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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. The term Alawi (Arabic ʿAlawi, plural ʿAlawiyyun; Turkish Alevi; English Alawi/Alawites; French Alaoui/Alaouites) mainly designates the adherents of two different Islamic sects, both of which belong to Shiʿa Islam. What they have in common is an extraordinary veneration for the Family of the Prophet (ahl al-bayt) in general and ʿAli ibn Abi Talib in particular. (“ʿAlawi” means adherent or descendent of ʿAli.) Both groups are often regarded as heretics by other Muslims. For a better distinction of the two sects, the term Alawi will be used for the Arabic-speaking communities (which are mainly in Syria) while the term Alevi will denote the Turkish, Kurdish, and Zazaki speaking communities (mainly in Anatolia). The ruling ʿAlawi dynasty of Morocco (in French, Alaouites), named after ʿAli ash-Sharif, is not a subject of this entry. For centuries the Alawi sect was called Nusayri (after its founder Ibn Nusayr, died c. 864)—a term still frequently found in Western works. Historically the Alawis constitute an offshoot of the early Shiʿa with strong Gnostic, Iranian, and Christian influences. Its beliefs and practices are kept secret by the community, being revealed only to initiates, who are always men. Though founded in Iraq, from the 11th century on the sect’s heartland has been western Syria. Their overall number worldwide does not exceed 4 million: c. 2.5 million in Syria; c. 1 million in the Turkish provinces of Mersin, Adana, and Hatay; c. 10,000 in Lebanon; and the rest in the diasporas, particularly in Germany and Latin America. Alevi is a modern umbrella term for a number of heterogeneous religious groups in Turkey and the Balkans, including the Bektashi, Abdal, and Tahtaci, among others. Until recently they were called Kizilbash, “Red-Heads,” by outsiders, an allusion to the red headgear of the Safawi dervish order. The origin of Alevism can be traced back to communities that emerged around mystical dervishes in 13th-century Anatolia. Only later did they come under the influence of Shiʿa Islam, mainly due to their relations with Safawid Iran. Although originally esoteric like the Alawis, beginning with the so-called Alevi revival of the late 1980s most of their beliefs and practices have been open. In contrast to Alawism, women have an important role in the Alevi cult. The estimated number of Alevis in Turkey is nearly 15 million; and large Alevi communities are found in Bulgaria, Greece, Macedonia, and Albania as well as in central and western Europe, particularly in Germany and Austria.
  4.  
  5. General Overviews
  6.  
  7. The Alawi religion first attracted the interest of Western scholars in the mid-19th century. The number of studies greatly increased after members of this sect gained significant political power in Syria in the 1960s. Very few studies were done on the Alevis prior to the 1980s. Due to their strong and very active presence in Germany, many key studies and reference works about the Alevis are in German rather than English or French. For both Alawis and Alevis, this article confines itself mainly to publications in Western languages. Turkish publications on the Alevis are numerous, but most of them are journalistic in character and often either apologetic or polemic. Given the major differences between Alawis and Alevis, it is not surprising that few works cover the general features of both groups. The most comprehensive is Moosa 1987, which provides a good overview of the history and doctrines of these two sects and other Shiʿite groups. Aringberg-Laanatza 1998 gives a fine overview on the religion and recent history of Turkish Alevis and Syrian Alawis in the context of Kemalism and Baathism. Freitag 1985 discusses the belief in metempsychosis in a broader context, emphasizing that, because it contradicts the Muslim belief in resurrection, it is found only among certain Gnostic sects. Kurt and Tüz 1999 surveys the state of the art of Alevi and Alawi studies at the end of the 20th century. Most of the sources given here and in the subsections provide some basic information on the beliefs and/or historical developments of Alawism and Alevism.
  8.  
  9. Aringberg-Laanatza, Marianne. “Alevis in Turkey–Alawites in Syria: Similarities and Differences.” In Alevi Identity: Cultural, Religious and Social Perspectives. Edited by Tord Olsson, Elisabeth Özdalga, and Catharina Raudvere, 181–199. Richmond, UK: Curzon, 1998.
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  11. After a brief sketch of the religious origins of these two groups and their circumstances in Ottoman times, the author describes how both the Alevis in Turkey and the Alawis in Syria were able to improve their conditions during the 20th century.
  12. Aringberg-Laanatza, Marianne. “Alevis in Turkey–Alawites in Syria: Similarities and Differences.” In Alevi Identity: Cultural, Religious and Social Perspectives. Edited by Tord Olsson, Elisabeth Özdalga, and Catharina Raudvere, 181–199. Richmond, UK: Curzon, 1998.
  13. Find this resource:
  14. Freitag, Rainer. Seelenwanderung in der islamischen Häresie. Berlin: KIaus Schwarz, 1985.
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  16. Deals with the origin and development of the belief in the transmigration of the soul in several Muslim sects (Ismailis, Druzes, etc.), with long chapters on metempsychosis in Alawism and Bektashism/Alevism.
  17. Freitag, Rainer. Seelenwanderung in der islamischen Häresie. Berlin: KIaus Schwarz, 1985.
  18. Find this resource:
  19. Kurt, Ismail, and Seyid Ali Tüz, eds. Tarihî ve Kültürel Boyutlarıyla Türkiye’de Alevîler, Bektaşîler, Nusayrîler. Proceedings of an International Symposium on Alevis, Bektashis, and Nusayris, Istanbul, 21–23 November 1997. Istanbul: Ensar Neşriyat, 1999.
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  21. Proceedings of a congress on historical and contemporary aspects of Alevism and Alawism in Turkey. Consists of thirteen articles, followed by summaries of the discussions about the papers read. The authors are all well-known specialists in the field, but several of the contributions are very closely related to their preceding publications.
  22. Kurt, Ismail, and Seyid Ali Tüz, eds. Tarihî ve Kültürel Boyutlarıyla Türkiye’de Alevîler, Bektaşîler, Nusayrîler. Proceedings of an International Symposium on Alevis, Bektashis, and Nusayris, Istanbul, 21–23 November 1997. Istanbul: Ensar Neşriyat, 1999.
  23. Find this resource:
  24. Moosa, Matti. Extremist Shiites: The Ghulat Sects. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1987.
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  26. The first part deals with the general characteristics of the Shiʿite sects, which are regarded by mainstream Shiʿites as excessive in their veneration of ʿAli. The second half presents a survey of the Alawis but says virtually nothing new concerning their history and faith. Moosa emphasizes the “heretical” character of Alawism and Alevism.
  27. Moosa, Matti. Extremist Shiites: The Ghulat Sects. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1987.
  28. Find this resource:
  29. Alawis
  30.  
  31. Friedman 2010 is probably the best and most exhaustive work on Alawi history and religion. It is based on previous studies and new primary sources and is extremely detailed, but it presents the detail within a general perspective. Bar-Asher 2011 and Mervin 2011 provide concise overviews of the sect’s name, origin, fundamental beliefs, and current developments. Halm 1982 is a classic that stresses the relations of Alawism to the so-called Shiʿite ghulat sects that emerged in Iraq in the 8th and 9th centuries. It is a main tool for research about the origin of the Alawis. Dussaud 1900 is the first comprehensive study on the subject and remained the main reference work for many decades. It is well known in Syria and still often cited in the ongoing debate about the position of Alawism in Islam. Franke 2004 discusses the problem that almost all Western studies rely on sources that are either rather old or written by authors who regard the Alawis as heretics.
  32.  
  33. Bar-Asher, Meir M. “ʿAlawīs, Classical Doctrines.” In Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three, 2011-3. Edited by Gudrun Krämer, Denis Matringe, John Nawas, and Everett Rowson, 64–69. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2011.
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  35. Explains the name and origin of the Alawis and provides a sketch of their most important beliefs and practices, including some of their popular feasts.
  36. Bar-Asher, Meir M. “ʿAlawīs, Classical Doctrines.” In Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three, 2011-3. Edited by Gudrun Krämer, Denis Matringe, John Nawas, and Everett Rowson, 64–69. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2011.
  37. Find this resource:
  38. Dussaud, René. Histoire et religion des Noșairîs. Paris: Émile Bouillon, 1900.
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  40. The first comprehensive study on both Alawi history and religion. Although outdated in many respects (especially concerning the origin of Alawis as a pagan sect), it remains of interest and is still cited in publications on this topic. It also includes an edition of the Kitāb al-Majmūʿ with a French translation.
  41. Dussaud, René. Histoire et religion des Noșairîs. Paris: Émile Bouillon, 1900.
  42. Find this resource:
  43. Franke, Patrick. “Die syrischen Alawiten in westlicher Forschung: Einige kritische Anmerkungen.” In Sprache, Mythen, Mythizismen: Festschrift für Walter Beltz zum 65. Geburtstag am 25. April 2000. Edited by Armenuhi Drost-Abgarjan and Jürgen Tubach, 219–270. Halle, Germany: Institut für Orientalistik, 2004.
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  45. Contains a very good overview of publications by contemporary Syrian Alawis describing their own religion. The author urges Western scholars to give more attention to the emic perspective of contemporary Alawism.
  46. Franke, Patrick. “Die syrischen Alawiten in westlicher Forschung: Einige kritische Anmerkungen.” In Sprache, Mythen, Mythizismen: Festschrift für Walter Beltz zum 65. Geburtstag am 25. April 2000. Edited by Armenuhi Drost-Abgarjan and Jürgen Tubach, 219–270. Halle, Germany: Institut für Orientalistik, 2004.
  47. Find this resource:
  48. Friedman, Yaron. The Nuṣayrī-ʿAlawīs: An Introduction to the Religion, History and Identity of the Leading Minority in Syria. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2010.
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  50. Provides an extensive survey of premodern Alawi history and the Alawi faith, including cosmology, cyclic history, and holidays. A long chapter is dedicated to Alawi identity. Eight appendixes give important information about, and abstracts of, primary sources. Features a rich bibliography.
  51. Friedman, Yaron. The Nuṣayrī-ʿAlawīs: An Introduction to the Religion, History and Identity of the Leading Minority in Syria. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2010.
  52. Find this resource:
  53. Halm, Heinz. Die islamische Gnosis: Die extreme Schia und die ‛Alawiten. Zurich: Artemis, 1982.
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  55. A long chapter of this book (pp. 284–355) deals with various aspects of the Alawi sect, including its possible origins and early history. There is, however, a clear focus on the Alawi faith itself. The book also contains many translations into German of Alawi prayers and hymns and descriptions of Alawi feasts.
  56. Halm, Heinz. Die islamische Gnosis: Die extreme Schia und die ‛Alawiten. Zurich: Artemis, 1982.
  57. Find this resource:
  58. Mervin, Sabrina. “ʿAlawīs, Contemporary Developments.” In Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three, 2011-3. Edited by Gudrun Krämer, Denis Matringe, John Nawas, and Everett Rowson, 69–72. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2011.
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  60. Mainly a description of the religious and political developments of the Syrian Alawis during the 20th century. The theme of this article is the gradual assimilation of urban Alawis into the main branch of the Shiʿa.
  61. Mervin, Sabrina. “ʿAlawīs, Contemporary Developments.” In Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three, 2011-3. Edited by Gudrun Krämer, Denis Matringe, John Nawas, and Everett Rowson, 69–72. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2011.
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  63. Texts and Sources
  64.  
  65. Many primary sources regarding the Alawis are still unedited and available only as manuscripts, and so only the most important published texts are described here. All known sources relevant for the study of Alawism, including those written prior to Ibn Nusayr, are listed with annotations and short summaries in Appendix 1 of Friedman 2010. Therefore, this list has replaced Massignon 1963. Al-Adhani 1864 is doubtless one of the most influential sources for the Alawi religion, and it is widely referred to in almost all Western studies on the subject. At-Tawil 1966 is the first and most comprehensive history of the Alawis written by a member of the community. Al-Khayyir 1992 is a very influential “review” of At-Tawil 1966 written in order to purge Alawism from anything that can be seen as contradictory to Shiʿa Islam. Abu Musa and Shaykh Musa 2006 contains a collection of original sources, several of them hitherto unknown. Although the pseudonymous editors are clear opponents of Alawism, the original texts printed in the collection are of great importance. At-Tabarani 1944 is a very important medieval text as it reveals the esoteric meanings of Alawi feasts. Nwyia 1974 is one of the very few studies on Alawi poetry.
