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Ibn Khaldun

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. Ibn Khaldun (b. 732/1332–d. 808/1406) is often described as a precursor or ancestor of sociology, although he does not appear to have exerted any constitutive influence on any of the founders of the modern social sciences. He is the author of a voluminous world history, the Kitāb al-ʿibar or Book of Examples, part of which is a chronicle of the various local dynasties, many of them of Berber extraction, in Northern Africa. Another part of this work deals with other Muslim lands, and even with the non-Muslim world, making it one of the first Islamic attempts at world history. By far the most famous part of this book, however, is the Muqaddimah, or introduction, in which Ibn Khaldun formulates the principles of what he himself described as a new science serving as an auxiliary for historiography. This ʿilm al- ʿumran, or “science of civilization” as he called it, attempts to formulate general laws of history, as a principled means of establishing the veracity of historical reports. The most important of these laws is the circular, or pendulum-swing, movement between rural or tribal (badawa) societies and urban civilizations (hadara). Rural societies are bound together and strengthened by a bond of ʿasabiyya (solidarity or group spirit), which also enables them to conquer more refined urban civilizations. Once in power, however, the new dynasty will progressively become weakened by the refinements of urban life, and after several generations it will be overthrown by a new rural group still held together by its ʿasabiyya. Among contemporaries, Ibn Khaldun’s ideas did not generate much interest, but in later centuries he has been read with great interests by both scholars and policymakers, and both inside and outside the Muslim world.
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  5. General Overviews
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  7. The widespread belief that Ibn Khaldun had little or no resonance among Muslim authors prior to his “rediscovery” in the 19th century is seriously mistaken. Although local historiographers paid little or no attention to his new science, and exclusively referred to him as a run-of-the mill chronicler, later Egyptian authors such as al-Jabarti and al-Tahtawi wrote about him in a manner that clearly presumes their audience to be familiar with his work. His cyclical views of history became especially popular among historiographers and reformers of the 17th-century Ottoman Empire, such as Naʿima and Katib Celebi. In the 18th century, the Muqaddimah was even translated into Ottoman Turkish by Mehmed Sahib Pirizade. This translation formed the basis of the first printed Turkish edition, published in 1860. Fischel 1952 and Fischel 1967 are important studies about two major phases in Ibn Khaldun’s life. Schatzmiller 1982, Rosenthal 1968, and Khalidi 1994 position him among classical Muslim hisotoriographers, whereas the papers collected in Lawrence 1984 discuss his relation to Islamic tradition more broadly. For the Ottoman reception of his work, see Fleischer 1984.
  8.  
  9. Fischel, Walter J. