The Contemporary Faith of the Yakuts

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V.V. Ushnitsky
The Contemporary Faith of the Yakuts: The Aiyy Religion, Tengrism, and Neo-Shamanism

Abstract

This article is dedicated to the study of the contemporary religious beliefs of the Yakuts. The transition from atheism and the ideology of scientific communism to neo-paganism and neo-shamanism took place with the active participation of representatives of the national intelligentsia. In the post-Soviet era, the restoration of the Yakut "White Faith"—*Aiyy Itegelè*—is primarily associated with the names of L.A. Afanasyev (Teris) and V.A. Kondakov. In contemporary times, reverence for the cult of the luminous *Aiyy* deities can be observed during the performance of rituals at the national *Ysyakh* festival. In the post-Soviet era, the return or... Keywords: white shamanism, Tengrism, neo-shamanism, Aiyy religion, shamanic engineering, sacred knowledge.

A traditional question frequently posed to the Yakuts is: "What faith do you, the Yakuts, adhere to?" This question is a complex one for all Siberian peoples of the post-Soviet period. After all, during the Soviet era, many studied scientific atheism and, for a long time, "professed" scientific materialism. However, beginning in the 1990s, a sustained interest in the religious traditions of their ancestors—as well as those of kindred Turkic peoples—has become evident within Yakut society. When asked about their religious faith, many respond that the Yakuts are Tengrists or shamanists.

Such a response immediately prompts a reciprocal question: who, exactly, are Tengrists or shamanists? If a person responds that the Yakuts are Tengriists, one may conclude that this individual lacks a clear understanding of religious choices and is, in all likelihood, an atheist adhering to a materialistic worldview. It is worth recalling that Jean-Paul Roux was the first to hypothesize the existence of such a religion—one adhered to by the political elite of the Ancient Turkic Khaganate. Thus, by making such a claim, modern Yakuts perceive a resemblance between their own beliefs and the religions of the Turkic-Mongol nomads.

"Shamanism," too, is a term that is more academic than philosophical in nature. Naturally, no one in contemporary Yakut society actually practices sorcery. At the same time, belief in the spirits of specific localities—particularly those associated with places once inhabited by shamans—remains very strong within Yakut society. Many place their faith in the prophecies of newly emerged shamans and in miraculous cures achieved through folk medicine—a category that encompasses modern shamanism and the belief in extrasensory abilities. Indeed, there are specific fee schedules for healing sessions conducted by renowned shamans and other healers of their ilk who are believed to possess potent "energetic" powers.

In Yakutia, one frequently hears people say that they simply believe in the power of nature, abide by its laws, "feed the fire," and revere the natural world. Traditionally, there persists a deep-seated fear of anomalous territories—places believed to be inhabited by "dark forces"—as well as a fear of the malevolent influences emanating from those who have died prematurely or violently.

In a previous publication, the author noted the syncretization of Yakut religious beliefs with Orthodox Christianity; indeed, some even present the Aiyy religion as having emerged as a result of such a synthesis. However, the Aiyy—or Aar Aiyy—religion existed long before the arrival of Russians in the region. In this regard, tracing the etymological roots of the word *aiyy*—meaning "benevolent spirits"—may prove to be a key undertaking.

A common response to inquiries regarding religious affiliation is to claim adherence to the Aiyy religion—the indigenous faith of the Yakuts. Undoubtedly, belief in the *aiyy*—luminous deities referred to in scholarly literature as "white shamanism"—existed long before the modern era. However, given that no texts authored by the priests of the Aiyy religion have survived, the formalization of the Aiyy religion in the 1990s may be viewed as an artificial construct—one that has absorbed a great deal from contemporary Western and Eastern philosophical perspectives. At the same time, this new doctrine is syncretic in nature; it combines animism—the veneration of natural objects—with the promulgation of moral codes (*sier-tuom*) preserved within archival records. Concurrently, the Aiyy faith is presented as the true religion of the Sakha people.

