruba terms and a reformed Yoruba identity.
  916. Find this resource:
  917. Pirouet, M. Louise. Black Evangelists: The Spread of Christianity in Uganda, 1891–1914. London: Rex Collings, 1978.
  918. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  919. A pioneering study based on extensive oral and written evidence of hundreds of early Anglican evangelists responsible for spreading the new faith and establishing the local church throughout Uganda and beyond.
  920. Find this resource:
  921. Volz, Stephen C. African Teachers on the Colonial Frontier: Tswana Evangelists and Their Communities during the Nineteenth Century. New York: Peter Lang, 2011.
  922. DOI: 10.3726/978-1-4539-0156-4Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  923. A nuanced study of the critical roles played by African evangelists in Botswana in interpreting, assimilating, and propagating Christianity by building on their own social and political relationships.
  924. Find this resource:
  925. Translation of the Bible
  926.  
  927. As a popular African saying notes, “When the white man first came to Africa, he had the Bible and Africans had the land. Then the white man said to the Africans: ‘Let us bow our heads in prayer.’ When the Africans raised their heads, the white man had the land and the Africans had the Bible.” To preach the word, missionaries and their African converts first had to translate it into local languages, but the process of translation inevitably meant that Christian concepts had to be rendered as local ones, allowing Africans to interpret them for themselves in the context of their own customs and beliefs, thus contributing to the process of the Africanization of Christianity. Protestants took up this task with a vengeance, translating the Bible into hundreds of languages, building printing presses to publish their tracts and translations, and opening schools to teach literacy so that people might read them, while Catholics were more content to spread the word through ritual practice. Missionary surveys of Bible translation in Africa include West and Dube 2000, while theoretical and technical issues of translation are taken up in Smalley 1991 and Nida and Taber 1969. Sanneh 2009 (see Conversion) puts translation at the heart of conversion, while Peterson 2003 explores the process of Biblical translation in Kenya and Worger 2001 plumbs the problems of translating the single concept of “God.” Barrett 1968 shows the dramatic impact of the vernacular Bible on African religious innovation; Hofmeyr 1994 reveals how it has been deeply incorporated within African traditional discourse; and Hill 1993 provides a revealing comparative study of the impact of the publication of the vernacular Bible in England.
  928.  
  929. Barrett, David B. Schism and Renewal in Africa: An Analysis of Six Thousand Contemporary Religious Movements. Nairobi, Kenya: Oxford University Press, 1968.
  930. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  931. A sweeping sociological study of the causes of Christian independency in Africa that identifies the translation of the Bible into local languages as a critical factor in Africans’ ability to interpret the word for themselves and establish their own churches.
  932. Find this resource:
  933. Hill, Christopher. The English Bible and the Seventeenth-Century Revolution. London: Allen Lane, 1993.
  934. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  935. A penetrating study of the role of newly available popular vernacular translations of the Bible on the development of radical Protestantism in revolutionary England and the ability of everyone to interpret the scriptures for themselves.
  936. Find this resource:
  937. Hofmeyr, Isabel. “We spend our years as a tale that is told”: Oral Historical Narrative in a South African Chiefdom. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 1994.
  938. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  939. An insightful study of the role of oral narratives in African societies and the ways they absorbed Biblical narratives into traditional storytelling.
  940. Find this resource:
  941. Nida, Eugene A., and Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1969.
  942. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  943. A guide to biblical translation by two of its leading practitioners.
  944. Find this resource:
  945. Peterson, Derek R. “The Rhetoric of the Word: Bible Translation and Mau Mau in Colonial Kenya.” In Missions, Nationalism and the End of Empire. Edited by Brian Stanley, 165–179. Grand Rapids, MI: W. B. Eerdmans, 2003.
  946. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  947. Explores the process of Biblical translation in Kenya and the ways colonized Kikuyu “rewrote the Word to serve in internally contentious ethnic debates over age, power, and wealth . . . a means by which converts created new grammars of vernacular disputation” (p. 166).
  948. Find this resource:
  949. Smalley, William A. Translation as Mission: Bible Translation in the Modern Missionary Movement. Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 1991.
  950. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  951. A collection of essays tracing the history and theory of biblical translation and interpretation, the relation of translation to the missionary movement, and the role of vernacular Bibles in the emergence of independent Christian churches.
  952. Find this resource:
  953. West, Gerald O., and Musa W. Dube, eds. The Bible in Africa: Transactions, Trajectories and Trends. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2000.
  954. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  955. A wide range of studies on the history and practice of biblical translation in Africa, including extensive consideration of cultural practices and a comprehensive bibliography of African works on translation.
  956. Find this resource:
  957. Worger, William H. “Parsing God: Conversations about the Meaning of Words and Metaphors in Nineteenth-Century Southern Africa.” Journal of African History 42 (2001): 417–447.
  958. DOI: 10.1017/S0021853701007885Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  959. An insightful discussion of the intense debates between European missionaries and Africans over the meaning of the single word “God,” during which different meanings continually bled into one another.
  960. Find this resource:
  961. Music
  962.  
  963. Like Scripture, European Christian music also had to be translated in accord with African musical styles and forms. Yet it did not take long for Africans to begin writing their own hymns, and today African church choirs frequently compete with one another and sell recordings of their performances. Weman 1960 transcribes a number of Lutheran hymns and suggests ways that European and African forms might be reconciled, while Jones 1976 makes a case for employing African musical forms. Kidula 2013, Krabill 1995 and Gunner 2002 analyze the extensive hymns and religious texts of three African churches.
  964.  
  965. Gunner, Elizabeth. The Man of Heaven and the Beautiful Ones of God: Writings from iBandla lamaNazaretha, a South African Church. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2002.
  966. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  967. An insightful study of Zulu hymns and Christian texts.
  968. Find this resource:
  969. Jones, A. M. African Hymnody in Christian Worship: A Contribution to the History of Its Development. Gwelo, Rhodesia: Mambo, 1976.
  970. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  971. An impassioned argument by a leading musicologist for using African musical forms to write new Christian hymns.
  972. Find this resource:
  973. Kidula, Jean Ngoya. Music in Kenyan Christianity: Logooli Religious Song. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2013.
  974. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  975. An ethnomusicological study of a prominent Kenyan hymnologist in the writing of African Christian music and the impact of Christian music on Logooli of western Kenya. Includes additional audiovisual material available on the Internet.
  976. Find this resource:
  977. Krabill, James R. The Hymnody of the Harrist Church among the Dida of South-Central Ivory Coast, 1913–1949: A Historico-religious Study. Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1995.
  978. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  979. A detailed ethnomusicological study of the hymns of a major West African independent church.
  980. Find this resource:
  981. Weman, Henry. African Music and the Church in Africa. Translated by Eric J. Sharpe. Uppsala, Sweden: Swedish Institute for Missionary Research, 1960.
  982. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  983. A review of African church music with recommendations for ways of reconciling African and European forms.
  984. Find this resource:
  985. Struggles for Control
  986.  
  987. As African understandings of the new religion and their roles in the church increased, missionaries sought to maintain control of the church and practice of Christianity. Yet Africans often enjoyed relative autonomy in the local churches, schools, and outstations they ran, and they put increasing pressure on the missionaries to advance their own interests, hiving off from the missions to establish their own independent “Ethiopian” churches, evoking Biblical references to Ethiopia and the much older church in Ethiopia, when they were thwarted. Notable examples of this process occurred in Buganda (Taylor 1958, Welbourn 1961) and central Kenya (Strayer 1978, Sandgren 1989, Welbourn 1961). Taylor and Lehmann 1961 and Webster 1964 provide additional case studies, while Shepperson and Price 1958 and Fields 1985 focus on schismatic movements that challenged both political and religious authority.
  988.  
  989. Fields, Karen E. Revival and Rebellion in Colonial Central Africa. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985.