  66.  
  67. Abu Musa, and Shaykh Mūsā, eds. Silsilat at-turāth al-ʿAlawī: Rasāʾil al-ḥikma al-ʿAlawiyya. 6 vols. Beirut, Lebanon: Diyar al-ʿAql, 2006.
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  69. With the exception of the editors’ notes and additions, which are only hostile propaganda, these six volumes can be regarded as “the most important sources for the academic study of Nusayri history, doctrine and identity” (Friedman 2010, p. 3).
  70. Abu Musa, and Shaykh Mūsā, eds. Silsilat at-turāth al-ʿAlawī: Rasāʾil al-ḥikma al-ʿAlawiyya. 6 vols. Beirut, Lebanon: Diyar al-ʿAql, 2006.
  71. Find this resource:
  72. al-Adhani, Sulayman. “Kitāb al-bākūra as-sulaymāniyya fī kashf asrār ad-diyāna an-nuṣayriyya: Bayrūt n.d. (c.1862/63).” English translation by E. E. Salisbury. Journal of the American Oriental Society 8 (1864): 227–308.
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  74. This was written by a person who had left the Alawi community and so it has to be read with caution, but, on the whole, many of its parts seem to be authentic. It also contains a prayer book, the Kitab al- majmuʿ, which provides insights into the secret rituals.
  75. al-Adhani, Sulayman. “Kitāb al-bākūra as-sulaymāniyya fī kashf asrār ad-diyāna an-nuṣayriyya: Bayrūt n.d. (c.1862/63).” English translation by E. E. Salisbury. Journal of the American Oriental Society 8 (1864): 227–308.
  76. Find this resource:
  77. al-Khayyir, ʿAbd al-Rahman. Naqd wa-taqrīẓ kitāb taʾrīkh al-ʿAlawiyyin. Damascus, Syria: Kutub Dhat Faidah, 1992.
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  79. Is a kind of review of at-Tawil 1966, which was written to correct this work’s alleged mistakes with regard to the position of Alawism within the Shiʿa.
  80. al-Khayyir, ʿAbd al-Rahman. Naqd wa-taqrīẓ kitāb taʾrīkh al-ʿAlawiyyin. Damascus, Syria: Kutub Dhat Faidah, 1992.
  81. Find this resource:
  82. at-Tabarani, Abu Sa‛id Maymun b. al-Qasim. “Kitāb sabīl rāḥat al-arwāḥ wa-dalīl as-surr wa-l-afrāḥ ilā fāliq al-aṣbāḥ al-ma‛rūf bi-Majmū‛ al-a‛yād.” Edited by R. Strothmann. Der Islam 27 (1944).
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  84. The Collection of Feasts by at-Tabarani (d. c. 1034/1035) is one of the most important medieval Alawi texts as it reveals the esoteric meanings of the Alawi holidays. A very useful analysis of it is given in chapter 6 of Bar-Asher and Kofsky 2002 (cited under Theology, Doctrines, and Foreign Elements).
  85. at-Tabarani, Abu Sa‛id Maymun b. al-Qasim. “Kitāb sabīl rāḥat al-arwāḥ wa-dalīl as-surr wa-l-afrāḥ ilā fāliq al-aṣbāḥ al-ma‛rūf bi-Majmū‛ al-a‛yād.” Edited by R. Strothmann. Der Islam 27 (1944).
  86. Find this resource:
  87. at-Tawil, Muhammad Amin Ghalib. Ta’rīkh al-‛Alawiyyīn. Beirut, Lebanon: Dar al-Andalus, 1966.
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  89. Originally published in 1924. The book is a mixture of historical facts and mythical interpretations of the Alawi history. Nevertheless, it is a valuable source for many “dark periods” of Alawism and seems to be rather reliable as a source for the events that occurred during the World War I years in the cities of Cilicia (Adana, Tarsus).
  90. at-Tawil, Muhammad Amin Ghalib. Ta’rīkh al-‛Alawiyyīn. Beirut, Lebanon: Dar al-Andalus, 1966.
  91. Find this resource:
  92. Friedman, Yaron. The Nuṣayrī-ʿAlawīs: An Introduction to the Religion, History and Identity of the Leading Minority in Syria. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2010.
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  94. Includes also an excellent introduction and overview of Alawi primary sources (pp. 241–276).
  95. Friedman, Yaron. The Nuṣayrī-ʿAlawīs: An Introduction to the Religion, History and Identity of the Leading Minority in Syria. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2010.
  96. Find this resource:
  97. Massignon, Louis. “Esquisse d’une bibliographie Nusayrie.” In Opera Minora de Louis Massignon. Vol. 1. Edited by Youakim Moubarac, 641–649. Beirut, Lebanon: Dar al-Maaref, 1963.
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  99. First published in 1938. This pioneer study was the first attempt to compile a list of Alawi works.
  100. Massignon, Louis. “Esquisse d’une bibliographie Nusayrie.” In Opera Minora de Louis Massignon. Vol. 1. Edited by Youakim Moubarac, 641–649. Beirut, Lebanon: Dar al-Maaref, 1963.
  101. Find this resource:
  102. Nwyia, Paul. “Makzūn al-Sinjārī, poète mystique alaouite.” Studia Islamica 40 (1974): 87–113.
  103. DOI: 10.2307/1595335Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  104. Contains annotations and partial translations of Makzun as-Sinjari’s (d. 1240) Dīwān, which seems to be strongly influenced by the ideas of mystics.
  105. Nwyia, Paul. “Makzūn al-Sinjārī, poète mystique alaouite.” Studia Islamica 40 (1974): 87–113.
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  107. Beliefs and Practices
  108.  
  109. The vast majority of all books and articles cited in all sections of this article contain information on the Alawi religion (see especially Friedman 2010 and Halm 1982, both cited under Alawis.) Because of the esoteric character of Alawism, many religious features of this sect are the subject of both scholarly and public discussion. Many details found in scholarly works on the Alawis are based on old manuscripts and may not always reflect today’s reality. Works by Alawi authors are mostly apologetic in constituting efforts to refute the charges of heresy leveled against their creed.
  110.  
  111. Theology, Doctrines, and Foreign Elements
  112.  
  113. Bar-Asher and Kofsky 2002 is doubtless the most detailed description of important theological aspects of the Alawi creed. The authors stress the syncretistic character of the Alawi religion, which they affirm consists of a variety of Muslim (Sunnite and Shiʿite), Christian, Iranian, and pagan beliefs. The Christian and Iranian influences are analyzed exhaustively in Bar-Asher 2001 and Bar-Asher 2003. Strothmann 1958 discusses the esoteric exegesis of Koranic verses. Olsson 1998 focuses on the role of ʿAli within the Gnostic scriptures of the sect and presents parallels with Turkish Alevi texts. Bar-Asher and Kofsky 2005 analyzes a yet unedited and very important treatise from the formative period of the Alawi creed written by al-Tabarani, one of the most influential medieval Alawi authors. Two works are basically accounts of personal impressions: Lammens 1915 describes the author’s meeting with an Alawi sheikh, and Strothmann 1950 narrates the author’s journey to Syria shortly after World War II.
  114.  
  115. Bar-Asher, Meir M. “Sur les éléments chrétiens de la religion Nuṣayrite-‛Alawite.” Journal asiatique 289 (2001): 185–216.
  116. DOI: 10.2143/JA.289.2.433Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  117. Emphasizes the syncretistic character of Alawism and presents an analysis of the Christian elements in it (particularly Christian feasts and the concept of a divine trinity). This hypothesis has been partly rejected in Friedman 2010.
  118. Bar-Asher, Meir M. “Sur les éléments chrétiens de la religion Nuṣayrite-‛Alawite.” Journal asiatique 289 (2001): 185–216.
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  120. Bar-Asher, Meir M. “The Iranian Component of the Nuṣayrī Religion.” Iran 41 (2003): 217–227.
  121. DOI: 10.2307/4300645Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  122. Deals with the very likely Iranian influence on Alawi festivals and doctrines regarding the persons of the divine trinity. Though after the sect moved from Iraq to Syria the Iranian influence was weakened, it has left considerable traces in Alawi religion.
  123. Bar-Asher, Meir M. “The Iranian Component of the Nuṣayrī Religion.” Iran 41 (2003): 217–227.
  124. Find this resource:
  125. Bar-Asher, Meir M., and Aryeh Kofsky. The Nuṣayrī-‛Alawī Religion: An Enquiry into Its Theology and Liturgy. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 2002.
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  127. Not so much a synthesis as it is a discussion of a variety of theological questions. The focus is on dogmatic and liturgical matters, in particular cosmology, the mystery of divinity, the Trinitarian concept, and allegorical interpretations of Muslim festivals. The work is rich in details and based mainly on original Alawi sources, several of which are given in both Arabic and English.
  128. Bar-Asher, Meir M., and Aryeh Kofsky. The Nuṣayrī-‛Alawī Religion: An Enquiry into Its Theology and Liturgy. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 2002.
  129. Find this resource:
  130. Bar-Asher, Meir M., and Aryeh Kofsky. “Dogma and Ritual in Kitāb al-Maʿārif by the Nusayrī theologian Abū Saʿīd Maymūn ibn al-Qāsim al-Ṭabarānī, d.426/1034–1035.” Arabica 52.1 (2005): 43–65.
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  132. Focuses on questions regarding the Gnostic aspects of Alawism, such as the manifestation of God in human form, but also covers liturgical questions and religious law (especially the Five Pillars of Islam).
  133. Bar-Asher, Meir M., and Aryeh Kofsky. “Dogma and Ritual in Kitāb al-Maʿārif by the Nusayrī theologian Abū Saʿīd Maymūn ibn al-Qāsim al-Ṭabarānī, d.426/1034–1035.” Arabica 52.1 (2005): 43–65.
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  135. Lammens, H. “Une visite au śaiḫ suprême des Noṣairīs Ḥaidarīs.” Journal asiatique series 11.5 (1915): 139–159.
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  137. An account of the author’s visit to an Alawi sheikh in the village of Jilliyya near Antioch in the summer of 1903.
  138. Lammens, H. “Une visite au śaiḫ suprême des Noṣairīs Ḥaidarīs.” Journal asiatique series 11.5 (1915): 139–159.
  139. Find this resource:
  140. Olsson, Tord. “The Gnosis of Mountaineers and Townspeople: The Religion of the Syrian Alawites, or the Nuṣairīs.” In Alevi Identity: Cultural, Religious and Social Perspectives. Edited by Tord Olsson, Elisabeth Özdalga, and Catharina Raudvere, 200–222. Richmond, UK: Curzon, 1998.
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  142. Description of Alawi doctrines based mainly on an analysis of secret scriptures and the interpretation of poems. Also covers cosmology, initiation rituals, and the allegorical interpretation of the Koran.
  143. Olsson, Tord. “The Gnosis of Mountaineers and Townspeople: The Religion of the Syrian Alawites, or the Nuṣairīs.” In Alevi Identity: Cultural, Religious and Social Perspectives. Edited by Tord Olsson, Elisabeth Özdalga, and Catharina Raudvere, 200–222. Richmond, UK: Curzon, 1998.
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  145. Strothmann, Rudolf. “Die Nuṣairī im heutigen Syrien.” Nachrichten der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Göttingen, phil.-hist. Klasse 4 (1950): 29–64.
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  147. Mainly an account of a journey in Syria during which the author met Alawi sheikhs. Contains some interesting information on the Alawi community in the middle of the 20th century, including descriptions of shrines and feasts.
  148. Strothmann, Rudolf. “Die Nuṣairī im heutigen Syrien.” Nachrichten der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Göttingen, phil.-hist. Klasse 4 (1950): 29–64.
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  150. Strothmann, Rudolf. Esoterische Sonderthemen bei den Nusairi: Geschichte und Traditionen von den Heiligen Meistern aus dem Prophetenhaus. Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1958.
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  152. This short book is an edition of the Arabic texts, with partial German translations and analysis, of two Alawi treatises on the special features of their creed.
  153. Strothmann, Rudolf. Esoterische Sonderthemen bei den Nusairi: Geschichte und Traditionen von den Heiligen Meistern aus dem Prophetenhaus. Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1958.