Typically, the summer festivals—known as *Ysakhs*—during which *algys* (ritual invocations or prayers) are performed, serve as the embodiment of the Yakut faith. The traditional *Ysakh* may legitimately be classified as a religious festival held in honor of the benevolent Aiyy deities. This festival—which, even prior to the Revolution, had evolved into a celebration centered on the veneration of *kumis* (fermented mare's milk)—was subsequently transformed during the Soviet era into a "Spartakiad" of traditional national sports. The *Ysakh* often incorporates a ritual welcoming the rising sun, during which *algys*—solemn prayers—are recited, culminating in the ceremonial "feeding of the fire." L.A. Afanasyev’s *Kut-Sur* Doctrine. Since the influence of the Orthodox religion in Yakutia was neither long-lasting nor all-pervasive, neo-shamanism began to undergo an active revival in the region following the collapse of Soviet power. As early as the late 1980s, the current leaders of the Yakut neo-shamanist movement—Lazar Afanasyev, Ivan Ukkhan (Nikolayev), and Anatoly Pavlov (Dabyl)—began formulating their own ideology and establishing a social movement that now stands in comprehensive opposition to both the republican and federal Russian authorities. L.A. Afanasyev (Teris), then a research fellow, spent many years working with *algys* (ritual invocation) texts within the scientific archives of the Yakut Scientific Center of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences (YSC SB RAS); during the early years of the post-Soviet era, he began to reintroduce these texts into the public consciousness of the Yakut people through newspaper articles, as well as television and radio broadcasts. Of particular interest are his views regarding the origins of religious beliefs and the worldview held by contemporary practitioners of shamanism among the Sakha people. These views are characterized by a philosophical and scientific approach to addressing these complex issues. The publication of the codified *sier-tuom* (ritual code) texts—preserved within the YSC SB RAS archives—could hold significant moral and educational value. L.A. Afanasyev identifies his profound command of archival sources—specifically the field notes of A.A. Savvin and S.I. Bolo, which preserve details regarding the remnants of ancient indigenous beliefs—as the key factor distinguishing his work from that of other researchers. His followers have constructed a *balagan*—a traditional wooden dwelling known as the "House of Aiyy"—where, in exchange for a fee, *Tankha* (Epiphany-tide) fortune-telling sessions and various rituals are conducted. Among the Yakut people, the *Tankha* rituals performed during the period leading up to the Orthodox feast of Epiphany are particularly popular. These fortune-telling sessions typically involve the use of saucers or a table to summon the spirits of the deceased. Also popular are the ice-hole, when brownies come out - Söllökuyuns (Siberian Shullukyuns).

V.A. Kondakov was sharply opposed to the holy fortune-telling of Tankh, considering them to be the birth of spiritualism. L.A. Afanasyev streamlined the teachings of the Aiyy religion. According to him, there are the following ayyys: Ayyysyt, Ieyiehsit, Dyosegoy, Khotoy ayyy, Uluu Suorun, Aan Diaasyn, Dyylga, Tankha, Bilge, Odun, Chyngys, Yuryun Aiyy. There are also perfumes - ichchiler: Uoticchite - Spirit of fire, Salgynichite - Spirit of air, Uu - Spirit of water, haya - Spirit of the mountain, buor - Spirit of the earth, oyuur - Spirit of the forest. They are considered "bieseige" - five spheres. He attributed the following spirits to the sphere of human society: the courtyard - tiergene, fences - kyurue, hitching posts - serge, hoton - bread, diee - houses. Human has buor kut - earthen kut (physical body), salgyn-kut - airy kut (bioenergy), ie-kut - maternal kut (soul), sur - human spirit2. In 1993, supporters of L.A. Afanasyev was created and officially registered founded the neo-pagan religious organization “Kut-Sur”. Formally, it includes There are a small number of ideologue-intellectuals, but they are not without noticeable success in propagating their views. In doing so, their primary objective is to reorient the widespread and state-supported movement for the preservation of national culture and traditions—a movement the authorities seek to keep strictly secular—into a religious channel.

As a result of the activities of "Kut-Sür," programs for the study of national culture in secondary schools have begun to take on a distinctly pagan character. In some localities, school principals have even erected "Aiyy extensions" (essentially pagan chapels). The College of Culture—which trains directors for "Houses of Culture"—has effectively transformed into a training center for specialists in the performance of shamanic rites, prayers, and festivals. In the post-Soviet era, shamans came to be identified with folk healers who treated people using their own "biofields." V.A. Kondakov’s Association: "Aar Aiyy Iteghele." The Russian Ministry of Justice has officially registered two religious associations of the Sakha people that profess the Aiyy religion: the teachings of V.A. Kondakov ("Aar Aiyy Iteghele") and those of L.A. Afanasyev ("Kut-Sür"). By his own account, beginning in the 1960s, the Aiyy shaman Vladimir Kondakov—who holds doctorates in both medical and psychological sciences—began an intensive study of the indigenous religion of the Sakha people. He had previously received a degree in history and, prior to the 1990s, served as a lecturer involved in Party political education. In the 1990s, he studied at the school of the renowned hypnotist V.M. Kandyba—the self-styled "High Priest of the Rus"—and received a diploma. He subsequently began conducting *algys* (ritual blessings) at the annual urban *Ysyakh* festival. He has authored over thirty books on the Aar Aiyy religion and folk medicine. He also established the Association of Folk Healers and founded a school and an institute affiliated with the Association, through which more than a thousand people passed.