  990. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  991. A seminal sociological study of a millenarian movement that sought to overcome the evil brought by colonialism and fundamentally challenge colonial authorities in Malawi and Zambia.
  992. Find this resource:
  993. Sandgren, David P. Christianity and the Kikuyu: Religious Divisions and Social Conflict. New York: Peter Lang, 1989.
  994. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  995. A historical ethnography of religious struggles in Kenya, including the motives and theology of the missionaries, the values and beliefs of their converts, and the ongoing struggles of Kikuyu Christians to take control of their religious lives.
  996. Find this resource:
  997. Shepperson, George A., and Thomas Price. Independent African: John Chilembwe and the Origins, Setting and Significance of the Nyasaland Native Rising of 1915. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1958.
  998. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  999. A classic in depth study of religious ferment and conflict in Malawi involving dissident Europeans, African-Americans, and Africans alike.
  1000. Find this resource:
  1001. Strayer, Robert W. The Making of Mission Communities in East Africa: Anglicans and Africans in Colonial Kenya, 1875–1935. London: Heinemann, 1978.
  1002. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1003. A dynamic study of the development of Anglican missionary communities, the rise of an African church, and the religious crises that led to independency in central Kenya.
  1004. Find this resource:
  1005. Taylor, John V. The Growth of the Church in Buganda: An Attempt at Understanding. London: SCM, 1958.
  1006. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1007. A closely observed study of the remarkable growth of the indigenous Anglican Church in Buganda, its conflicts with mission authorities, the prominent roles played by Buganda catechists and clerics in its development, and the ways the church became embedded in local society and traditional religious practice.
  1008. Find this resource:
  1009. Taylor, John V., and Dorothea A. Lehmann. Christians of the Copperbelt. London: SCM, 1961.
  1010. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1011. Explores the experiences of migrant laborers who brought their own Christian faiths with them, but who rebelled when missionaries unsuccessfully sought to discipline them in the new urban setting.
  1012. Find this resource:
  1013. Webster, J. B. The African Churches among the Yoruba, 1888–1922. Oxford: Clarendon, 1964.
  1014. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1015. A comparative study of six religiously orthodox but organizationally separate Christian movements in western Nigeria that arose in response to mission imperialism.
  1016. Find this resource:
  1017. Welbourn, F. B. East African Rebels: A Study of Some Independent Churches. London: SCM, 1961.
  1018. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1019. Studies of a number of sectarian Ganda and Kikuyu churches that sought to reform mission Christianity in opposition to prevailing mission authorities.
  1020. Find this resource:
  1021. Prophecy and Healing
  1022.  
  1023. African struggles for control extended beyond organizational issues to matters of doctrine, as African prophets, possessed by the Holy Spirit, acquired charismatic gifts, healed the sick, and founded their own spiritual movements and churches. Such prophets built on Old Testament as well as African prophetic traditions to contest European monopoly of the word and reclaim the essence of Christianity from the missionaries to create an African Zion. African prophecy was not new, but the messages of the new prophets often were (Anderson and Johnson 1995; see especially the introduction). Many of these movements centered on the active ritual maintenance of social health and well-being, traditional African religious concerns, as African societies struggled to gain control over the social, economic, and medical crises brought by colonialism. There are an enormous number of studies of such Zionist churches (many of which can be found in Review Articles), of which the following are only a brief introduction. Sundkler 1948 pioneered the study of independent churches and was the first to distinguish between organizationally separate but orthodox “Ethiopian” and charismatic “Zionist” spirit churches. The field has subsequently seen a profusion of deeply informed case studies, including most notably studies of Zimbabwe (Daneel 1971–1988), Kongo (MacGaffey 1983, Martin 1975), Nigeria (Peel 1968), Ivory Coast (Shank 1994), and western Kenya (Hoehler-Fatton 1996).
  1024.  
  1025. Anderson, David M., and Douglas H. Johnson, eds. Revealing Prophets: Prophecy in Eastern African History. London: James Currey, 1995.
  1026. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1027. Collected papers that explore an array of prophets and prophecy over more than a century.
  1028. Find this resource:
  1029. Daneel, M. L. Old and New in Southern Shona Independent Churches. 3 vols. The Hague: Mouton, 1971–1988.
  1030. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1031. A monumental study of the origins, growth, structure, leadership, belief, and ritual practice, including faith healing, of both Ethiopian and Zionist churches in Zimbabwe in ongoing transformations of both traditional and Christian practices and beliefs.
  1032. Find this resource:
  1033. Hoehler-Fatton, Cynthia. Women of Fire and Spirit: History, Faith, and Gender in Roho Religion in Western Kenya. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.
  1034. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195097900.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1035. A penetrating study of the emergence of a charismatic church out of the religious pluralism of western Kenya based on faith in the Holy Spirit, healing, prophesy, and the dramatic martyrdom of its prophet. Notable for its sensitivity to African religious meanings and the vital role of women in the church.
  1036. Find this resource:
  1037. MacGaffey, Wyatt. Modern Kongo Prophets: Religion in a Plural Society. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1983.
  1038. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1039. An insightful study that views modern Christian prophets as agents of change who rework categories of Kongolese thought to interpret the contemporary situation for themselves.
  1040. Find this resource:
  1041. Martin, Marie-Louise. Kimbangu: An African Prophet and His Church. Translated by D. M. Moore. Oxford: Blackwell, 1975.
  1042. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1043. After a quick overview of the brief life of the prophet, traces the historical development of L’Église de Jesus-Christ sur la Terre par le Prophète Simon Kimbangu as it grew to become the largest church in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
  1044. Find this resource:
  1045. Peel, J. D. Y. Aladura: A Religious Movement among the Yoruba. London: Oxford University Press, 1968.
  1046. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1047. A detailed sociological study tracing the social origins and doctrines of these prolific Nigerian “prayer” movements to reform both Christianity and traditional Yoruba religion from their origins in charismatic prophecy to their institutionalization in established doctrine and authority.
  1048. Find this resource:
  1049. Shank, David A. Prophet Harris: The “Black Elijah” of West Africa. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1994.
  1050. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1051. A remarkable prophet influenced by Methodists, Anglicans, and Jehovah’s Witnesses, Harris traveled from Liberia to Ghana over a period of eighteen months, healing the sick, exorcising evil spirits, and prophesizing the end of the world to convert tens of thousands and seed new churches wherever he went.
  1052. Find this resource:
  1053. Sundkler, Bengt. Bantu Prophets in South Africa. London: Lutterworth, 1948.
  1054. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1055. A pathbreaking survey of South Africa’s prolific independent churches in which Sundkler first introduced the distinction between “Ethiopian” and “Zionist” churches. Subsequently updated in his Zulu Zion and some Swazi Zionists (1976) to include emergent spirit-infused Apostolic, Gospel, and Pentecostal churches.
  1056. Find this resource:
  1057. Evangelical, Charismatic, and Pentecostal Movements
  1058.  
  1059. While earlier Zionist movements fused quintessentially African religious concerns such as spirit possession, witchcraft, and faith healing with analogous Christian ones, in the 21st century Africans are increasingly embracing evangelical, charismatic, and Pentecostal movements, which are global in origin yet still reflect common concerns in their beliefs in the power of the Holy Spirit to heal, combat evil, and prophesize. Such charismatic movements have come to infuse mainstream Protestant and Catholic churches as well in the East African Revival, the presence of prayer bands within mainline congregations, and in charismatic Catholic movements. While such reform movements within the church were more prevalent than the independent ones outside it, they have received far less attention in the literature, and what scholarship there is, is not well integrated with earlier studies of African mission, conversion, or churches, a point developed in detail in Meyer 2004, while ter Haar 2009 explores their roots in African spirituality.
  1060.  
  1061. Meyer, Birgit. “Christianity in Africa: From African Independent to Pentecostal-Charismatic Churches.” Annual Review of Anthropology 33 (2004): 447–474.