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  155. Metempsychosis
  156.  
  157. The belief in metempsychosis is a central feature of the Alawi religion. Strothmann 1959 describes and analyzes this special Alawi doctrine, mainly drawing upon selected passages from an 11th-century Alawi catechism. Freitag 1985 (cited under General Overviews) provides information on metempsychosis among the Alawis but discusses this belief in the context of similar doctrines in other Islamic sects. Prager 2010 and Procházka 2002 both deal with certain aspects of this belief among the Alawis in southeastern Turkey.
  158.  
  159. Prager, Laila. “Âmes sexuées et idées de procréation chez les Alawites/Nousairites (en Turquie).” Anthropology of the Middle East 5 (2010): 77–99.
  160. DOI: 10.3167/ame.2010.050206Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  161. Discusses a special aspect of metempsychosis, namely the emergence of the “gendered” soul, as seen by the Alawis of the region of Antioch (Hatay) in southeastern Turkey.
  162. Prager, Laila. “Âmes sexuées et idées de procréation chez les Alawites/Nousairites (en Turquie).” Anthropology of the Middle East 5 (2010): 77–99.
  163. Find this resource:
  164. Procházka, Stephan. “Von der Wiedergeburt bei den Alawiten in Adana.” In “Sprich doch mit deinen Knechten aramäisch, wir verstehen es!” 60 Beiträge zur Semitistik: Festschrift für Otto Jastrow zum 60. Geburtstag. Edited by Werner Arnold and Hartmut Bobzin, 557–568. Wiesbaden, Germany: O. Harrassowitz, 2002.
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  166. Describes the belief in metempsychosis held by the Alawis in the Turkish city of Adana. The Arabic text (with German translation) provides a sample of the many orally transmitted stories on this subject.
  167. Procházka, Stephan. “Von der Wiedergeburt bei den Alawiten in Adana.” In “Sprich doch mit deinen Knechten aramäisch, wir verstehen es!” 60 Beiträge zur Semitistik: Festschrift für Otto Jastrow zum 60. Geburtstag. Edited by Werner Arnold and Hartmut Bobzin, 557–568. Wiesbaden, Germany: O. Harrassowitz, 2002.
  168. Find this resource:
  169. Strothmann, Rudolf. “Seelenwanderung bei den Nuṣairī.” Oriens 12 (1959): 89–114.
  170. DOI: 10.2307/1580191Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  171. Sections of an Alawi catechism (translated into German) that deal with various aspects of metempsychosis (masūkhiyya) as well as questions of theodicy and the prohibition of the consumption of wine.
  172. Strothmann, Rudolf. “Seelenwanderung bei den Nuṣairī.” Oriens 12 (1959): 89–114.
  173. Find this resource:
  174. Alawism and Shiʿa Islam
  175.  
  176. From its very beginning Alawism was strongly related to Shiʿa Islam, but over the centuries it developed its own particular doctrines and practices. However, starting with the era of the French Mandate over Syria in the 1920s and 1930s, Alawi intellectuals began to claim that Alawism is not a separate sect but rather an integral part of Shiʿa Islam. Bar-Asher 2009 presents a very good overview of how Alawism was originally related to the main branch of the Shiʿa and the arguments used in the 20th century to revive this relationship. Firro 2005 likewise provides very good insights into how contemporary Alawis in Syria have tried to integrate their sect back into mainstream Shiʿa Islam. Kramer 1987 is a concise survey of the modern Alawi movement back toward Shiʿism, particularly under the French Mandate when Shiʿite law was introduced into the Alawi courts of western Syria. Kramer 1987 also discusses how Alawism was recognized in fatawa by Shiʿite clerics after World War II. The most important of these fatawa were analyzed (with others) in Talhamy 2010.
  177.  
  178. Bar-Asher, Meir M. “Le rapport de la religion nuṣayrite-ʿalawite au shiʿisme imamite.” In Le shīʿisme imāmite quarante ans après: Hommage à Etan Kohlberg. Edited by Mohammad Ali Amir-Moezzi, Meir M. Bar-Asher, and Simon Hopkins, 73–93. Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols, 2009.
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  180. One part of this article discusses Ibn Nusayr, the founder of the sect, and several feasts Alawism shares with the Shiʿa (the Feast of the Pond; ʿAshuraʾ). A long section is dedicated to the endeavor after 1920 to make Alawism conform to Twelver Shiʿism.
  181. Bar-Asher, Meir M. “Le rapport de la religion nuṣayrite-ʿalawite au shiʿisme imamite.” In Le shīʿisme imāmite quarante ans après: Hommage à Etan Kohlberg. Edited by Mohammad Ali Amir-Moezzi, Meir M. Bar-Asher, and Simon Hopkins, 73–93. Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols, 2009.
  182. Find this resource:
  183. Firro, Kais M. “The ‛Alawīs in Modern Syria: From Nuṣayrīya to Islam via ‛Alawīya.” Der Islam 82 (2005): 1–31.
  184. DOI: 10.1515/islm.2005.82.1.1Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  185. Discusses the gradual adoption of the name “ʿAlawiyya” in preference to “Nusayriyya,” the outright rejection of the name “Alawi” during the 1960s and 1970s, and attempts during the same period to relate the tenets of the sect to Twelver Shiʿism.
  186. Firro, Kais M. “The ‛Alawīs in Modern Syria: From Nuṣayrīya to Islam via ‛Alawīya.” Der Islam 82 (2005): 1–31.
  187. Find this resource:
  188. Kramer, Martin. “Syria’s Alawis and Shi‘ism.” In Shi‘ism, Resistance, and Revolution. By Martin Kramer, 237–254. Boulder, CO: Westview, 1987.
  189. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  190. Analyzes the Alawi movement toward Shiʿism in the 1920s and describes how Alawism was later recognized by Shiʿite clerics in order to legitimize the power of Alawis, which was being questioned by their political opponents through religious arguments. The article also covers the impact of Iran—for example, Alawi students sent to Qom to study Shiʿite law.
  191. Kramer, Martin. “Syria’s Alawis and Shi‘ism.” In Shi‘ism, Resistance, and Revolution. By Martin Kramer, 237–254. Boulder, CO: Westview, 1987.
  192. Find this resource:
  193. Talhamy, Yvette. “The fatwas and the Nusayri/Alawis of Syria.” Middle Eastern Studies 46.2 (2010): 175–194.
  194. DOI: 10.1080/00263200902940251Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  195. Analysis and English translation of six fatawa regarding the Alawi creed, four by Sunni (Ibn Taymiyya/14th century, al-Hanafi/16th century, al-Mughrabi/19th century, Amin al-Husayni/20th century) and two by Shiʿite religious authorities (ash-Shirazi and Musa as-Sadr, both 20th century). All fatawa issued prior to the 20th century are negative: those that were written in the 20th century declared that the Alawis are Shiʿites.
  196. Talhamy, Yvette. “The fatwas and the Nusayri/Alawis of Syria.” Middle Eastern Studies 46.2 (2010): 175–194.
  197. Find this resource:
  198. History (19th Century)
  199.  
  200. The origins and medieval history of the sect are described in detail in Friedman 2010, cited under Alawis. Historical developments in the Alawi regions of Syria during the 19th century are mostly studied on the basis of Ottoman sources. Winter 2004 sheds light on Ottoman-Alawi relations during the first half of the 19th century, when Ottoman officials were taking increasing notice of the sect. Talhamy 2008 is a very detailed historical study on the rebellion by a local Alawi leader against the Ottoman Turks in 19th-century western Syria. Douwes 1993 discusses relations between Alawi sheikhs and the Ottoman authorities during the period from 1840 to 1890. Winter 1999 provides interesting details concerning the history of western Syria during the time of Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt.
  201.  
  202. Douwes, Dick. “Knowledge and Oppression: The Nuṣayriyya in the Late Ottoman Period.” In Convegno sul tema la Shīʿa nell’impero ottomano: Roma, 15 aprile 1991, 149–169. Rome: Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei, 1993.
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  204. Mainly a study of the relations between Alawi sheikhs and the Ottoman authorities. Other subjects treated are tribal revolts, military expeditions, and the often uneasy relations the Alawis of the region of Latakia had with Muslims and Christians.
  205. Douwes, Dick. “Knowledge and Oppression: The Nuṣayriyya in the Late Ottoman Period.” In Convegno sul tema la Shīʿa nell’impero ottomano: Roma, 15 aprile 1991, 149–169. Rome: Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei, 1993.
  206. Find this resource:
  207. Talhamy, Yvette. “The Nusayri Leader Ismaʿil Khayr Bey and the Ottomans, 1854–1858.” Middle Eastern Studies 44 (2008): 895–908.
  208. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  209. A detailed analysis of the Alawi rebellion led by Ismaʿil Khayr, with insights into the tribal segmentation of the region, which ultimately led to the failure of the mutiny.
  210. Talhamy, Yvette. “The Nusayri Leader Ismaʿil Khayr Bey and the Ottomans, 1854–1858.” Middle Eastern Studies 44 (2008): 895–908.
  211. Find this resource:
  212. Winter, Stefan H. “La révolte alaouite de 1834 contre l’occupation égyptienne: Perceptions alaouites et lecture ottomane.” Oriente moderno 3 (1999): 61–71.
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  214. Deals with the history of Alawi and Druze rebellions against the Egyptian military expeditions sent against Alawi settlements in the mountains of western Syria.
  215. Winter, Stefan H. “La révolte alaouite de 1834 contre l’occupation égyptienne: Perceptions alaouites et lecture ottomane.” Oriente moderno 3 (1999): 61–71.
  216. Find this resource:
  217. Winter, Stefan H. “The Nuṣayrīs before Tanzimat in the Eyes of Ottoman Provincial Administrators, 1804–1834.” In From the Syrian Land to the States of Syria and Lebanon. Edited by Thomas Philipp and Christoph Schumann, 97–112. Beirut, Lebanon: Ergon, 2004.
  218. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  219. Analyzes provincial dispatches sent to Istanbul by local authorities who reported on the Alawis of Syria and the Sanjak of Alexandrette (Iskenderun).
  220. Winter, Stefan H. “The Nuṣayrīs before Tanzimat in the Eyes of Ottoman Provincial Administrators, 1804–1834.” In From the Syrian Land to the States of Syria and Lebanon. Edited by Thomas Philipp and Christoph Schumann, 97–112. Beirut, Lebanon: Ergon, 2004.
  221. Find this resource:
  222. History (20th–21st Centuries)
  223.  
  224. During the 20th century the situation of the Alawi minority in Syria was heavily influenced by two events: (1) the establishment of the French Mandate under the League of Nations over Syria and Lebanon in 1920, and (2) the Baathist coup d’état in 1963. Mervin 2006 shows that from the 1920s to the 1940s the French administration strongly stressed the alien nature of the Alawi society. Franke 1994 is the only detailed study on the Syrian Alawi Sulayman Murshid, who collaborated with the French and who in the 1920s declared himself a prophet and founded a subsect of the community. Pipes 1989 analyzes the political role of the Syrian Alawis starting in the 1920s but overemphasizes ethnicity in the establishment of an Alawi ruling elite in Syria, ignoring such other factors as the patriarchal nature of the society and patronage politics. Faksh 1984 contains a fine analysis of the first two decades of Alawi dominance in Syrian politics. Batatu 1981 focuses mainly on the social background of Alawi army officers, concluding that the religious ties of this group are less important than kinship. Van Dam 1996 is a classic study of Syrian society and politics from the Baath takeover in 1963 to the mid-1990s, and the role of sectarianism is also discussed. Voss 1987 is the most comprehensive analysis of the religio-political discussions in 20th-century Syria about Alawi doctrines and their relation to orthodox Islam. The great virtue of this work is that it is based exclusively on original sources. Uluçay 2001 discusses the role of ʿAlawism in both Syria and the Turkish province of Antioch (Hatay), containing much information about the latter that is not available in Western works.
  225.  
  226. Batatu, Hanna. “Some Observations on the Social Roots of Syria’s Ruling Military Group and the Causes for Its Dominance.” Middle East Journal 35 (1981): 331–344.