According to V.A. Kondakov, the Aiyy religion continued to be secretly preserved for a long time in the Vilyuysk Ulus, where the Kangalas people had settled after adopting the clan name Lyuchun. In 1681–1682, an uprising of the Kangalas people took place, organized by the white shaman Ergis, who subsequently died from an arrow wound. He left a testament requesting that his body be buried three times in an *arangas*—an aerial grave—so that the lives of the Yakut people might improve. According to legends, a second reburial of the shaman took place in the 19th century; however, it was carried out incorrectly—an error which, according to local belief, led to livestock epidemics and the sudden deaths of people in the surrounding area. Following the uprising, in 1696, a decree issued by Voivode Arsenyev banned public rituals and mass prayer gatherings conducted by Aiyy shamans in the Tuymaada Valley.

From that time onward, the practice of mass worship within the Aar Aiyy faith began to fade away.

According to V.A. Kondakov, the Aiyy religion has existed since time immemorial. In his view, the *iye-kyyla* (spirit-mother, or animal-mother) of Aiyy shamans is the *uu oghusa* (the Water Bull, or mammoth). The totemic image of the Eagle—*Khomporuun Khotoy*—also plays a pivotal role, serving as an hypostasis of the Supreme Deity himself, *Yryng Aar Toyon*, and symbolizing the cult of the Sun. In terms of its worldview and structure, the Aiyy religion bears a resemblance to the religious beliefs of Indo-European peoples. Generally speaking, an extensive pantheon of Supreme Deities is a characteristic feature specifically of the religions of Indo-European peoples. In this sense, the Yakut religion of Aiyy bears a resemblance to the religions of Indo-European nations. Even some of the names of the Supreme Deities are similar. The name *Aar Toyon* is comparable to the name of the supreme deity of the pagan faith of the Armenians—*Ara the Beautiful*. The term *Dyohogoy*—the Deity of horses and equine livestock—shares its name with the Supreme Deity of the Kafirs of Afghanistan: *Dyaus*. Black shamans—those who commune with demons and spirits, and who practice black magic—may be regarded as folk healers or medicine men. The religion of *Aar Aiyy* was persecuted by the Orthodox Church; consequently, in order to conceal their sympathies for the old faith, the Yakuts began to refer to *Aar Aiyy Toyon*—the Supreme Lord—as *Yuryun Aiyy Toyon*. A. Kulakovsky wrote about this phenomenon, and V.A. Kondakov concurs with his view.

V.A. Kondakov speaks of an energetic connection with the former shamans of the Aiyy religion. He is conversant with 36 *domm* (ritual practices), which are performed through the recitation of *algys* (invocations) and by entering a meditative state of consciousness. According to him, the great mysteries—those connected with cosmic energies—begin with the twenty-fifth *domm* in the sequence. His book, *Aar Aiyy Itegele* ("The Faith of Aar Aiyy"), holds significant importance within Yakut society. It encompasses historical digressions, reflections on pressing contemporary issues, moral teachings, *algys* (prayers), and commandments structured along the lines of biblical commandments.