  1062. DOI: 10.1146/annurev.anthro.33.070203.143835Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1063. A review article tracing shifts in the anthropological study of African Christianity from an earlier focus on African Initiated or Independent Churches (AICs) to one on newer foreign-inspired Pentecostal and charismatic ones. Like the earlier AICs, Pentecostal-charismatic churches emphasize the Holy Spirit, prophetism, dreams and visions, speaking in tongues, healing through prayer, and deliverance from evil spirits, but they also introduce new global influences, such as neoliberalism, modernization, and the prosperity gospel.
  1064. Find this resource:
  1065. ter Haar, Gerrie. How God Became African: African Spirituality and Western Secular Thought. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009.
  1066. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1067. Argues that African belief in miracles, spirit possession, and spiritual healing have been enculturated within charismatic Christianity, which has then been retransmitted back to Europe and North America.
  1068. Find this resource:
  1069. Evangelical Protestantism
  1070.  
  1071. Evangelical movements have been long featured in Protestant Christianity, and many missionaries themselves came out of the 19th-century British and American evangelical revivals, including the American Sudan Interior and Africa Inland missions and the British offshoots of the Keswick Convention. Cooper 2006 explores the experience of an American evangelical mission in the Muslim Sahel, and Houle 2011 uncovers the impact of a Holiness preacher on the Congregational Church in South Africa, while Waller 1999 and Sandgrern 1999 offer contrasting views of the successes and failures of the evangelical Africa Inland Mission in Kenya. Yet perhaps the most dramatic evangelical movement was the locally generated East African Revival. The Revival emerged in the late 1920s within the Anglican Church in Uganda and Rwanda and quickly spread to other Protestant churches and missions across eastern Africa—Presbyterian, Methodist, Lutheran, and Mennonite—in each of which small prayer groups of “the saved” met to experience the gifts of the Holy Spirit. Long opposed by church authorities for their fervent opposition to established authority and practice, the Revival nevertheless did not lead to schism, and today it is the dominant movement within most East African Protestant denominations. Ward and Wild-Wood 2011 provides a broad survey of the history, experience, and theology of the Revival, while Peterson 2012 explores the tensions between the Revival and Kikuyu nationalists. Today, evangelical African Anglicans have become a force to reckon with in the worldwide Anglican Communion (Hassett 2007).
  1072.  
  1073. Cooper, Barbara M. Evangelical Christians in the Muslim Sahel. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2006.
  1074. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1075. Explores the work of American evangelical missionaries from the Sudan Interior Mission in a majority-Muslim French colony whose converts subsequently played important roles in the upsurge of new evangelical and Pentecostal churches in the area.
  1076. Find this resource:
  1077. Hassett, Miranda K. Anglican Communion in Crisis: How Episcopal Dissidents and Their African Allies are Reshaping Anglicanism. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007.
  1078. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1079. A comparative study of the emerging schism within the Anglican Communion between the established church and conservative African and American evangelicals over the ordination of women and homosexuals, in which African bishops have threatened to split the communion and have assumed ecclesiastical authority over dissident American churches.
  1080. Find this resource:
  1081. Houle, Robert J. Making African Christianity: Africans Reimagining Their Faith in Colonial South Africa. Bethlehem, PA: Lehigh University Press, 2011.
  1082. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1083. A rare study of an early charismatic mission in the form of a lone Iowan Holiness missionary and his African colleague who sparked an evangelical revival movement within the Congregational American Zulu Mission as Zulu “naturalized” Christianity for themselves.
  1084. Find this resource:
  1085. Peterson, Derek R. Ethnic Patriotism and East African Revival: A History of Dissent c. 1935–1972. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2012.
  1086. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781139108614Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1087. Traces the struggle in colonial East Africa between revivalists and ethnic nationalists as fundamentally a moral one over ancestral wisdom and the political future.
  1088. Find this resource:
  1089. Sandgrern, David. “Kamba Christianity: From Africa Inland Church to African Brotherhood Church.” In East African Expressions of Christianity. Edited by Thomas Spear and Isaria N. Kimambo, 169–195. Oxford: James Currey, 1999.
  1090. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1091. Explores the mixed success of an evangelical mission and its independent offshoot.
  1092. Find this resource:
  1093. Waller, Richard. “They Do the Dictating and We Must Submit: The Africa Inland Mission in Maasailand.” In East African Expressions of Christianity. Edited by Thomas Spear and Isaria N. Kimambo, 83–126. Oxford: James Currey, 1999.
  1094. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1095. An insightful study of the failures of evangelical missionaries among the Maasai.
  1096. Find this resource:
  1097. Ward, Kevin, and Emma Wild-Wood, eds. The East African Revival: History and Legacies. Farham, UK: Ashgate, 2011.
  1098. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1099. A collection of papers from revivalists and scholars reflecting on the origins, practice, theology, and regional expressions of the Revival that swept across the Protestant churches of East Africa from the 1920s.
  1100. Find this resource:
  1101. Charismatic Catholicism
  1102.  
  1103. African Catholics, bound to the teachings and authority of the church, have rarely split from the church to form their own independent churches or movements, but “popular” or “folk” Catholic practices, including Marian apparitions, veneration of saints, ritual healing and exorcism, and ritual pilgrimages to sacred sites, have long been prevalent within the church in Europe and Latin America, and such practices were imported into Africa by European priests drawn from rural backgrounds in France, Quebec, Ireland, and elsewhere (Kassimir 1999). Some charismatic movements have also arisen within the church, the most prominent of which was led by Archbishop Emmanuel Milingo of Zambia, who conducted immensely popular faith healing and exorcism ceremonies until he was called back to Rome, where he continued his popular healing ministry for Italians. He subsequently married and ordained other married men as priests, at which point he was excommunicated (Milingo 1984, ter Haar 1992). Comoro and Sivalon 1999 provides a rare glimpse of a similar local movement.
  1104.  
  1105. Comoro, Christopher, and John Sivalon. “The Marian Faith Healing Ministry: An African Expression of Popular Catholicism in Tanzania.” In East African Expressions of Christianity. Edited by Thomas Spear and Isaria N. Kimambo, 275–295. Oxford: James Currey, 1999.
  1106. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1107. Follows the prophetic ministry of a Catholic priest in Dar es Salaam who led healing services, exorcisms of evil spirits, and communal prayers seeking the intercession of the Virgin Mary.
  1108. Find this resource:
  1109. Kassimir, Ronald. “The Politics of Popular Catholicism in Uganda.” In East African Expressions of Christianity. Edited by Thomas Spear and Isaria N. Kimambo, 248–274. Oxford: James Currey, 1999.
  1110. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1111. A fascinating study of popular movements sponsored by the church in order to combat popular ones that continued to exorcise evil spirits, receive Marian visions, and challenge the church’s authority.
  1112. Find this resource:
  1113. Milingo, Emmanuel. The World in Between: Christian Healing and the Struggle for Spiritual Survival. Edited by Mona Macmillan. London: Hurst, 1984.
  1114. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1115. Archbishop Milingo’s account of his healing ministry.
  1116. Find this resource:
  1117. ter Haar, Gerrie. Spirit of Africa: The Healing Ministry of Archbishop Milingo of Zambia. London: Hurst, 1992.
  1118. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1119. The life and times of the charismatic Catholic Archbishop Milingo.
  1120. Find this resource:
  1121. Pentecostalism
  1122.  