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  228. Describes the structure of the Syrian armed forces and the role of Alawis therein. The author provides a good account of how the Alawis gained so much power in the military.
  229. Batatu, Hanna. “Some Observations on the Social Roots of Syria’s Ruling Military Group and the Causes for Its Dominance.” Middle East Journal 35 (1981): 331–344.
  230. Find this resource:
  231. Faksh, Mahmud A. “The Alawi Community of Syria: A New Dominant Political Force.” Middle Eastern Studies 20.2 (1984): 133–153.
  232. DOI: 10.1080/00263208408700577Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  233. Deals mainly with the Alawi rise to power in the 1960s. Discusses also the changes that occurred in Alawi society and self-identity in the aftermath of the political overthrow.
  234. Faksh, Mahmud A. “The Alawi Community of Syria: A New Dominant Political Force.” Middle Eastern Studies 20.2 (1984): 133–153.
  235. Find this resource:
  236. Franke, Patrick. Göttliche Karriere eines syrischen Hirten: Sulaimān Muršid (1907–1946) und die Anfänge der Muršidiyya. Berlin: Schwarz, 1994.
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  238. A biography of Sulayman Murshid based on contemporary documents and interviews with members of the still existing Murshidiyya sect. The study does not end with Murshid’s execution in 1946 but includes a chapter on his sons, the subsequent leaders of the sect.
  239. Franke, Patrick. Göttliche Karriere eines syrischen Hirten: Sulaimān Muršid (1907–1946) und die Anfänge der Muršidiyya. Berlin: Schwarz, 1994.
  240. Find this resource:
  241. Mervin, Sabrina. “’L’entité alaouite,’ une création française.” In Le choc colonial et l’islam: Les politiques religieuses des puissances coloniales en terre d’islam. Edited by Pierre-Jean Luizard, 343–358. Paris: Découverte, 2006.
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  243. A fine description of how the French actively encouraged Alawi self-identity to foster sectarian discord in the area of the French Mandate over Syria and Lebanon after World War I.
  244. Mervin, Sabrina. “’L’entité alaouite,’ une création française.” In Le choc colonial et l’islam: Les politiques religieuses des puissances coloniales en terre d’islam. Edited by Pierre-Jean Luizard, 343–358. Paris: Découverte, 2006.
  245. Find this resource:
  246. Pipes, Daniel. “The Alawi Capture of Power in Syria.” Middle Eastern Studies 25 (1989): 429–450.
  247. DOI: 10.1080/00263208908700793Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  248. In addition to a short sketch of Alawi history and beliefs, this article includes an analysis of the rise of the Alawi presence in Syrian politics in the 1920s and the important role they have played since in the Syrian army and the Baath Party. The author emphasizes the non-Muslim character of Alawism by repeatedly using the term heresy.
  249. Pipes, Daniel. “The Alawi Capture of Power in Syria.” Middle Eastern Studies 25 (1989): 429–450.
  250. Find this resource:
  251. Uluçay, Ömer. Tarihte Nusayrilik. Adana, Turkey: Gözde Yayinevi, 2001.
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  253. The study Nuṣayrī Belief in History provides information about the social and political problems of the Alawis in Turkey and includes quotations from letters protesting against the discrimination and injustice suffered by the group.
  254. Uluçay, Ömer. Tarihte Nusayrilik. Adana, Turkey: Gözde Yayinevi, 2001.
  255. Find this resource:
  256. van Dam, Nikolaos. The Struggle for Power in Syria: Politics and Society under Asad and the Ba‘th Party. London: I. B. Tauris, 1996.
  257. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  258. An in-depth analysis of Syrian politics and society in the last third of the 20th century. The book provides insight into sectarianism, regionalism, and tribalism in Syria, which are all closely related to the role of the Alawis.
  259. van Dam, Nikolaos. The Struggle for Power in Syria: Politics and Society under Asad and the Ba‘th Party. London: I. B. Tauris, 1996.
  260. Find this resource:
  261. Voss, Gregor. “ʿAlawīya oder Nuṣairīya? Schiitische Machtelite und sunnitische Opposition in der Syrischen Arabischen Republik: Untersuchungen zu einer islamisch-politischen Streitfrage.” PhD diss., University of Hamburg, 1987.
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  263. Provides an overview of the political situation in the 1970s and 1980s and analyzes the extremist Sunni and the Alawi positions regarding the Alawi religion. Also included is a description of the conflicting views regarding the value of Alawi religious literature.
  264. Voss, Gregor. “ʿAlawīya oder Nuṣairīya? Schiitische Machtelite und sunnitische Opposition in der Syrischen Arabischen Republik: Untersuchungen zu einer islamisch-politischen Streitfrage.” PhD diss., University of Hamburg, 1987.
  265. Find this resource:
  266. Identity
  267.  
  268. Studies on Alawi identity are rare. Although in many respects Aslan 2005 does not meet modern standards of sociological research, it is a worthwhile discussion of Alawi self-identity in southern Turkey. Uluçay 1996 provides very interesting insights concerning how Alawis in Turkey present themselves to the public. The focus of Prager 2010 is the Alawi diaspora communities in Germany. Paoli 2005 sheds light on Alawi identities as seen by others through a discussion of the numerous accounts of the Alawis of Syria by Western travelers.
  269.  
  270. Aslan, Cahit. Fellahlar’ın Sosyolojisi: Arapuşakları, Nusayriler, Hasibiler, Kilaziler, Haydariler, Arap Alevileri. Adana, Turkey: Karahan Kitabevi, 2005.
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  272. Deals with questions of Alawi self-identity, social changes, language choice, and social movements. It is based mainly on field work in the Turkish province of Antioch (Hatay).
  273. Aslan, Cahit. Fellahlar’ın Sosyolojisi: Arapuşakları, Nusayriler, Hasibiler, Kilaziler, Haydariler, Arap Alevileri. Adana, Turkey: Karahan Kitabevi, 2005.
  274. Find this resource:
  275. Paoli, Bruno. “L’Alaouite de Syrie vu par l’autre: Itinéraires de l’ignorance.” In D’un Orient l’autre: Actes des troisièmes journées de l’Orient, Bordeaux, 2–4 octobre 2002. Edited by Jean-Louis Bacqué-Grammont, Angel Pino, and Samaha Khoury, 267–284. Louvain, Belgium: Peeters, 2005.
  276. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  277. Analysis of the numerous accounts of the Alawis by Western travelers. Many of the “facts” presented by these travelers were based on misperceptions or prejudices, or they were even inventions by the authors.
  278. Paoli, Bruno. “L’Alaouite de Syrie vu par l’autre: Itinéraires de l’ignorance.” In D’un Orient l’autre: Actes des troisièmes journées de l’Orient, Bordeaux, 2–4 octobre 2002. Edited by Jean-Louis Bacqué-Grammont, Angel Pino, and Samaha Khoury, 267–284. Louvain, Belgium: Peeters, 2005.
  279. Find this resource:
  280. Prager, Laila. Die “Gemeinschaft des Hauses”: Religion, Heiratsstrategien und transnationale Identität türkischer Alawi-/Nusairi-Migranten in Deutschland. Berlin: Lit-Verlag, 2010.
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  282. Presents an overview of the Alawi creed and gives a detailed, in-depth analysis of the rituals and customs related to the life cycle (births, weddings, death, and funerals). Other chapters of the book cover such topics as kinship, courtship, and acculturation to German society. However, the Arabic terminology used in this book is not reliable.
  283. Prager, Laila. Die “Gemeinschaft des Hauses”: Religion, Heiratsstrategien und transnationale Identität türkischer Alawi-/Nusairi-Migranten in Deutschland. Berlin: Lit-Verlag, 2010.
  284. Find this resource:
  285. Uluçay, Ömer. Arap Aleviliği Nusayrilik. Adana, Turkey: Gözde Yayınevi, 1996.
  286. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  287. Contains not only abstracts taken from Turkish and Western sources, but also interviews with ten Alawi sheikhs that provide insights into how the Alawis of Turkey present themselves to the public.
  288. Uluçay, Ömer. Arap Aleviliği Nusayrilik. Adana, Turkey: Gözde Yayınevi, 1996.
  289. Find this resource:
  290. Alevis
  291.  
  292. Dressler 2011 is undoubtedly the best concise description of the origin, history, beliefs, and current situation of the Alevis in Turkey. Kehl-Bodrogi 1988 is one of the pioneer works on Alevism and covers both history and religious practices. Popović and Veinstein 1993 contains numerous important articles shedding light on various aspects of the Bektashis and related groups. Dressler 2002 is an extremely rich description of Alevi history and political discourses in 20th-century Turkey. The author’s central hypothesis is that the Alevis’ religious interpretation of Kemalism can be explained by three factors: the political discourse in Turkey, the compatibility of secularism and Alevism, and the concept of longue durée. Andrews and Benninghaus 2002 is a pioneer work on the ethnic diversification of Turkey and provides detailed lists of the towns and villages inhabited by the different communities. Several of the “Essays on Selected Groups,” found in Andrews and Benninghaus 2002, deal with various Alevi subgroups. Bozarslan 2003 scrutinizes common assumptions in research about the Alevis and emphasizes the need for more historical and sociological work on this subject.
  293.  
  294. Andrews, Peter A., and Rüdiger Benninghaus, eds. Ethnic Groups in the Republic of Turkey. 2 vols. 2d ed. Wiesbaden, Germany: Reichert, 2002.
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  296. In addition to lists of settlements, these books contain chapters on the Abdal (Andrews, pp. 435–438), the present state of the Alevis in Turkey (Kehl-Bodrogi, pp. 503–510), the Kurdish Alevis (Bumke, pp. 510–518), the identity of Alevi nomads (Gokalp, pp. 524–537), and, in the supplementary volume, “Anthropology and Ethnicity: The Place of Ethnography in the New Alevi Movement” (Shankland, pp. 199–205).
  297. Andrews, Peter A., and Rüdiger Benninghaus, eds. Ethnic Groups in the Republic of Turkey. 2 vols. 2d ed. Wiesbaden, Germany: Reichert, 2002.
  298. Find this resource:
  299. Bozarslan, Hamit. “Alevism and the Myths of Research: The Need for a New Research Agenda.” In Turkey’s Alevi Enigma: A Comprehensive Overview. Edited by Paul J. White and Joost Jongerden, 3–16. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 2003.
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  301. The author takes a critical look at the most frequent and unquestioned research postulations: the Alevis repression by the Sunni Ottomans, their alliance with the Kemalists, and their alliance with left-wing opposition movements.
  302. Bozarslan, Hamit. “Alevism and the Myths of Research: The Need for a New Research Agenda.” In Turkey’s Alevi Enigma: A Comprehensive Overview. Edited by Paul J. White and Joost Jongerden, 3–16. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 2003.
  303. Find this resource:
  304. Dressler, Markus. Die alevitische Religion: Traditionslinien und Neubestimmungen. Würzburg, Germany: Ergon, 2002.
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  306. A detailed study of Alevism in the 20th century. Contains chapters on the genesis of the Kizilbash tradition, the transformation from Kizilbashlik to Alevism, the religio-political discourse in modern Turkey, and relations between Alevism and Kemalism in the 20th century.
  307. Dressler, Markus. Die alevitische Religion: Traditionslinien und Neubestimmungen. Würzburg, Germany: Ergon, 2002.
  308. Find this resource:
  309. Dressler, Markus. “Alevīs.” In Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three, 2011-3. Edited by Gudrun Krämer, Denis Matringe, John Nawas, and Everett Rowson, 93–121. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2011.
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  311. Includes sections on the term Alevi, the spread of Alevism, its history, and its sacred texts. Has a very informative long chapter on beliefs and practices. Features a rich bibliography.
  312. Dressler, Markus. “Alevīs.” In Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three, 2011-3. Edited by Gudrun Krämer, Denis Matringe, John Nawas, and Everett Rowson, 93–121. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2011.
  313. Find this resource:
  314. Kehl-Bodrogi, Krisztina. Die Kızılbaş/Aleviten: Untersuchungen über eine esoterische Glaubensgemeinschaft in Anatolien. Berlin: Klaus Schwarz, 1988.