Broadly speaking, his work can be presented as a scholarly investigation into the religion of Aiyy, substantiated by archival and field records. Significant disagreements regarding matters of faith exist between the organizations led by V.A. Kondakov and L.A. Afanasyev. V.A. Kondakov, in particular, notes this in his books. V.I. Okoneshnikov’s "Engineering of Neo-Shamanism." A key concept within the Aiyy religion is the doctrine of *Kut-Sür*. There are three types of *kut*—or energies: *iye-kut* (the soul), *salgyn kut* (aerial energy), and *buor kut* (matter). Drawing upon Yakut natural philosophy, the philosopher V.I. Okoneshnikov developed a comprehensive doctrine known as *Shar-Dao*, noting the parallels between Yakut terminology and the Daoist concepts of *Qi* and *Yin-Yang*. According to V.I. Okoneshnikov: "*Buor-Kut* (roughly translated as 'Earth-Soul') denotes the foundation of corporeal matter; *Salgyn-Kut* ('Air-Soul') serves as the conduit for the realm of information; and *Iye-Kut* ('Mother-Soul') constitutes the basis of the intellect." In 2014, V.I. Okoneshnikov, together with V.V. Romm, published a monograph titled *The Engineering of Shamanism*. In this book, the authors endeavored to explain the phenomenon of shamanism through the lens of modern physics. According to the book's authors, shamans long ago mastered the ability to effectively harness the field, wave, and energy emissions generated by their own bodily organs and tissues—controlling both the intensity of these emissions and the pathways through which they are transmitted to other living entities. Both researchers seek to understand what lies behind the generalized actions of shamans—actions which, during traditional shamanic rituals, are aimed at uniting human consciousness with the Cosmic "mind." A crucial element cementing this union is the presence within the Microcosm—the minutest particles of the universe—of "Ur-particles" (as described by the Japanese physicist S. Sakata). According to V.I. Okoneshnikov and V.V. Romm, it is precisely these Ur-particles that constitute electrons and atomic nuclei, as well as all matter, planets, stars, and so forth. By "dissolving" into the physical ether, they transmit to it the information contained within them regarding physical processes.

The second significant aspect uniting Man and the Cosmos—in the conviction of these scholars—is the concept of certain infinite strings emanating from the primordial particles of the Universe. As envisioned by the authors of this book, these strings form a boundless network of Ether, within which all objects of the Universe are, in fact, situated. In their monograph, Okoneshnikov and Romm attempt to persuade readers that within the intricate weaving of these strings, specific "nodes" of Ether are formed—universal databases containing records of events from the Present, Past, and Future. Within this network of Ether, all limitations regarding the speed of information signal transmission vanish; here, information propagates instantaneously. Every living organism—including human consciousness—is permeated by these strings of Ether. This endowment enables the latter to possess numerous "super-abilities" and an extraordinary power of self-realization across the domestic, professional, and social spheres of life. Following the Yakut epic *Olonkho*, researchers associate the World Model with a unique nine-tiered Universe, the dimensions of which defy description. The smallest (and structurally the first) of the nine heavens within this Universe encompasses 108 individual universes. Moreover, the total number of ordinary universes within this Universe exceeds 10,845. Additionally, the authors introduce the concepts of certain "nuclear universes" and "atomic control chains." The Oracle Edzhiiy Dora (F.I. Kobyakova). F.I. Kobyakova—who adopted the pseudonym Edzhiiy Dora ("Sister")—enjoys extraordinary popularity throughout Yakutia. She not only heals people using traditional folk remedies and the power of suggestion but also foretells the future. She enjoys the patronage of the Government of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) and the deputies of the *Il Tumen* Parliament. Her significance within Yakut society is comparable to that of the Oracle in Ancient Greece. The faith placed in her supernatural abilities is truly remarkable; whenever a major political or economic decision is under consideration, people invariably ask: "What is Edzhiiy Dora's stance on the matter?" She frequently assists wrestlers during competitions or offers them blessings for a safe journey before they depart. She even traveled to Scotland at the invitation of a wealthy family to assist them in locating the burial site of an ancient ancestor. According to L.A. Afanasyev, her phenomenon can be explained by the fact that, despite having received little formal education, she has preserved the traditional worldview and genuinely believes in spirits herself. Faith in local spirits, in shamanic power, and in malevolent demons—known as *abaasy*—remains deeply ingrained in rural areas, as well as in the cities among those who have migrated from the rural districts (*ulus*).

Tengrism

According to E.V. Fedorova Tengrism may be designated as a distinct scholarly branch within the modern religious beliefs of the Yakuts. It is the Yakuts, in particular, who act as the unifiers of the Turkic world through the revival of the Tengrist faith. On the initiative of L.V. Fedorova—and thanks to the sponsorship of the Ministry of Culture and Spiritual Development of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia)—five international academic and practical conferences were held under the title, "Tengrism and the Epic Heritage of the Peoples of Eurasia: Origins and Modernity." These conferences took place in various countries: Mongolia, Bulgaria, and Russia (Tuva and Yakutsk). The hypothesis that Tengrism exists as a distinct religion was first advanced by Jean-Paul Roux, a French Turkologist. Typically, ancient Turkic Khagans would begin their speeches with a blessing addressed to the Supreme Sky—Tengri. From this observation, Roux concluded that the Turkic tribes possessed a religion founded upon the worship of a single Deity: Tengri. The modern folk-historian Murad Adji and other researchers have further developed this thesis, noting the phonetic resemblance between the name Tengri and the Sumerian *Dingir* as well as the Polynesian *Tangaroa*. It has even been hypothesized that Tengrism—as an primordial monotheistic faith—served as the genesis for Christianity. It should be noted, however, that the Altai people and the Sakha (Yakuts) use the terms *Tengri* and *Tanara* to denote a pantheon of deities, rather than a single Creator.