  1123. Originating in North America in the early 20th century, Pentecostals today number some 120 million believers in Africa, who comprise nearly half of all Pentecostals worldwide; African pastors lead their own megachurches, and many of these churches have now spread back across the Atlantic to Britain and North America. Unlike previous Christian movements within and outside the church that claim strong African credentials, however, the new Pentecostal preachers flaunt their global connections, wealth, and modern practices while vehemently opposing the “primitive” practices of independents and traditionalists alike. Yet, paradoxically, Pentecostals occupy common theological ground with them in acknowledging the power of the spirit to combat evil and heal the sick, and, in acknowledging the power of other spirits and witches, they incorporate African spiritual forces and take them far more seriously than the mainstream denominations. The result is that, while mainstream churches simply dismissed African religious beliefs, Pentecostals acknowledge them and engage in a bitter struggle with them as each seeks to prove their power over the forces of evil, a point elucidated in Meyer 1999. Yet Pentecostalism is also emphatically a rapidly growing, modern, international phenomenon, as detailed in Corten and Marshall-Fratani 2001, Kalu 2008, and Lindhardt 2014, one that has rapidly taken hold in Ghana (Meyer 1999 and Gifford 2004; Soothill 2007, cited under Women and Christianity), Nigeria (Wariboko 2014, Ojo 2006), and Zimbabwe (Maxwell 2006), and taken an active role in development (Freedman 2012, Gifford 2015, and Kalu 2006, all cited under Christianity and Development).
  1124.  
  1125. Corten, André, and Ruth Marshall-Fratani, eds. Between Babel and Pentecost: Transnational Pentecostalism in Africa and Latin America. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2001.
  1126. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1127. Collected papers that focus on the distinctive forms of organization, theology, and practice that charismatic and Pentecostal churches share worldwide.
  1128. Find this resource:
  1129. Gifford, Paul. Ghana’s New Christianity: Pentecostalism in a Globalizing African Economy. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2004.
  1130. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1131. A critical examination of contemporary Pentecostal and charismatic movements in Accra that have rapidly eclipsed both mainstream and independent churches since 1990. These movements are focused on exorcising evil spirits, healing, prayer, prophesy, and achieving material prosperity, and Gifford criticizes them as misguided responses to contemporary social and economic problems.
  1132. Find this resource:
  1133. Kalu, Ogbu. African Pentecostalism: An Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.
  1134. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195340006.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1135. Stresses the roots of African Pentecostalism in African Christianity over its American antecedents.
  1136. Find this resource:
  1137. Lindhardt, Martin, ed. Pentecostalism in Africa: Presence and Impact of Pneumatic Christianity in Postcolonial Societies. Boston: Brill, 2014.
  1138. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1139. Bringing together prominent Africanist scholars from a variety of disciplines, this book offers a comprehensive treatment of the social, cultural, and political impact of Pentecostal-Charismatic Christianity in postcolonial sub-Saharan Africa.
  1140. Find this resource:
  1141. Maxwell, David. African Gifts of the Spirit: Pentecostalism and the Rise of a Zimbabwean Transnational Religious Movement. Oxford: James Currey, 2006.
  1142. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1143. Account of the local origins and development of a Pentecostal church, the Zimbabwe Assemblies of God Africa, under the charismatic prophetic leadership of Ezekiel Gutu, and its subsequent expansion into neighboring countries and England, placing its story within the broader history of African Christianity, global Pentecostalism, decolonization, underdevelopment, and the emergence of neoliberalism.
  1144. Find this resource:
  1145. Meyer, Birgit. Translating the Devil: Religion and Modernity among the Ewe in Ghana. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1999.
  1146. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1147. An innovative study of Pentecostalism that stresses its complementarity with local beliefs by focusing on contrasting views of the devil held by traditionalists who believed in the omnipresence of evil spirits, mission churches that ignored them, and local Pentecostal churches that took them seriously and incorporated them within Christianity.
  1148. Find this resource:
  1149. Ojo, Matthews A. The End-Time Army: Charismatic Movements in Modern Nigeria. Trenton, NJ: Africa World, 2006.
  1150. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1151. Traces the origins, doctrines, liturgy, practices, and politics of Nigerian Pentecostal churches founded by born-again university students in western Nigeria.
  1152. Find this resource:
  1153. Wariboko, Nimi. Nigerian Pentecostalism. Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 2014.
  1154. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1155. Presents a multidisciplinary study of how Nigerian Pentecostals conceive of and engage with a spirit-filled world, arguing that the character of the movement is defined through an underlying “spell of the invisible.”
  1156. Find this resource:
  1157. African Theology
  1158.  
  1159. In the process of becoming Christian, Africans struggled theologically to distinguish among the universal appeal of Christianity, the secular appeal of the colonial European agents who brought it, and their own religious beliefs and practices. Parratt 1995 and Maddox 1999 provide general surveys of African theology, pointing out the main issues and trends, while Young 1993 (cited under Bibliographies) provides a critical review of the literature. Olupona and Nyang 1993 reassesses the work of the pioneering African theologian John Mbiti, who advocated the Africanization of Christianity, while Sanneh 2009 and Bediako 1995 focus on translation and the innate Africanness of Christianity, and Michael 2013 argues that the most distinctive aspect of African theology is its incorporation of African worldviews and traditions. Two of the most fertile grounds for African theology were South Africa, where theologians and seminarians played major roles in the antiapartheid movement (Magaziner 2010), and Tanzania, where liberation theology underlay Ujamaa (Frostin 1988).
  1160.  
  1161. Bediako, Kwame. Christianity in Africa: The Renewal of a Non-Western Religion. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1995.
  1162. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1163. One of Africa’s leading theologians, Bediako has long stressed the essential Africanness of Christianity and sought to distinguish between the universal and colonial aspects of Christianity in order to highlight the African.
  1164. Find this resource:
  1165. Frostin, Per. Liberation Theology in Tanzania and South Africa: A First World Interpretation. Lund, Sweden: Lund University Press, 1988.
  1166. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1167. A guide to the theology of African socialism (Ujamaa) in Tanzania and Black Theology in South Africa.
  1168. Find this resource:
  1169. Maddox, Gregory H. “African Theology and the Search for the Universal.” In East African Expressions of Christianity. Edited by Thomas Spear and Isaria N. Kimambo, 25–36. Oxford: James Currey, 1999.
  1170. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1171. A general overview that focuses on Africans’ attempts “to distinguish the message of Christianity from the cultural trappings of the West . . . to identify an essentially African religion” (p. 27).
  1172. Find this resource:
  1173. Magaziner, Daniel R. The Law and the Prophets: Black Consciousness in South Africa, 1968–1977. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 2010.
  1174. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1175. A meticulous intellectual history of the role of African seminarians and Black Theology in the development of the antiapartheid Black Consciousness Movement in South Africa.
  1176. Find this resource:
  1177. Michael, Matthew. Christian Theology and African Traditions. Cambridge, UK: Lutterworth, 2013.
  1178. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1179. Evangelical theologian Matthew Michael argues that African Christian theology can only be understood in the context of the African worldview and traditions that have given African Christianity its uniqueness.
  1180. Find this resource:
  1181. Olupona, Jacob K., and Sulayman S. Nyang, eds. Religious Plurality in Africa: Essays in Honour of John S. Mbiti. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1993.
  1182. DOI: 10.1515/9783110850079Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1183. Essays on one of Africa’s leading theologians reevaluating his pioneering contributions to African theology and the study of traditional African religions.
  1184. Find this resource:
  1185. Parratt, John. Reinventing Christianity: African Theology Today. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1995.
  1186. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1187. A wide-ranging evaluation of Protestant and Catholic theology in Africa focusing on the attempts of African theologians to locate Christianity within African cultural and political contexts.
  1188. Find this resource:
  1189. Sanneh, Lamin. Translating the Message: The Missionary Impact on Culture. 2d ed. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 2009.
  1190. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1191. A seminal theological work that sees the Christian message as transcending the flawed colonial messengers that delivered it, as Africans translated the message directly into their own cultural and linguistic idioms to create a distinctive Christian faith. First published in 1989.
  1192. Find this resource:
  1193. Christianity and Politics
  1194.  