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  316. Part 1 deals with the historical development of the various subsects today included under the term Alevi (concerning the recent “Alevi revival” this chapter has been superseded by more up-to-date studies; see Dressler 2006 and Yaman 2010, both cited under Modern and Contemporary Aspects; and Erol 2010, cited under Identity). Part 2 is based on primary sources and discusses Alevi religious and social structures; it includes detailed descriptions of Alevi rituals, practices, and feasts.
  317. Kehl-Bodrogi, Krisztina. Die Kızılbaş/Aleviten: Untersuchungen über eine esoterische Glaubensgemeinschaft in Anatolien. Berlin: Klaus Schwarz, 1988.
  318. Find this resource:
  319. Popović, Alexandre, and Gilles Veinstein, eds. Bektachiyya: Études sur l’ordre mystique des Bektachis et les groupes relevant de Hadji Bektach. Revue des études islamiques 60. Paris: P. Geuthner, 1993.
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  321. Includes subchapters on culture, the Ahl-e Haqq and the Kurds, Bektashism in the Balkans, Bektashim in Ottoman times, and other topics. Provides a glossary and bibliography.
  322. Popović, Alexandre, and Gilles Veinstein, eds. Bektachiyya: Études sur l’ordre mystique des Bektachis et les groupes relevant de Hadji Bektach. Revue des études islamiques 60. Paris: P. Geuthner, 1993.
  323. Find this resource:
  324. Texts and Sources
  325.  
  326. The written sources for the religious and social life of the Alevis consist mainly of their sacred books (called buyruk in Turkish), legendary hagiographies of specific spiritual leaders (vilâyetnâmes or menâkıbnâmes), and religious poetry (nefes). For decades, few reliable editions of these texts existed. However, the revival of Alevism in the late 1980s and the unveiling of the group’s secret texts have caused a boom in publication. Because fine bibliographies of recent publications are available, such as Vorhoff 1998 and Karakaya-Stump 2010, this section is restricted to a few basic works on primary sources. Aytekin 1958 is the first collection of buyruks in Latin letters: It contains various manuscripts that the author collected throughout Anatolia, and it is the main source for subsequent publications. Gölpinarli 1963 is an anthology that includes a large number of Alevi/Bektashi poems that are recited to lute accompaniment during religious gatherings. Gölpinarli 1958 uses several manuscripts in a study of the life of Hadji Bektash Veli, the spiritual patron of Bektashism/Alevism. Dehqan 2010 presents one of the very rare documents on the history of Alevism written in Zazaki. Karakaya-Stump 2010 gives a general overview of the documents and buyruk manuscripts that have come to light during recent years as a result of the Alevi revival in Turkey. Otter-Beaujean 1997 deals with the oral and written traditions behind the buyruk, disputing Jack Goody’s “autonomic pattern,” which asserts a polarity between these two modes. Vorhoff 1998 is a review of scholarly studies on Alevism as well as of the numerous popular and journalistic publications on the topic in Turkey from the end of the 1980s to the present. Kissling 1986 is a rich collection of the author’s own studies, among them important contributions dealing with pious popular legends and ballads from the Bektashis of Anatolia and the Balkans.
  327.  
  328. Aytekin, Sefer. Buyruk. Ankara, Turkey: Emek Basım-Yayımevi, 1958.
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  330. A collection of buyruk manuscripts from the private archives of Alevi holy lineages. The main buyruk of this collection belongs to a Tahtaci family and was written in 1850 (Kehl-Bodrogi 1988, p. 106, cited under Alevis). The author does not provide interpretations of the text and no facsimiles are given. It is still the most cited work on buyruks, although a new edition is available by Ali Ocakli, İmam Caferisadık Buyruğu (Istanbul: Mizah Yayincilik, 1989).
  331. Aytekin, Sefer. Buyruk. Ankara, Turkey: Emek Basım-Yayımevi, 1958.
  332. Find this resource:
  333. Dehqan, Mustafa. “A Zazaki Alevi Treatise from Diyarbekir.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 20 (2010): 295–306.
  334. DOI: 10.1017/S1356186310000040Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  335. Presents a newly discovered Zazaki manuscript written by Isa Beg ibn Ali before the end of the 18th century. The fragmentary remains of this text deal with the recollections and doctrines of the Zazaki Alevi community.
  336. Dehqan, Mustafa. “A Zazaki Alevi Treatise from Diyarbekir.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 20 (2010): 295–306.
  337. Find this resource:
  338. Gölpinarli, Abdülbâki, ed. Alevî-Bektâşî nefesleri. Istanbul: Remzi, 1963.
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  340. This anthology covers a wide range of Alevi poetry, including poems of prominent spiritual leaders such as Pir Sultan Abdal, Kaygusuz Abdal, Nesimi, and Yunus Emre. They provide valuable information on the religious views and spiritual ideas of the common people. The editor grouped the poems according to their main subjects.
  341. Gölpinarli, Abdülbâki, ed. Alevî-Bektâşî nefesleri. Istanbul: Remzi, 1963.
  342. Find this resource:
  343. Gölpinarli, Abdülbâki, ed. Vilâyet-Name: Manâkıb-ı Hünkâr Hacı Bektâş-ı Velî. Istanbul: İnkilâp, 1958.
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  345. Sheds light on an eminent figure in Alevism/Bektashism. The editor discusses parallels and similarities to related texts, linguistic peculiarities, and questions of origin and authorship. He also provides a facsimile of the oldest manuscript, dated 1624, a glossary of specific terms, and a dictionary of the Turkish and Turkicized words used in the text.
  346. Gölpinarli, Abdülbâki, ed. Vilâyet-Name: Manâkıb-ı Hünkâr Hacı Bektâş-ı Velî. Istanbul: İnkilâp, 1958.
  347. Find this resource:
  348. Karakaya-Stump, Ayfer. “Documents and Buyruk Manuscripts in the Private Archives of Alevi dede Families: An Overview.” British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 37.3 (2010): 273–286.
  349. DOI: 10.1080/13530194.2010.524437Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  350. Introduces a rich corpus of written sources in Ottoman Turkish, Persian, and Arabic that has been preserved in private archives of eastern and southeastern Anatolia. It is divided into “Alevi Documents,” meaning family documents of dede families, and “Buyruk Manuscripts.” The author stresses that these valuable documents might change some traditional views in the field of Alevi-Bektashi studies.
  351. Karakaya-Stump, Ayfer. “Documents and Buyruk Manuscripts in the Private Archives of Alevi dede Families: An Overview.” British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 37.3 (2010): 273–286.
  352. Find this resource:
  353. Kissling, Hans-Joachim. Dissertationes Orientales et Balcanicae Collectae. Vol. 1, Das Derwischtum. Munich: Trofenik, 1986.
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  355. A collection of articles that includes several important studies on Bektashi legends, the hagiography of Sheikh Bedreddin, and the vita of Akşemseddin.
  356. Kissling, Hans-Joachim. Dissertationes Orientales et Balcanicae Collectae. Vol. 1, Das Derwischtum. Munich: Trofenik, 1986.
  357. Find this resource:
  358. Otter-Beaujean, Anke. “Schriftliche Überlieferung versus mündliche Tradition: Zum Stellenwert der Buyruk-Handschriften im Alevitentum.” In Syncretistic Religious Communities in the Near East: Collected Papers of the International Symposium “Alevism in Turkey and Comparable Religious Communities in the Near East in the Past and Present,” Berlin, 14–17 April 1995. Edited by K. Kehl-Bodrogi, Barbara Kellner-Heinkele, and Anke Otter-Beaujean, 213–226. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1997.
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  360. Compares several versions of buyruk manuscripts. The author concludes that these written documents have undergone considerable changes due to the importance of oral tradition in Alevism and, therefore, they did not become canonical or universal.
  361. Otter-Beaujean, Anke. “Schriftliche Überlieferung versus mündliche Tradition: Zum Stellenwert der Buyruk-Handschriften im Alevitentum.” In Syncretistic Religious Communities in the Near East: Collected Papers of the International Symposium “Alevism in Turkey and Comparable Religious Communities in the Near East in the Past and Present,” Berlin, 14–17 April 1995. Edited by K. Kehl-Bodrogi, Barbara Kellner-Heinkele, and Anke Otter-Beaujean, 213–226. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1997.
  362. Find this resource:
  363. Vorhoff, Karin. “Academic and Journalistic Publications on the Alevi and Bektashi in Turkey.” In Alevi Identity: Cultural, Religious and Social Perspectives. Edited by Tord Olsson, Elisabeth Özdalga, and Catharina Raudvere, 28–58. Richmond, UK: Curzon, 1998.
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  365. Provides a good general idea about publications on Alevism in Turkey. The section “Inquiries” comments on scholarly books, and “Discoveries” deals separately with Sunni and Alevi Turkish booklets, journals, and books on the subject.
  366. Vorhoff, Karin. “Academic and Journalistic Publications on the Alevi and Bektashi in Turkey.” In Alevi Identity: Cultural, Religious and Social Perspectives. Edited by Tord Olsson, Elisabeth Özdalga, and Catharina Raudvere, 28–58. Richmond, UK: Curzon, 1998.
  367. Find this resource:
  368. Beliefs and Practices
  369.  
  370. Because of the heterogeneous origins of the Alevi creed and the lack of a common doctrine, many religious aspects of this sect differ with regard to region and time. The situation is also complicated by the close relationship between Alevism and Bektashism. Although Bektashism and Alevism are not identical, they indeed share a number of theological features and have many common developments. It should be mentioned that many books and articles cited in all sections of this bibliography provide information on the Alevi religion and its historical development. (See especially Kehl-Bodrogi 1988 and Dressler 2011, both cited under Alevis.)
  371.  
  372. Historical and Traditional Aspects
  373.  
  374. It should not be surprising that a number of works in this section deal with Bektashism—or rather with Bektashism/Alevism and other Sufi movements. Bektashism and Alevism are regarded by many researchers as inextricably interwoven movements. Despite its age, Birge 1937, a comprehensive description of that movement’s beliefs and rituals with an introduction to Bektashi literature, is still a very important reference work on Bektashism. Mélikoff 1982 hypothesizes that Alevism/Bektashism is a kind of “Islamized shamanism” and has been frequently quoted in publications on the Alevis, though the “Islamized shamanism” hypothesis has not remained undisputed. Mélikoff 1998 is a synopsis of the author’s numerous works on Bektashism/Alevism. Cornell 1998 deals with the question of whether Bektashism really has been, as is often stated, more or less nonexistent in Bosnia: the author disagrees. De Jong 1989 is one of the very few studies on the iconography of Bektashism/Alevism.
  375.  
  376. Birge, John Kingsley. The Bektashi Order of Dervishes. London: Luzac, 1937.
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  378. This is regarded as the classic study on the Bektashi order. It focuses on Albania. The author provides a comprehensive account of the order’s history, doctrines, beliefs, and rites and practices as well as its literature (poetry and other literary forms) and its relation to other faiths.
  379. Birge, John Kingsley. The Bektashi Order of Dervishes. London: Luzac, 1937.
  380. Find this resource:
  381. Cornell, Erik. “On Bektashism in Bosnia.” In Alevi Identity: Cultural, Religious and Social Perspectives. Edited by Tord Olsson, Elisabeth Özdalga, and Catharina Raudvere, 11–18. Richmond, UK: Curzon, 1998.
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  383. A call for further research on the question of whether Bektashism was of any real importance in Bosnia. The author argues that Bosnia, because of the weak impact of Christianity, the heavy presence of Bektashi Janissaries, and the tolerant attitude of Bosnian Islam, constitutes fertile soil for Bektashism.
  384. Cornell, Erik. “On Bektashism in Bosnia.” In Alevi Identity: Cultural, Religious and Social Perspectives. Edited by Tord Olsson, Elisabeth Özdalga, and Catharina Raudvere, 11–18. Richmond, UK: Curzon, 1998.
  385. Find this resource:
  386. de Jong, Frederick. “The Iconography of Bektashiism: A Survey of Themes and Symbolism in Clerical Costume, Liturgical Objects and Pictorial Art.” Manuscripts of the Middle East 4 (1989): 7–29.
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  388. Provides information on the context of the iconography and symbolism in clerical costume and liturgical objects as well as the specific meanings of colors and shapes within the pictorial representation of Alevism/Bektashism. Includes seventeen annotated illustrations and features a rich bibliography.