It was primarily the Mongol Khans who revered a singular God—the Sky-God, Tengri. This practice may have been influenced by Chinese culture, given that the emperors of China traditionally regarded themselves as the "Sons of Heaven" (*Tian*). However, when asked about their religious affiliation, representatives of the modern Yakut youth and intelligentsia often declare their adherence to the Tengrian faith, without giving much thought to the historical roots of this religion.

Thus, modern Tengrianism constitutes a variety of new religious movements. However, it exists without the cultivation of psychophysical exercises or a "guru cult." According to the classification system of Margaret Thaler Singer, it can be categorized as a system of self-improvement, self-realization, or self-development. Modern Tengrianism is characterized by an interest in Turkic history and metaphysics, as well as a striving for the integration of Turkic peoples. In every Turkic republic, there are proponents of Tengrianism among the ranks of the intelligentsia. A.I. Krivoshapkin’s Eurasianism. According to the Eurasianist ideologue A.I. Krivoshapkin, Tengrianism is fundamentally a monotheistic religion that acknowledges the existence of a Creator God. At the same time, the Tengrian tradition establishes a flexible framework for the interaction between humans, nature, and the cosmos. In the ancient Turkic tradition, humans do not stand in opposition to the rest of creation as the "crown of nature," but rather engage in a dynamic energetic exchange with it. Within the religious beliefs of Turkic peoples, there exists a multitude of intermediary entities positioned between the Father-Tengri and humanity. These include powerful benevolent beings—whom Christians and Muslims refer to as angels, and pagans as minor deities—as well as ancestral spirits. It is Andrei Krivoshapkin’s firm conviction that scholars who characterize Tengrianism merely as a "cult of the Sky" are mistaken; the Sky is, in reality, merely the visible and most compelling manifestation of Tengri. Turkic shamans divide the cosmos into three worlds: the Upper, the Middle, and the Lower.

The Lower World is the realm of gross matter, accessible to our senses. The Middle World is the subtle-material realm of the World Soul, to which shamans journey during their ecstatic states. The Upper World is the realm of gods and angels. In this regard, the worldview of the Tengriists aligns with the cosmological models of the indigenous peoples of North and South America, the peoples of Africa, and the indigenous inhabitants of Australia and Oceania. In his works, one can observe an emulation of Russian and Germanic adherents of pagan beliefs—individuals who studied the secret signs of the Runes, regarding them as sacred knowledge. An advertisement for a lecture in Moscow stated that A.I. Krivoshapkin would elucidate the principles of runic script— the most ancient Turkic syllabary known to us through the famous Orkhon inscriptions. In total, the Old Turkic syllabary comprised 53 runes. According to him, these runes did not merely represent syllables in writing; they also bore a profound semantic and mystical significance, effectively describing—through various combinations—the entirety of human destiny: all the vicissitudes that a person might encounter during their brief existence, while simultaneously mapping out the path of their spiritual self-perfection.

Thus, Neoshamanism—or Tengrism, as understood by the Yakuts—represents a revival of traditional ancestral customs and the veneration of the forces of nature. Broadly speaking, contemporary Yakut paganism can be subdivided into three branches: those who practice folk medicine (F.I. Kobyakova [Edzhiiy Dora], V.A. Kondakov); *algyschyts*—those who make offerings to the Spirit of Fire during the opening ceremonies of the *Ysyakh* festival and other sporting or cultural events (A. Fedorov); and Tengrists—adherents of a quasi-scientific movement who utilize scientific and philosophical knowledge to construct their doctrines and theories (this group includes I.I. Shamaev, a Doctor of Mathematical Sciences; the physicist A.I. Krivoshapkin; and the philosopher V.A. Okoneshnikov). Some individuals, such as V.A. Kondakov, may be classified as belonging to all three branches simultaneously.