  1195. “Power” in Africa has both political and religious dimensions, with secular power rooted in wider spiritual powers as people seek to explain, predict, and control the forces that govern their lives. Ranger 1986 provides a broad bibliographical survey of the literature, while Ellis and ter Haar 2004 demonstrates these connections in African popular belief and practice. Schatzberg 2001 explores the religious bases of African political culture, and Landau 2010 and Gordon 2012 provide detailed regional studies of religiously inspired political change over the longue durée.
  1196.  
  1197. Ellis, Stephen, and Gerrie ter Haar. Worlds of Power: Religious Thought and Political Practice in Africa. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.
  1198. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1199. An analysis of African religious thought and the critical links between traditional, Christian, and Muslim beliefs; spiritual and secular power; and daily politics, though the authors rely heavily on rumor at the expense of more grounded African concepts of power.
  1200. Find this resource:
  1201. Gordon, David M. Invisible Agents: Spirits in a Central African History. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 2012.
  1202. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1203. A deep history of the power of spiritual beliefs to inspire social movements and influence history in Zambia from precolonial to postcolonial times, including the roles of traditional mediums, Christian prophets, and Pentecostal preachers.
  1204. Find this resource:
  1205. Landau, Paul S. Popular Politics in the History of South Africa, 1400–1948. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
  1206. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511750984Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1207. An innovative history of the development of ethnic identity, religion, and politics over six centuries in the southern African high veldt.
  1208. Find this resource:
  1209. Ranger, Terence O. “Religious Movements and Politics in Sub-Saharan Africa.” African Studies Review 29 (1986): 1–69.
  1210. DOI: 10.2307/523964Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1211. An early sweeping review essay of the literature on religion and politics.
  1212. Find this resource:
  1213. Schatzberg, Michael G. Political Legitimacy in Middle Africa: Father, Family, Food. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2001.
  1214. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1215. An in-depth analysis of African political culture tracing the widespread political, religious, and social bases of legitimacy.
  1216. Find this resource:
  1217. Christian Challenges to Colonialism
  1218.  
  1219. While Christian missions played a vital role in the colonial “civilizing mission,” Christianity itself also served as a principled basis of opposition to colonial rule. African responses to colonial conquest and rule often took the form of violent millenarian or other religious movements that increasingly became infused with Christian ideas over time. The sheer drama of many of these movements has generated some of the most penetrating historical analyses of African religious politics. Lan 1985 and Giblin and Monson 2010 provide insightful analyses of traditional religious responses to colonial conquest and rule, while Peires 1989 and Shepperson and Price 1958 probe two early anticolonial millenarian movements infused with Christian ideas. Following colonial conquest, Christianity increasingly influenced African responses to colonial rule. For Fields 1985, colonialism brought forth evils that could only be countered on religious grounds, while Landau 1995 and Maxwell 1999 demonstrate the degree to which Christianity became incorporated into normal politics, and Lonsdale 1992 and Magaziner 2010 show the central importance of both traditional and Christian ideas in nationalist struggles for independence.
  1220.  
  1221. Fields, Karen E. Revival and Rebellion in Colonial Central Africa. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985.
  1222. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1223. A classic sociological study of a Watchtower millenarian movement that sought to overcome the evil brought by colonialism and fundamentally challenge colonial authorities in Malawi and Zambia.
  1224. Find this resource:
  1225. Giblin, James, and Jamie Monson, eds. Maji Maji: Lifting the Fog of War. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2010.
  1226. DOI: 10.1163/ej.9789004183421.i-325Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1227. Studies in the Maji Maji War of 1905–1906 in what is now Tanzania, detailing the local histories of this far-flung revolt and the core religious ideas that underlay them.
  1228. Find this resource:
  1229. Lan, David. Guns and Rain: Guerrillas and Spirit Mediums in Zimbabwe. London: James Currey, 1985.
  1230. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1231. An incisive analysis of the role of traditional spirit mediums in the successful Zimbabwean struggle against white minority rule.
  1232. Find this resource:
  1233. Landau, Paul Stuart. The Realm of the Word: Language, Gender, and Christianity in a Southern African Kingdom. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 1995.
  1234. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1235. An insightful study of how Tswana leaders were able to embrace Christianity as a new state religion.
  1236. Find this resource:
  1237. Lonsdale, John. “The Moral Economy of Mau Mau: Wealth, Poverty, and Civic Virtue in Kikuyu Political Thought.” In Unhappy Valley: Conflict in Kenya and Africa. Edited by Bruce Berman and John Lonsdale, 315–504. London: James Currey, 1992.
  1238. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1239. A tour de force of African political philosophy deeply informed by both traditional Kikuyu and Christian ideals in the guerrilla struggle against British rule.
  1240. Find this resource:
  1241. Magaziner, Daniel R. The Law and the Prophets: Black Consciousness in South Africa, 1968–1977. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 2010.
  1242. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1243. A penetrating analysis of the intellectual role of African seminarians and Black Theology in the antiapartheid Black Consciousness Movement in South Africa.
  1244. Find this resource:
  1245. Maxwell, David. Christians and Chiefs in Zimbabwe: A Social History of the Hwesa People, c. 1870s–1990s. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1999.
  1246. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1247. Contrasting the impact of Northern Irish Pentecostals, who took Satan, evil spirits, and witches seriously, and southern Irish Carmelite priests who considered them heretical, this study interweaves relations between the two, between each and traditional religions, and between them all and both traditional and colonial authorities.
  1248. Find this resource:
  1249. Peires, J. B. The Dead Will Arise: Nongqawuse and the Great Xhosa Cattle-Killing Movement of 1856–7. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989.
  1250. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1251. A revealing study of a South African millenarian movement during which large numbers of Xhosa killed their cattle, with many of them dying as a result, in a vain attempt to eradicate colonial evil and bring a new dawn.
  1252. Find this resource:
  1253. Shepperson, George A., and Thomas Price. Independent African: John Chilembwe and the Origins, Setting and Significance of the Nyasaland Native Rising of 1915. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1958.
  1254. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1255. A classic study of religious ferment and conflict in Malawi involving dissident Europeans, Afro-Americans, and Africans alike.
  1256. Find this resource:
  1257. Christianity and Politics Today
  1258.  
  1259. In marked contrast with the historical drama and analytical insight that characterize studies of religious movements during the colonial era, the literature on contemporary movements is mixed and often caught up in current religious politics. Two case studies exploring the contradictions in recent religious involvement in violent political movements that stand out are Behrend 1999, an account of the origins of the Holy Spirit Movement and Lord’s Resistance Army in Uganda, and Longman 2010, a study of the Rwanda genocide. Otherwise, Gifford 1998 and McCauley 2013 explore modern religious politics, Kastfelt 2005 religion and contemporary civil wars, Keller and Iyob 2012 and Ranger 2008 move toward democracy, and Ward 2015 the development of increasing religious opposition to homosexuality in Uganda.
  1260.  
  1261. Behrend, Heike. Alice Lakwena and the Holy Spirits: War in Northern Uganda, 1986–97. Translated by Mitch Cohen. Oxford: James Currey, 1999.
  1262. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1263. The dramatic story of a Uganda prophet whose charismatic Christian healing movement against sin later morphed into a violent guerrilla insurgency, reviled for impressing children into its ranks, known as the Holy Spirit Movement and later the Lord’s Resistance Army, led by her disciple, Joseph Kony.
  1264. Find this resource:
  1265. Gifford, Paul. African Christianity: Its Public Role. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1998.
  1266. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1267. A study of the political economy and public roles of Christianity in Africa today focused on Ghana, Uganda, Zambia, and Cameroon that stresses the contradictory roles of political patrimonialism and activism.
  1268. Find this resource:
  1269. Kastfelt, Niels, ed. Religion and African Civil Wars. London: Hurst, 2005.
  1270. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1271. Case studies drawn from the Sudan, Rwanda, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo explore the roles of the churches in civil conflicts.
  1272. Find this resource:
  1273. Keller, Edmond J., and Ruth Iyob, eds. Religious Ideas and Institutions: Transitions to Democracy in Africa. Pretoria, South Africa: Unisa, 2012.