  389. de Jong, Frederick. “The Iconography of Bektashiism: A Survey of Themes and Symbolism in Clerical Costume, Liturgical Objects and Pictorial Art.” Manuscripts of the Middle East 4 (1989): 7–29.
  390. Find this resource:
  391. Mélikoff, Irène. “L’islam hétérodoxe en Anatolie: Non-conformisme—syncrétisme—gnose” Turcica 14 (1982): 142–154.
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  393. An attempt to prove that Alevi/Bektashi rituals ultimately go back to Central Asian and pre-Islamic shamanism. In her view, many beliefs regarded as “heterodox” by the Sunnis are in fact shaman rituals in Muslim/Sufi disguise.
  394. Mélikoff, Irène. “L’islam hétérodoxe en Anatolie: Non-conformisme—syncrétisme—gnose” Turcica 14 (1982): 142–154.
  395. Find this resource:
  396. Mélikoff, Irène. Hadji Bektach: Un mythe et ses avatars: Genèse et évolution du soufisme populaire en Turquie. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1998.
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  398. The first part of this book discusses “Islamized shamanism,” the role of the Turkmens in Asia Minor during the 13th century, and the life and works of Hadji Bektash. The second part deals with Alevi beliefs and practices, Bektashi literature, and current social and political developments.
  399. Mélikoff, Irène. Hadji Bektach: Un mythe et ses avatars: Genèse et évolution du soufisme populaire en Turquie. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1998.
  400. Find this resource:
  401. Modern and Contemporary Aspects
  402.  
  403. This section contains works dealing especially with the transformation that certain institutions and rituals have undergone in the course of the large-scale urbanization of the Alevis. Karolewski 2008 sees the differences between Alevis and Sunnis as the result of the conflict between the Ottomans and the Iranian Safawids, which still echo in today’s anti-Alevi discourses. Kehl-Bodrogi 1997 deals with the specifically Alevi institution of “ritual kinship” musahiplik among the Tahtacis, a social group in southern and southwestern Turkey. Dressler 2006 discusses the challenge Alevism faces in redefining the role of the dedes “religious leaders” in a time of rapid social change within Alevi society. Dressler 1999 analyzes the concept of civil religion in connection with Kemalism and the person of Mustafa Kemal Ataturk and its importance for the Alevi citizens of Turkey. Yaman 2010 compares rural and urban Alevism and the transformation of the Alevis’ most important rite, the cem. Hess 2007 is a study based on modern Turkish literature examining Turkish Sunni and Alevi constructions of martyrs. For changes in the semah (part of the cem gathering) see Erol 2010, cited under Identity.
  404.  
  405. Dressler, Markus. Die Civil Religion der Türkei: Kemalistische und alevitische Atatürk-Rezeption im Vergleich. Würzburg, Germany: Ergon, 1999.
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  407. Contains chapters discussing the term civil religion and Kemalism as a kind of civil religion in Turkey. The core of this study deals with the role of Mustafa Kemal Ataturk in the religious outlook of the Alevis.
  408. Dressler, Markus. Die Civil Religion der Türkei: Kemalistische und alevitische Atatürk-Rezeption im Vergleich. Würzburg, Germany: Ergon, 1999.
  409. Find this resource:
  410. Dressler, Markus. “The Modern Dede: Changing Parameters for Religious Authority in Contemporary Turkish Alevism.” In Speaking for Islam: Religious Authorities in Muslim Societies. Edited by Gudrun Krämer and Sabine Schmidtke, 269–294. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 2006.
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  412. Discusses the transformation of the dede in Alevism from a religious and social authority to a mere religious leader as important functions within Alevi organizations came to be held largely by secular leaders.
  413. Dressler, Markus. “The Modern Dede: Changing Parameters for Religious Authority in Contemporary Turkish Alevism.” In Speaking for Islam: Religious Authorities in Muslim Societies. Edited by Gudrun Krämer and Sabine Schmidtke, 269–294. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 2006.
  414. Find this resource:
  415. Hess, Michael Reinhard. “Alevi Martyr Figures.” Turcica 39 (2007): 253–290.
  416. DOI: 10.2143/TURC.39.0.2033063Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  417. Contrasts the concepts of the martyr in the Sunni Ottoman-Turkish and Alevi cultures, arguing that these differing concepts reflect the disagreements heard in modern Turkish debates.
  418. Hess, Michael Reinhard. “Alevi Martyr Figures.” Turcica 39 (2007): 253–290.
  419. Find this resource:
  420. Karolewski, Janina. “What Is Heterodox about Alevism? The Development of Anti-Alevi Discrimination and Resentment.” Welt des Islams 48 (2008): 434–456.
  421. DOI: 10.1163/157006008X364767Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  422. Describes anti-Alevi propaganda in the 16th century and links it to Alevi discrimination in the 20th century. Also discusses Turkey’s official policy regarding the religious status of the Alevis.
  423. Karolewski, Janina. “What Is Heterodox about Alevism? The Development of Anti-Alevi Discrimination and Resentment.” Welt des Islams 48 (2008): 434–456.
  424. Find this resource:
  425. Kehl-Bodrogi, Krisztina. “On the Significance of Musahiplik among the Alevis of Turkey: The Case of the Tahtacı.” In Syncretistic Religious Communities in the Near East: Collected Papers of the International Symposium “Alevism in Turkey and Comparable Religious Communities in the Near East in the Past and Present,” Berlin, 14–17 April 1995. Edited by K. Kehl-Bodrogi, Barbara Kellner-Heinkele, and Anke Otter-Beaujean, 119–138. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1997.
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  427. An analysis of the present state and significance of musahiplik “ritual kinship” based on information gathered among the Tahtacis. Also discusses how musahiplik is reflected in the sacred texts (buyruk).
  428. Kehl-Bodrogi, Krisztina. “On the Significance of Musahiplik among the Alevis of Turkey: The Case of the Tahtacı.” In Syncretistic Religious Communities in the Near East: Collected Papers of the International Symposium “Alevism in Turkey and Comparable Religious Communities in the Near East in the Past and Present,” Berlin, 14–17 April 1995. Edited by K. Kehl-Bodrogi, Barbara Kellner-Heinkele, and Anke Otter-Beaujean, 119–138. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1997.
  429. Find this resource:
  430. Yaman, Ali. “Ritual Transfer within the Anatolian Alevis: A Comparative Approach to the Cem Ritual.” In Ritual Dynamics and the Science of Ritual. Vol. 5, Transfer and Spaces. Edited by Axel Michaels, 269–276. Wiesbaden, Germany: O. Harrassowitz, 2010.
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  432. Describes the spatial, structural, and technological changes of urban cemevis, including changes in the schedules, participation, and twelve services of the ceremony. The author sees in these changes the influence of Sunni Islam on urban Alevism.
  433. Yaman, Ali. “Ritual Transfer within the Anatolian Alevis: A Comparative Approach to the Cem Ritual.” In Ritual Dynamics and the Science of Ritual. Vol. 5, Transfer and Spaces. Edited by Axel Michaels, 269–276. Wiesbaden, Germany: O. Harrassowitz, 2010.
  434. Find this resource:
  435. History
  436.  
  437. Few works cover the entire history and development of Alevism. For a general historical overview, Dressler 2011 and Kehl-Bodrogi 1988, both cited under Alevis, are very useful. Gümüş 2001 is an attempt to present a comprehensive view of the history of Alevism from its beginnings to the end of the 20th century. Faroqhi 1981, an excellent study based mainly on archival material, investigates the development of the Bektashi order in Anatolia as a sociohistorical phenomenon in which the author regards the order as an integrated part of the entire society. Mélikoff 1998 and Ocak 2000 both focus on the origins and the formative period of so-called heterodox Islam: Mélikoff 1998 discusses the mutual influence of Alevism and Bektashism, whereas Ocak 2000 examines the development of so-called heterodox Islam from the socio-religious Babai revolutions up to the 16th century. Ocak 1997 and Ocak 1989 study the origins of Alevism/Bektashism in 13th-century Seljukid Anatolia. Ocak 1989 also focuses on the revolt of Baba Resul in the 13th century, which played a crucial role in the emergence of heterodox Islamic sects. Jongerden 2003 and Sinclair-Webb 2003 both review recent historical events, the former examining the human rights violations in Turkey between the 1970s and 1990s and the latter the massacre in the Anatolian town of Kahramanmaraş in 1978.
  438.  
  439. Faroqhi, Suraiya. Der Bektaschi-Orden in Anatolien: (vom späten fünfzehnten Jahrhundert bis 1826). Vienna: Institut für Orientalistik, 1981.
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  441. An investigation from the standpoint of political and economic history of the development of the Bektashi order from the early 15th century to its abolition in 1826. The main chapters discuss the geographical distribution of the Bektashi tekkes, the tekkes as economic units, their social relations, and finally their abolition in 1826.
  442. Faroqhi, Suraiya. Der Bektaschi-Orden in Anatolien: (vom späten fünfzehnten Jahrhundert bis 1826). Vienna: Institut für Orientalistik, 1981.
  443. Find this resource:
  444. Gümüş, Burak. Türkische Aleviten vom Osmanischen Reich bis zur heutigen Türkei. Konstanz, Germany: Hartung-Gorre, 2001.
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  446. Tries to cover the complete history of Alevism in the Ottoman Empire and Turkey in emphasizing that the Alevis have always been an oppressed minority group.
  447. Gümüş, Burak. Türkische Aleviten vom Osmanischen Reich bis zur heutigen Türkei. Konstanz, Germany: Hartung-Gorre, 2001.
  448. Find this resource:
  449. Jongerden, Joost. “Violation of Human Rights and the Alevis in Turkey.” In Turkey’s Alevi Enigma: A Comprehensive Overview. Edited by Paul J. White and Joost Jongerden, 71–89. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 2003.
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  451. Connects the discrimination and violence against Alevis with the Turkish political efforts that aim at a common national identity.
  452. Jongerden, Joost. “Violation of Human Rights and the Alevis in Turkey.” In Turkey’s Alevi Enigma: A Comprehensive Overview. Edited by Paul J. White and Joost Jongerden, 71–89. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 2003.
  453. Find this resource:
  454. Mélikoff, Irène. “Bektashi/Kızılbaş: Historical Bipartition and Its Consequences.” In Alevi Identity: Cultural, Religious and Social Perspectives. Edited by Tord Olsson, Elisabeth Özdalga, and Catharina Raudvere, 1–10. Richmond, UK: Curzon, 1998.
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  456. Concise account of the origins and different evolutions of Alevism and Bektashism. The development from a common background into two parallel groups, both venerating Hadji Bektash as patron saint, is seen as the result of different ethnic influences—the Bektashis from the Balkans and the Alevis from eastern Anatolia.
  457. Mélikoff, Irène. “Bektashi/Kızılbaş: Historical Bipartition and Its Consequences.” In Alevi Identity: Cultural, Religious and Social Perspectives. Edited by Tord Olsson, Elisabeth Özdalga, and Catharina Raudvere, 1–10. Richmond, UK: Curzon, 1998.
  458. Find this resource:
  459. Ocak, Ahmet Yaşar. La révolte de Baba Resul, ou la formation de l’hétérodoxie musulmane en Anatolie au XIIIe siècle. Ankara, Turkey: Publications de la Société Turque d’Histoire, 1989.
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  461. This book, based mainly on unedited primary sources, analyzes the economic, social, and religious reasons for the revolt of Baba Resul, whose followers—among them Hadji Bektash and Sarı Saltuk—played a chief role in the formation of sects that are today regarded as Alevi. Contains rich biographical information on religious leaders/sheikhs.
  462. Ocak, Ahmet Yaşar. La révolte de Baba Resul, ou la formation de l’hétérodoxie musulmane en Anatolie au XIIIe siècle. Ankara, Turkey: Publications de la Société Turque d’Histoire, 1989.
  463. Find this resource:
  464. Ocak, Ahmet Yaşar. “Un aperçu général sur l’hétérodoxie musulmane en Turquie: Réflexions sur les origines et les caractéristiques du Kızılbachisme (Alévisme) dans la perspective de l’histoire.” In Syncretistic Religious Communities in the Near East: Collected Papers of the International Symposium “Alevism in Turkey and Comparable Religious Communities in the Near East in the Past and Present,” Berlin, 14–17 April 1995. Edited by K. Kehl-Bodrogi, Barbara Kellner-Heinkele, and Anke Otter-Beaujean, 195–204. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1997.
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  466. Provides an insight into the origins of characteristic Alevi features, particularly incarnation and metempsychosis, mysticism, ecstatic rituals, messianism, and the “tribal model” of religious organization.
  467. Ocak, Ahmet Yaşar. “Un aperçu général sur l’hétérodoxie musulmane en Turquie: Réflexions sur les origines et les caractéristiques du Kızılbachisme (Alévisme) dans la perspective de l’histoire.” In Syncretistic Religious Communities in the Near East: Collected Papers of the International Symposium “Alevism in Turkey and Comparable Religious Communities in the Near East in the Past and Present,” Berlin, 14–17 April 1995. Edited by K. Kehl-Bodrogi, Barbara Kellner-Heinkele, and Anke Otter-Beaujean, 195–204. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1997.
  468. Find this resource:
  469. Ocak, Ahmet Yaşar. “Babailer İsyanından Kızılbaşlığa: Anadolu’da İslam Heterodoksisinin Doğuş ve Gelişim Tarihine Kısa bir Bakış.” In Aleviler = Alewiten. Vol. 1, Kimlik ve tarih = Identität und Geschichte. Edited by İsmail Engin and Erhard Franz, 209–234. Hamburg, Germany: Orient-Institut, 2000.
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  471. Discusses the early history of Alevism and determines distinctive phases for its development: in the 13th and 14th centuries Alevism was influenced by orally transmitted, mystical Islamic syncretism with Central Asian features, in the 14th and 15th centuries by Hurufism, and in the 16th century by the adoption of an ʿAli cult from Iran.
  472. Ocak, Ahmet Yaşar. “Babailer İsyanından Kızılbaşlığa: Anadolu’da İslam Heterodoksisinin Doğuş ve Gelişim Tarihine Kısa bir Bakış.” In Aleviler = Alewiten. Vol. 1, Kimlik ve tarih = Identität und Geschichte. Edited by İsmail Engin and Erhard Franz, 209–234. Hamburg, Germany: Orient-Institut, 2000.
  473. Find this resource:
  474. Sinclair-Webb, Emma. “Sectarian Violence, the Alevi Minority and the Left: Kahramanmaraş 1978.” In Turkey’s Alevi Enigma: A Comprehensive Overview. Edited by Paul J. White and Joost Jongerden, 215–235. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 2003.
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  476. Analysis of the handling by politicians and the press of the violent clashes in Kahramanmaraş, which left more than one hundred dead, most of them Alevis.
  477. Sinclair-Webb, Emma. “Sectarian Violence, the Alevi Minority and the Left: Kahramanmaraş 1978.” In Turkey’s Alevi Enigma: A Comprehensive Overview. Edited by Paul J. White and Joost Jongerden, 215–235. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 2003.
  478. Find this resource:
  479. Regional Studies
  480.  
  481. Many of the entries in this article, whether on rites, saints, history, or ethnography, present research conducted in or on specific regions. But because these works should not be regarded as purely “regional studies,” all of them are also cited under specific topics. Birge 1937 and Clayer 1990 are the most comprehensive studies on Alevism/Bektashism in Albania. Cornell 1998 discusses the historical development in Bosnia, and Gramatikova 2002 deals with the veneration of Alevi saints in Bulgaria. Various regions in Anatolia are treated in Shankland 2003, Tee 2010, and Gokalp 1980. Sökefeld 2008 focuses on the Alevi diaspora communities in Germany.
  482.  
  483. Birge, John Kingsley. The Bektashi Order of Dervishes. London: Luzac, 1937.
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  485. Although outdated, it is still a very valuable work on this topic. Besides chapters on the history of doctrines it also provides abundant information on rites and practices as well as chapters on ethnography. The book also contains many historical photographs and pictures. This work is regarded as the most influential study on the Bektashi order in Albania.
  486. Birge, John Kingsley. The Bektashi Order of Dervishes. London: Luzac, 1937.
  487. Find this resource:
  488. Clayer, Nathalie. L’Albanie, pays des derviches: Les ordres mystiques musulmans en Albanie à l’époque post-ottomane, 1912–1967. Wiesbaden, Germany: O. Harrassowitz, 1990.
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  490. Discusses the history, development, and the regional distribution of Bektashi convents in Albania, covering roughly the first half of the 20th century.
  491. Clayer, Nathalie. L’Albanie, pays des derviches: Les ordres mystiques musulmans en Albanie à l’époque post-ottomane, 1912–1967. Wiesbaden, Germany: O. Harrassowitz, 1990.
  492. Find this resource:
  493. Cornell, Erik. “On Bektashism in Bosnia.” In Alevi Identity: Cultural, Religious and Social Perspectives. Edited by Tord Olsson, Elisabeth Özdalga, and Catharina Raudvere, 11–18. Richmond, UK: Curzon, 1998.
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  495. This work is a first attempt to shed light on the relative importance of Bektashism in Ottoman Bosnia.
  496. Cornell, Erik. “On Bektashism in Bosnia.” In Alevi Identity: Cultural, Religious and Social Perspectives. Edited by Tord Olsson, Elisabeth Özdalga, and Catharina Raudvere, 11–18. Richmond, UK: Curzon, 1998.
  497. Find this resource:
  498. Gokalp, Altan. Têtes rouges et bouches noires: Une confrérie tribale de l’ouest anatolien. Paris: Société d’Éthnographie, 1980.
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  500. This is an in-depth study of the religious and social life of the Turcoman Çepni community in eastern Anatolia.
  501. Gokalp, Altan. Têtes rouges et bouches noires: Une confrérie tribale de l’ouest anatolien. Paris: Société d’Éthnographie, 1980.
  502. Find this resource:
  503. Gramatikova, Nevena. “Otman Baba: One of the Spiritual Patrons of Islamic Heterodoxy in Bulgarian Lands.” Études balkaniques 38 (2002): 71–102.
  504. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  505. This article discusses the spread of heterodox Islam in Bulgaria, concentrating on the Alevi spiritual leader Otman Baba.
  506. Gramatikova, Nevena. “Otman Baba: One of the Spiritual Patrons of Islamic Heterodoxy in Bulgarian Lands.” Études balkaniques 38 (2002): 71–102.
  507. Find this resource:
  508. Shankland, David. The Alevis in Turkey: The Emergence of a Secular Islamic Tradition. London: Routledge, 2003.
  509. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  510. Compares traditional village structures in northeastern Anatolia (not specified by the author) and provides insights into how Alevi and Sunni communities deal with social changes caused by modernization.
  511. Shankland, David. The Alevis in Turkey: The Emergence of a Secular Islamic Tradition. London: Routledge, 2003.
  512. Find this resource:
  513. Sökefeld, Martin. Struggling for Recognition: The Alevi Movement in Germany and in Transnational Space. New York: Berghahn, 2008.
  514. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  515. This is a groundbreaking study on the Alevi diaspora community in Germany.
  516. Sökefeld, Martin. Struggling for Recognition: The Alevi Movement in Germany and in Transnational Space. New York: Berghahn, 2008.
  517. Find this resource:
  518. Tee, Caroline. “Holy Lineages, Migration and Reformulation of Alevi Tradition: A Study of the Derviş Cemal Ocak from Erzincan.” British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 37.3 (2010): 335–392.
  519. DOI: 10.1080/13530194.2010.524440Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  520. One of the very rare case studies which deal with the importance of so-called holy families in Alevism. The article focuses on the region of Erzincan in eastern Anatolia.
  521. Tee, Caroline. “Holy Lineages, Migration and Reformulation of Alevi Tradition: A Study of the Derviş Cemal Ocak from Erzincan.” British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 37.3 (2010): 335–392.
  522. Find this resource:
  523. Identity
  524.  
  525. Since the 1990s, increasing scholarly attention has been given to the subject of Alevi identity. Questions of identity became especially acute for the Alevis during the Alevi revival of the late 1980s, when, due to several factors, this group, whose faith was predicted to vanish only a few years before, began to reestablish itself, opening its secret holy books and ceremonies and demanding public acceptance. Çamuroğlu 1997 explains the Alevi revival of the 1980s and 1990s as a result of urbanization, the collapse of the communist bloc in eastern Europe, the rise of Islamic fundamentalism in Turkey, and the Kurdish question. Erol 2010 discusses how the semah, an important part of the Alevis’ ritual cem gatherings, has undergone significant changes during recent years. Sökefeld 2008 discusses how identities are constructed and whether or not the Alevis in Germany can be regarded as a transnational community. Vorhoff 1995 analyzes Alevi texts from the 1990s that deal—directly or indirectly—with the community’s self-expression, focusing on the question of collective identities among the Alevis of late-20th-century Turkey. Van Bruinessen 1997 and White 2003 consider the ongoing debate on the origins of the Kurdish Alevis.
  526.  
  527. Çamuroğlu, Reha. “Some Notes on the Contemporary Process of Restructuring Alevilik in Turkey.” In Syncretistic Religious Communities in the Near East: Collected Papers of the International Symposium “Alevism in Turkey and Comparable Religious Communities in the Near East in the Past and Present,” Berlin, 14–17 April 1995. Edited by K. Kehl-Bodrogi, Barbara Kellner-Heinkele, and Anke Otter-Beaujean, 25–34. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1997.
  528. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  529. Describes how, beginning in the 1980s, Alevism became newly defined among urban members of the community. Particularly interesting is that some of the Alevi elite began to declare their sect the “real Islam.”
  530. Çamuroğlu, Reha. “Some Notes on the Contemporary Process of Restructuring Alevilik in Turkey.” In Syncretistic Religious Communities in the Near East: Collected Papers of the International Symposium “Alevism in Turkey and Comparable Religious Communities in the Near East in the Past and Present,” Berlin, 14–17 April 1995. Edited by K. Kehl-Bodrogi, Barbara Kellner-Heinkele, and Anke Otter-Beaujean, 25–34. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1997.
  531. Find this resource:
  532. Erol, Ayhan. “Re-imagining Identity: The Transformation of the Alevi Semah.” Middle Eastern Studies 46.3 (2010): 375–387.
  533. DOI: 10.1080/00263201003682982Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  534. Examines the fundamental changes the semah ritual has undergone during the past twenty years. Formerly practiced only in secret, by the mid-1990s it had begun to be held in public in urban communities, thus expressing not only religious, but also ethno-political identities.
  535. Erol, Ayhan. “Re-imagining Identity: The Transformation of the Alevi Semah.” Middle Eastern Studies 46.3 (2010): 375–387.
  536. Find this resource:
  537. Sökefeld, Martin. Struggling for Recognition: The Alevi Movement in Germany and in Transnational Space. New York: Berghahn, 2008.
  538. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  539. Based on participant observation and interviews, this is undoubtedly the most comprehensive anthropological study of the Alevis in Germany. It covers the debate on identity and diaspora and the emergence of a strong Alevi movement in Germany, which has been achieved mainly by Alevi organizations.
  540. Sökefeld, Martin. Struggling for Recognition: The Alevi Movement in Germany and in Transnational Space. New York: Berghahn, 2008.
  541. Find this resource:
  542. van Bruinessen, Martin. “‘Aslını inkar eden haramzadedir!’ The Debate on the Ethnic Identity of the Kurdish Alevis.” In Syncretistic Religious Communities in the Near East: Collected Papers of the International Symposium “Alevism in Turkey and Comparable Religious Communities in the Near East in the Past and Present,” Berlin, 14–17 April 1995. Edited by K. Kehl-Bodrogi, Barbara Kellner-Heinkele, and Anke Otter-Beaujean, 1–24. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1997.
  543. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  544. Discusses the ethnic identity of the Kurdish Alevis who use Turkish as their liturgical language. Contra the theory that such tribes are Kurdicized Turcomans, the author proposes and presents evidence that in pre- and early Ottoman times they were Kurdish- and Zazaki-speaking sects influenced by extremist Shiʿite ideas.