  1274. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1275. A collection of essays on the relationships between Christians and Muslims and political democratization in contemporary Africa.
  1276. Find this resource:
  1277. Longman, Timothy. Christianity and Genocide in Rwanda. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
  1278. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1279. A wrenching account of the complicity of some Christian churches in the Rwandan genocide as church leaders engaged in violent ethnic politics to maintain their power.
  1280. Find this resource:
  1281. McCauley, John F. “Africa’s New Big Man Rule? Pentecostalism and Patronage in Ghana.” African Affairs 112.446 (2013): 1–21.
  1282. DOI: 10.1093/afraf/ads072Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1283. Argues that Pentecostal leaders are increasingly adopting traditional clientelist politics in the wake of socioeconomic problems and state failure.
  1284. Find this resource:
  1285. Ranger, Terence O., ed. Evangelical Christianity and Democracy in Africa. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.
  1286. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1287. This collection of essays examines the role that evangelical Christianity has played in the spread of democracy in Africa in recent years.
  1288. Find this resource:
  1289. Ward, Kevin. “The Role of the Anglican and Catholic Churches in Uganda in Public Discourse on Homosexuality and Ethics.” Journal of Eastern African Studies 9.1 (2015): 127–144.
  1290. DOI: 10.1080/17531055.2014.987509Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1291. Contrary to the claims of the controversial film God Loves Uganda that American Pentecostals were responsible for generating the opposition to homosexuality in Uganda, a prominent Anglican scholar argues that the contentious religious politics of homosexuality emerged only fairly recently in response to the HIV/AIDS pandemic and increasing tensions within the Anglican and Catholic churches.
  1292. Find this resource:
  1293. Christianity and Development
  1294.  
  1295. While Christian missions and churches have long supported the development of schools and medical services, they have also come to play important roles in social and economic development more broadly, despite popular assumptions to the contrary. Bompani and Frahm-Arp 2010 discusses the issue broadly, while Freedman 2012, Kalu 2006, and Gifford 2015 discuss the roles of the Pentecostal and Catholic churches in development.
  1296.  
  1297. Bompani, Barbara, and Maria Frahm-Arp, eds. Development and Politics from Below: Exploring Religious Spaces in the African State. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010.
  1298. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1299. These studies argue that, far from fading before the advancing forces of modernization, religion remains a vital force in modern African development.
  1300. Find this resource:
  1301. Freedman, Dena. Pentecostalism and Development: Churches, NGOs and Social Change in Africa. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012.
  1302. DOI: 10.1057/9781137017253Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1303. Despite widespread belief that development would lead to increasing secularization, shows that Pentecostal Christianity has been a major force for socioeconomic change.
  1304. Find this resource:
  1305. Gifford, Paul. Christianity, Development and Modernity in Africa. London: Hurst, 2015.
  1306. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1307. Discusses the roles of the Catholic Church and Pentecostalism in development.
  1308. Find this resource:
  1309. Kalu, Ogbu U. Power, Poverty and Prayer: The Challenges of Poverty and Pluralism in African Christianity, 1960–1996. Trenton, NJ: Africa World, 2006.
  1310. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1311. Asserts that Pentecostalism empowers African women and youth to confront the modern state over poverty.
  1312. Find this resource:
  1313. Women and Christianity
  1314.  
  1315. While Western missionaries aimed largely at the conversion of African men, women often converted in far larger numbers, turning many missions into “churches of women.” This is perhaps not surprising, given the larger stake African men had in traditional politico-religious structures and the vulnerability of women under colonial rule, as detailed in Hodgson 2005, Martin 2009, Larsson 1991, and Mann 1985, while Hoehler-Fatton 1996 and Smythe 2006 place greater stress on religious factors to account for women’s conversion. Prevost 2010 focuses on the relation between women missionaries and converts. Sackey 2006, Urban-Mead 2015, and Soothill 2007 explore the roles played by gender and by women in independent and Pentecostal churches.
  1316.  
  1317. Hodgson, Dorothy L. The Church of Women: Gendered Encounters between Maasai and Missionaries. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2005.
  1318. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1319. Exploring the experience of Catholic Spiritans among Maasai in Tanzania, concludes that women exercised important religious roles, but were marginalized by colonialism. As men were drawn to secular political and economic realms, women were drawn to religious ones in the church.
  1320. Find this resource:
  1321. Hoehler-Fatton, Cynthia. Women of Fire, Women of Spirit: History, Faith, and Gender in Roho Religion in Western Kenya. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.
  1322. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195097900.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1323. The dramatic story of a charismatic church in Kenya, women’s religiosity, and the dominant role played by women in its formation and survival.
  1324. Find this resource:
  1325. Larsson, Birgitta. Conversion to Greater Freedom?: Women, Church, and Social Change in North-Western Tanzania under Colonial Rule. Uppsala, Sweden: Uppsala University Press, 1991.
  1326. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1327. Compares the experience of Haya women in a Catholic refuge run by White Sisters, the Catholic and Lutheran schools and churches, and the East African Revival movement, concluding that women often used Christianity to challenge male dominance and assert their independence.
  1328. Find this resource:
  1329. Mann, Kristin. Marrying Well: Marriage, Status and Social Change among the Educated Elite in Colonial Lagos. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985.
  1330. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1331. A study of the experiences of elite, Western-educated, Christian Yoruba men and women who sought monogamous Christian marriages to consolidate their newfound wealth, but had difficulties maintaining them in the face of Yoruba custom.
  1332. Find this resource:
  1333. Martin, Phyllis M. Catholic Women of Congo-Brazzaville: Mothers and Sisters in Troubled Times. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2009.
  1334. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1335. Details the missionary work of Catholic sisters and the appeal of Catholicism for Congolese women beset by the travails of the slave trade, colonial labor, and disease, such that the Catholic Church largely became a women’s church that blended Catholic and local belief and practice.
  1336. Find this resource:
  1337. Prevost, Elizabeth E. The Communion of Women: Missions and Gender in Colonial Africa and the British Metropole. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010.
  1338. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199570744.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1339. Explores the roles of British women missionaries and the often-ambivalent relations they forged with African women.
  1340. Find this resource:
  1341. Sackey, Brigid M. New Directions in Gender and Religion: The Changing Status of Women in African Independent Churches. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2006.
  1342. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1343. A Ghanaian long active in African Initiated Churches tracks the rise of today’s charismatic megachurches and the increasingly active leadership roles played by women prophets, pastors, and ministers in them.
  1344. Find this resource:
  1345. Smythe, Kathleen R. Fipa Families: Reproduction and Catholic Evangelization in Nkansi, Ufipa, 1880–1960. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 2006.
  1346. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1347. A sensitive study that examines both how White Father missionaries were able to insert themselves into Fipa social patterns and why some Fipa girls were drawn to celibacy and the church.
  1348. Find this resource:
  1349. Soothill, Jane E. Gender, Social Change and Spiritual Power: Charismatic Christianity in Ghana. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2007.
  1350. DOI: 10.1163/ej.9789004157897.i-264Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1351. While Pentecostal churches are normally committed to traditional gender roles, Soothill focuses on the powers women gain among themselves.
  1352. Find this resource:
  1353. Urban-Mead, Wendy. The Gender of Piety: Family, Faith, and Colonial Rule in Matabeleland, Zimbabwe. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 2015.
  1354. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1355. Explores gendered patterns of religious piety through the life histories of six Ndebele members of an apolitical Anabaptist/Mennonite church in Zimbabwe during white rule and the struggle for independence.
  1356. Find this resource:
  1357. African Christianity and Slavery
  1358.  