  545. van Bruinessen, Martin. “‘Aslını inkar eden haramzadedir!’ The Debate on the Ethnic Identity of the Kurdish Alevis.” In Syncretistic Religious Communities in the Near East: Collected Papers of the International Symposium “Alevism in Turkey and Comparable Religious Communities in the Near East in the Past and Present,” Berlin, 14–17 April 1995. Edited by K. Kehl-Bodrogi, Barbara Kellner-Heinkele, and Anke Otter-Beaujean, 1–24. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1997.
  546. Find this resource:
  547. Vorhoff, Karin. Zwischen Glaube, Nation und neuer Gemeinschaft: Alevitische Identität in der Türkei der Gegenwart. Berlin: Klaus Schwarz, 1995.
  548. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  549. Includes chapters on ethnicity, nationality, and identity, plus a sketch of the history and religion of Alevism in Turkey. Its main part is a content analysis of books on Alevism published by Alevis between 1960 and 1990.
  550. Vorhoff, Karin. Zwischen Glaube, Nation und neuer Gemeinschaft: Alevitische Identität in der Türkei der Gegenwart. Berlin: Klaus Schwarz, 1995.
  551. Find this resource:
  552. White, Paul J. “The Debate on the Identity of ‘Alevi Kurds.’” In Turkey’s Alevi Enigma: A Comprehensive Overview. Edited by Paul J. White and Joost Jongerden, 17–29. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 2003.
  553. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  554. Discusses the ongoing scientific controversies concerning the actual identity, whether Kurdish or non-Kurdish, of the Alevi “Kurds,” the “Dersimlis” and “Kizilbaş.”
  555. White, Paul J. “The Debate on the Identity of ‘Alevi Kurds.’” In Turkey’s Alevi Enigma: A Comprehensive Overview. Edited by Paul J. White and Joost Jongerden, 17–29. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 2003.
  556. Find this resource:
  557. Saints and Sacred Places
  558.  
  559. The most comprehensive work on Alawi saint veneration is Procházka-Eisl and Procházka 2010, which is an analysis of the numerous Alawi sanctuaries found in southern Turkey and includes several detailed case studies. The book also provides information on rites and the social structure of the pilgrims and presents local Alawi saint veneration in a broader context. Fartacek 2003 is a description and analysis of sacred places in Syria, including several sanctuaries visited predominantly by Alawis. A few of these sanctuaries were described almost fifty years earlier in Kriss and Kriss-Heinrich 1960, and the authors also provide some information on Alevi sanctuaries in Turkey and the Balkans. Tee 2010 is an excellent study of an Alevi ocak, “holy lineage,” in eastern Anatolia, with descriptions of the sacred places related to it. Gramatikova 2002 investigates, mainly through the life of the 15th-century local spiritual leader Otman Baba, the spread of so-called heterodox Islam in Bulgarian lands. Massicard 2003 discusses the annual Hadjibektash festival and whether it should be regarded as a religious, political, folk, or tourist event. Mélikoff 2000 is a study on the mountain named Hirka Daği and the role of the juniper tree in historical Bektashi rituals.
  560.  
  561. Fartacek, Gebhard. Pilgerstätten in der syrischen Peripherie: Eine ethnologische Studie zur kognitiven Konstruktion sakraler Plätze und deren Praxisrelevanz. Vienna: Akademie der Wissenschaften, 2003.
  562. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  563. This structuralism-based study provides insights into the mechanisms of saint veneration in Syria, including some typical Alawi shrines in the region between Hama and Tartous.
  564. Fartacek, Gebhard. Pilgerstätten in der syrischen Peripherie: Eine ethnologische Studie zur kognitiven Konstruktion sakraler Plätze und deren Praxisrelevanz. Vienna: Akademie der Wissenschaften, 2003.
  565. Find this resource:
  566. Gramatikova, Nevena. “Otman Baba: One of the Spiritual Patrons of Islamic Heterodoxy in Bulgarian Lands.” Études balkaniques 38 (2002): 71–102.
  567. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  568. Using the hagiography “vilâyetnâme” of Otman Baba as its main source, the author discusses the role played by this famous spiritual patron in the spread of heterodox Islam in Bulgaria. The author concludes that Otman Baba can be classified as a member of the Rum Abdals.
  569. Gramatikova, Nevena. “Otman Baba: One of the Spiritual Patrons of Islamic Heterodoxy in Bulgarian Lands.” Études balkaniques 38 (2002): 71–102.
  570. Find this resource:
  571. Kriss, Rudolf, and H. Kriss-Heinrich. Volksglaube im Bereich des Islam. Vol. 1. Wiesbaden, Germany: O. Harrassowitz, 1960.
  572. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  573. Includes detailed descriptions of several Alawi sanctuaries in the southern part of the Jabal al-‛Alawiyyin and around Antioch (pp. 272–291) as well as descriptions of some Alevi sanctuaries in Turkey and the Balkans (pp. 292–340).
  574. Kriss, Rudolf, and H. Kriss-Heinrich. Volksglaube im Bereich des Islam. Vol. 1. Wiesbaden, Germany: O. Harrassowitz, 1960.
  575. Find this resource:
  576. Massicard, Elise. “Alevism as a Productive Misunderstanding: The Hacıbektaş Festival.” In Turkey’s Alevi Enigma: A Comprehensive Overview. Edited by Paul J. White and Joost Jongerden, 125–140. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 2003.
  577. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  578. An analysis of the diverse nature of this festival on the hypothesis that “shared symbols cover the lack of consensus concerning the nature of Alevism.”
  579. Massicard, Elise. “Alevism as a Productive Misunderstanding: The Hacıbektaş Festival.” In Turkey’s Alevi Enigma: A Comprehensive Overview. Edited by Paul J. White and Joost Jongerden, 125–140. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 2003.
  580. Find this resource:
  581. Mélikoff, Irène. “La montagne et l’arbre sacré de H. Bektach.” Turcica 32 (2000): 275–290.
  582. DOI: 10.2143/TURC.32.0.470Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  583. Deals with the rites performed by Hadji Bektash and his dervishes with juniper trees on the Hirka Mountain near the village of Hacibektaş, explaining them as shaman elements of the ancient Turks.
  584. Mélikoff, Irène. “La montagne et l’arbre sacré de H. Bektach.” Turcica 32 (2000): 275–290.
  585. Find this resource:
  586. Procházka-Eisl, Gisela, and Stephan Procházka. The Plain of Saints and Prophets: The Nusayri-Alawi Community of Cilicia (Southern Turkey) and Its Sacred Places. Wiesbaden, Germany: O. Harrassowitz, 2010.
  587. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  588. A detailed study on the Alawi community of Cilicia (Turkish provinces of Adana and Mersin), focusing on local Alawi saint veneration and discussing the important role of women in it. Contains chapters on the history of Alawi settlement and the community’s identity and social structures.
  589. Procházka-Eisl, Gisela, and Stephan Procházka. The Plain of Saints and Prophets: The Nusayri-Alawi Community of Cilicia (Southern Turkey) and Its Sacred Places. Wiesbaden, Germany: O. Harrassowitz, 2010.
  590. Find this resource:
  591. Tee, Caroline. “Holy Lineages, Migration and Reformulation of Alevi Tradition: A Study of the Derviş Cemal Ocak from Erzincan.” British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 37.3 (2010): 335–392.
  592. DOI: 10.1080/13530194.2010.524440Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  593. An in-depth case study of the history and development of the holy clan of Derviş Cemal from its legendary founding in the 13th century up to the problems the group faces today under rapidly changing living conditions. It contains many illustrations and maps as well as examples of religious poetry.
  594. Tee, Caroline. “Holy Lineages, Migration and Reformulation of Alevi Tradition: A Study of the Derviş Cemal Ocak from Erzincan.” British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 37.3 (2010): 335–392.
  595. Find this resource:
  596. Ethnographical and Geographical Studies
  597.  
  598. The two volumes of Weulersse 1940 contain a geographical and historical overview of the main regions of Alawi settlement in western Syria. Although outdated, it is still the most comprehensive study of this kind. Balanche 2006 is the first comprehensive study on the region of the Alawis since Weulersse 1940 and provides very interesting background information regarding sociology and politics. Hansen 1976 is a study of the traditional material culture of rural western Syria. Shankland 2010 contains four very useful ethnographical maps showing the linguistic distribution of Alevi populations in Turkey. Andrews 2002 (cited under Alevis) provides detailed information on the settlements and numbers of both the Alawi (Nusairi) and the Alevi communities in Turkey. Gokalp 1980 describes anthropological researches among the Turkmen Alevi tribe of the Kandemir Çepnis in western Anatolia. Shankland 2003 is remarkable in that it focuses on a rural Alevi community whereas most contemporary studies deal with urban societies. Mikov 1994 sheds light on a special custom of the Hidrelles festival restricted to a few Alevi villages in northeastern Bulgaria.
  599.  
  600. Balanche, Fabrice. La région alaouite et le pouvoir syrien. Paris: Karthala, 2006.
  601. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  602. An analysis of the development of western Syria during the past few decades, in particular describing how the Syrian regime uses the Alawi community of that region to secure its power.
  603. Balanche, Fabrice. La région alaouite et le pouvoir syrien. Paris: Karthala, 2006.
  604. Find this resource:
  605. Gokalp, Altan. Têtes rouges et bouches noires: Une confrérie tribale de l’ouest anatolien. Paris: Société d’Éthnographie, 1980.
  606. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  607. Its three chapters cover the principles of the Çepni social organization, Çepni kinship, alliances, and economy, and Çepni religion.
  608. Gokalp, Altan. Têtes rouges et bouches noires: Une confrérie tribale de l’ouest anatolien. Paris: Société d’Éthnographie, 1980.
  609. Find this resource:
  610. Hansen, Henny Harald. An Ethnographical Collection from the Region of the Alawites. Copenhagen: Munksgaard, 1976.
  611. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  612. Besides describing objects related to the material culture, the book also contains interesting details concerning Alawi daily customs (life cycle) and popular religion.
  613. Hansen, Henny Harald. An Ethnographical Collection from the Region of the Alawites. Copenhagen: Munksgaard, 1976.
  614. Find this resource:
  615. Mikov, L. “Le carnaval des Alevî (d’après des sources de la Bulgarie du Nord-Est).” Études balkaniques 30.2 (1994): 130–138.
  616. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  617. Deals with the 20th-century history of a kind of carnival or play, which includes elements of Alevi legends, nomadic past, and confessional practices, performed in some Bulgarian Alevi villages.
  618. Mikov, L. “Le carnaval des Alevî (d’après des sources de la Bulgarie du Nord-Est).” Études balkaniques 30.2 (1994): 130–138.
  619. Find this resource:
  620. Shankland, David. The Alevis in Turkey: The Emergence of a Secular Islamic Tradition. London: Routledge, 2003.
  621. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  622. An anthropological case study based on field research. The author compares a traditional Alevi village with traditional Sunni villages in Anatolia and discusses how these different communities deal with modernization and contemporary social changes.
  623. Shankland, David. The Alevis in Turkey: The Emergence of a Secular Islamic Tradition. London: Routledge, 2003.
  624. Find this resource:
  625. Shankland, David. “Maps and the Alevis: On the Ethnography of Heterodox Islamic Groups.” British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 37.3 (2010): 227–239.
  626. DOI: 10.1080/13530194.2010.543307Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  627. The author reanalyzes the data collected in Andrews 2002 (cited under Alevis), consolidating it into four maps: the general distribution of the Alevis in Turkey and the individual distributions of Alevi Turks, Kurdish-speaking Alevis, and Zazaki-speaking Alevis.
  628. Shankland, David. “Maps and the Alevis: On the Ethnography of Heterodox Islamic Groups.” British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 37.3 (2010): 227–239.
  629. Find this resource:
  630. Weulersse, Jacques. Le pays des Alaouites. Vol. 1. Tours, France: Arrault, 1940.
  631. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  632. Contains detailed descriptions of the geographical, historical, and sociological settings of the region in which the bulk of the Alawis have lived for centuries. There are also chapters on trade, fishing, and the Alawi religion, including popular beliefs. The second volume of this work (Tours, France: Arrault, 1940) contains maps and photographs.
  633. Weulersse, Jacques. Le pays des Alaouites. Vol. 1. Tours, France: Arrault, 1940.
  634. Find this resource:
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