  1359. Christianity was deeply implicated in slavery and the slave trade, from the pious British, French, and American captains, merchants, plantation owners, parliamentarians, and ministers in the 16th–18th centuries who promoted it to the preachers and abolitionists who agitated for its cessation in the 19th century. While the literature on all of these is extensive (see the separate Oxford Bibliographies in Atlantic History subject area), less is known specifically about the involvement of African Christians in slavery and abolition. And while the roles of Kongo and Yoruba slaves in African American religious movements is also well known (see the separate Oxford Bibliographies articles Kongo Atlantic Diaspora), less is known about the roles of African Christians (Thornton and Heywood 2007) beyond Equiano’s and Cugoano’s memoirs (Equiano 2003, Cugoano 1999) of enslavement, freedom, and abolitionism. Freed slaves were resettled in the colonies of Sierra Leone (Fyfe 1962, Sanneh 1999) and Liberia, while many Yoruba returned from Brazil, Cuba, and Sierra Leone to become religious leaders in their communities (Peel 2000). Elsewhere, freed slave settlements that became bases of the earliest Christian communities in East Africa and the Congo (Morton 1990 and Kollman 2005; Maxwell 2013, cited under Popular Evangelism).
  1360.  
  1361. Cugoano, Quobna Ottobah. Thoughts and Sentiments on the Evil and Wicked Traffic of Slavery, and Other Writings. Edited by Vincent Carretta. New York: Penguin, 1999.
  1362. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1363. Originally published in 1787, this work is a devastating attack on the slave trade by an ex-slave who was a well-known London critic and Methodist.
  1364. Find this resource:
  1365. Equiano, Olaudah. The Interesting Narrative, and Other Writings. Edited by Vincent Carretta. Rev. ed. New York: Penguin, 2003.
  1366. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1367. First published in 1789, a compelling account by an African former slave, seaman, Methodist, and abolitionist. This is a nicely contextualized edition, but there are dozens of others, including several 18th-century ones available online. For a critical, but controversial, biography of Equiano, see Vincent Carretta, Equiano, The African: Biography of a Self-Made Man (Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 2005). A revised and expanded edition of the classic account of the slave trade by a native African, former slave, and loyal British subject.
  1368. Find this resource:
  1369. Fyfe, Christopher. A History of Sierra Leone. London: Oxford University Press, 1962.
  1370. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1371. Sierra Leone was initially established as a colony for freed slaves from Britain, Nova Scotia, and Jamaica, as well as from elsewhere in Africa as a place where they could be educated and converted to Christianity. Some subsequently returned to Nigeria, where they became among the most important early Christian missionaries and leaders.
  1372. Find this resource:
  1373. Kollman, Paul V. The Evangelization of Slaves and Catholic Origins in Eastern Africa. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 2005.
  1374. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1375. A study of the 19th-century Catholic Holy Ghost mission to Tanzania, which worked largely among ex-slaves who they had liberated and settled on their missions to create the first Catholic communities.
  1376. Find this resource:
  1377. Morton, Fred. Children of Ham: Freed Slaves and Fugitive Slaves on the Kenya Coast, 1873 to 1907. Boulder, CO: Westview, 1990.
  1378. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1379. Details the fraught relations between escaped slaves and the Church Missionary Society missionaries, many of whom were freed slaves themselves, who sought to work with them.
  1380. Find this resource:
  1381. Peel, J. D. Y. Religious Encounter and the Making of the Yoruba. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2000.
  1382. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1383. A seminal study of the critical roles that early Yoruba converts and missionaries, many of whom were freed slaves familiar with the Yoruba diaspora in Cuba, Brazil, and elsewhere, played in the development of Yoruba consciousness.
  1384. Find this resource:
  1385. Sanneh, Lamin. Abolitionists Abroad: American Blacks and the Making of Modern West Africa. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999.
  1386. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1387. Examines the role of African American Christians from Nova Scotia in the establishment of the freed slave colony of Sierra Leone.
  1388. Find this resource:
  1389. Thornton, John K., and Linda M. Heywood. Central Africans, Atlantic Creoles, and the Foundation of the Americas, 1585–1660. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
  1390. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1391. Argues that enslaved Kongo Christians played influential roles in the early development of African American cultures and religions in the New World.
  1392. Find this resource:
  1393. Christianity and Education
  1394.  
  1395. Education was a vital component of mission to promote European ideas, enable people to read the Bible, and train workers. Access to Western education soon became critical in the emergence of a new African elite, yet few good studies exist, aside from Sandgren 2012. Anderson 1970 provides insight into competing mission, official, and African educational goals, Stambach 2010 analyzes more recent struggles, and Hackett and Soares 2015 explores the range of new media introduced by the missions and education. Harries and Maxwell 2012 explore the ways missionaries produced their own ideas about Africa.
  1396.  
  1397. Anderson, John E. The Struggle for the School: The Interaction of Missionary, Colonial Government and Nationalist Enterprise in the Development of Formal Education in Kenya. London: Longman, 1970.
  1398. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1399. Recounts the struggle between missionaries and other Europeans, who sought to control education, and Africans, who sought to expand access to it for the secular benefits it brought.
  1400. Find this resource:
  1401. Hackett, Rosalind I. J., and Benjamin F. Soares, eds. New Media and Religious Transformations in Africa. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2015.
  1402. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1403. Education also brought new media in the forms of pamphlets, newspapers, broadcasting, cassette tapes, CDs and DVDs, and the Internet, as discussed in these studies.
  1404. Find this resource:
  1405. Harries, Patrick, and David Maxwell, eds. The Spiritual in the Secular: Missionaries and Knowledge about Africa. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2012.
  1406. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1407. Missionaries did not just disseminate European ideas in Africa, they also generated their own linguistic, botanical, ethnographic, and medical ideas about Africa that informed their own and others’ understandings and practice.
  1408. Find this resource:
  1409. Sandgren, David P. Mau Mau’s Children: The Making of Kenya’s Postcolonial Elite. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2012.
  1410. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1411. Examines the critical role of education in creating Africa’s postcolonial elite.
  1412. Find this resource:
  1413. Stambach, Amy. Faith in Schools: Religion, Education, and American Evangelicals in East Africa. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2010.
  1414. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1415. A careful study of the conflicts between evangelical missionaries, African Christians, and Muslims over educational practice and goals.
  1416. Find this resource:
  1417. Christianity and Medicine
  1418.  
  1419. Christian missions also frequently established medical clinics to treat Africans according to Western medical practice, leading to the development of plural medical systems employing both traditional and Western medical ideas and practices. African religious concerns for healing and well-being are so embedded in traditional religious beliefs and practices that they crop up in almost all of the studies considered in this article. More specifically, Feierman 1985 provides a wide-ranging review of the literature on African health and healing, while Feierman and Janzen 1992 includes studies on both traditional and Western medicine, and Kalusa 2014 demonstrates how they could interact in practice. Mohr 2013 and Haram and Yamba 2009 analyze how social and economic problems can be expressed in spiritual terms, while the HIV/AIDs pandemic has produced a variety of medical and spiritual approaches to the disease, as shown in Vokes 2013, Behrend 2011 (cited under Traditional Religion Today), Klaits 2010, and Becker and Geissler 2009.
  1420.  
  1421. Becker, Felicitas, and P. Wenzel Geissler, eds. AIDS and Religious Practice in Africa. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2009.
  1422. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1423. The studies collected here demonstrate that HIV/AIDs is not seen simply as a biomedical phenomenon treatable with anti-retrovirals, but as part of a much broader phenomenon of moral and social decay inflecting Africa since the beginnings of colonial rule.
  1424. Find this resource:
  1425. Feierman, Steven. “Struggles for Control: The Social Roles of Health and Healing in Modern Africa.” African Studies Review 28 (1985): 73–148.
  1426. DOI: 10.2307/524604Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1427. An influential review essay that centers on African religious concerns to maintain social health and well-being.
  1428. Find this resource:
  1429. Feierman, Steven, and John M. Janzen, eds. The Social Basis of Health and Healing in Africa. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992.
  1430. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1431. Collected articles on both traditional and Western medicine.
  1432. Find this resource:
  1433. Haram, Liv, and C. Bawa Yamba, eds. Dealing with Uncertainty in Contemporary African Lives. Uppsala: Nordiska Afrikainstitutet, 2009.
  1434. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1435. Studies of different spiritual responses to poverty, ill health, and mental distress in East Africa.
  1436. Find this resource:
  1437. Kalusa, Walima T. “Missionaries, African Patients, and Negotiating Missionary Medicine at Kalene Hospital, Zambia, 1906–1935.” Journal of Southern African Studies 40.2 (2014): 283–294.
  1438. DOI: 10.1080/03057070.2014.896717Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1439. In spite of widespread belief in the dominance of European biomedicine, demonstrates that in practice European missionary doctors and African patients frequently incorporated ideas and practices from each other’s systems in ways that were mutually beneficial to both.
  1440. Find this resource:
  1441. Klaits, Fred. Death in a Church of Life: Moral Passion during Botswana’s Time of AIDS. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010.
  1442. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1443. A detailed study of the important roles of faith and caring in a small apostolic church beset with the scourge of HIV/AIDs.
  1444. Find this resource:
  1445. Mohr, Adam. Enchanted Calvinism: Labor Migration, Afflicting Spirits, and Christian Therapy in the Presbyterian Church of Ghana. Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 2013.
  1446. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1447. A fascinating study of Ghanaian spiritual resistance to missionary biomedicine in Ghana and among Ghanaian migrants in the United States and Canada as a result of economic development and migration.
  1448. Find this resource:
  1449. Vokes, Richard. Ghosts of Kanungu: Fertility, Secrecy and Exchange in the Great Lakes of East Africa. Oxford: James Currey, 2013.
  1450. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1451. Discusses a series of traditional and Catholic movements organized by women to combat infertility, AIDs, and other inflictions seen as brought by colonialism.
  1452. Find this resource:
  1453. Christianity and Islam
  1454.  
  1455. Christianity and Islam are equally prevalent in Africa today, Islam largely to the north of equatorial Africa and Christianity scattered throughout the rest. The two have very different histories, however, with Islam spreading slowly across North Africa and south across the Sahara and along the Indian Ocean into the western Sudan and eastern Africa over the past 1,500 years, while most of Christianity’s spread was more recent and diffuse. Yet today they frequently coexist. Thomas and Chesworth 2015 is an essential bibliography of Christian-Muslim relations. Levtzion and Pouwels 2000 provides excellent coverage of Islam in Africa, as does the Oxford Bibliographies article on Islam in Africa. Soares 2006 explores Muslim-Christian relations, while Cooper 2006 and Sharkey 2008 probe the mixed success of Christian missions operating in Muslim areas.
  1456.  
  1457. Cooper, Barbara M. Evangelical Christians in the Muslim Sahel. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2006.
  1458. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1459. Christian missions rarely enjoyed much success in Muslim areas, and colonial authorities often warned them off, but the nondenominational fundamentalist Sudan Interior Mission enjoyed some success preaching a “pure” Christianity without its accompanying colonial and material trappings.
  1460. Find this resource:
  1461. Dowd, Robert A. Christianity, Islam and Liberal Democracy: Lessons from Sub-Saharan Africa. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015.
  1462. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190225216.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1463. Compares the political attitudes of different Christian and Muslim communities in East and West Africa.
  1464. Find this resource:
  1465. Iwuchukwu, Marinus C. Muslim-Christian Dialogue in Postcolonial Northern Nigeria: The Challenges of Inclusive Cultural and Religious Pluralism. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013.
  1466. DOI: 10.1057/9781137122575Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1467. Muslim-Christian relations in Africa’s largest and most diverse country.
  1468. Find this resource:
  1469. Levtzion, Nehemia, and Randall L. Pouwels, eds. The History of Islam in Africa. Oxford: James Currey, 2000.
  1470. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1471. A comprehensive encyclopedia of African Islam that provides broad coverage of the continent.
  1472. Find this resource:
  1473. Sharkey, Heather J. American Evangelicals in Egypt: Missionary Encounters in an Age of Empire. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2008.
  1474. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1475. While they gained few Muslim converts, Presbyterian missionaries in Egypt gained some influence through their educational activities and work with Coptic Christians.
  1476. Find this resource:
  1477. Soares, Benjamin F., ed. Muslim-Christian Encounters in Africa. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2006.
  1478. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1479. While Muslim-Christian relations are often viewed today as a “clash of civilizations,” the reality is often far different, as demonstrated by this valuable collection of articles exploring relations between Christians and Muslims in colonial and postcolonial Africa.
  1480. Find this resource:
  1481. Thomas, David, and John Chesworth, eds. Christian-Muslim Relations: A Bibliographical History. Vol. 7, Central and Eastern Europe, Asia, Africa and South America (1500–1600). Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2015.
  1482. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1483. A comprehensive bibliographic reference for research on Christian-Muslim relations in Africa and elsewhere.
  1484. Find this resource:
  1485. African Christianity in the World
  1486.  
  1487. The influence of African religions and their fusion with Christianity in Brazilian Candomblé, Cuban Santeria, and numerous other religions in the Americas has long been recognized (see the Oxford Bibliographies article Kongo Atlantic Diaspora), but less well known is the dramatic spread of African Christianity more recently. A majority of Christians today reside in the global South, and their influence on their former mentors is increasing. African churches play important roles within African migrant communities (Adogame 2014, Adogame 2013, ter Haar 1998) and African megachurches are now found in Britain, Texas, and elsewhere (Harris 2006, van Dijk and Sabar 2004), while African religious leaders now exert increasing influence over worldwide denominations (Hassett 2007).
  1488.  
  1489. Adogame, Afeosemime U. The African Christian Diaspora: New Currents and Emerging Trends in World Christianity. London: Bloomsbury, 2013.
  1490. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1491. A study of migrant African communities and their churches in Europe and North America as Africans seek to maintain links with their homelands at the same time as adapting to their new environs.
  1492. Find this resource:
  1493. Adogame, Afeosemime U., ed. The Public Face of African New Religious Communities in Diaspora: Imagining the Religious “Other.” Farnham, UK: Ashgate, 2014.
  1494. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1495. Collected studies of the provenance, beliefs, practices, and roles of African-derived religious movements—traditional, Christian, Jewish, and Muslim—in Brazil, the United States, Canada, Europe, and China.
  1496. Find this resource:
  1497. Harris, Hermione. Yoruba in Diaspora: An African Church in London. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.
  1498. DOI: 10.1057/9780230601048Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1499. A study of the Nigerian Cherubim and Seraphim Church in London.
  1500. Find this resource:
  1501. Hassett, Miranda K. Anglican Communion in Crisis: How Episcopal Dissidents and Their African Allies Are Reshaping Anglicanism. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007.
  1502. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1503. Details a dramatic shift in ecclesiastical power from Britain to Africa as conservative evangelical African Anglicans have come to exercise increasing influence over the worldwide Anglican Communion.
  1504. Find this resource:
  1505. ter Haar, Gerrie. Halfway to Paradise: African Christians in Europe. Cardiff, UK: Cardiff University Press, 1998.
  1506. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1507. Examines the roles of African Christian churches in sustaining African migrant communities in Europe.
  1508. Find this resource:
  1509. van Dijk, Rijk, and Galia Sabar, eds. Special Issue: Uncivic Religion: African Religious Communities and Their Quest for Public Legitimacy in the Diaspora. Journal of Religion in Africa 34 (2004).
  1510. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1511. Studies of African Christian churches in Britain, Germany, Israel, Italy, the Netherlands, and the United States.
Add Comment
Please, Sign In to add comment
Public Pastes
We use cookies for various purposes including analytics. By continuing to use Pastebin, you agree to our use of cookies as described in the Cookies Policy.  OK, I Understand
Not a member of Pastebin yet?
Sign Up, it unlocks many cool features!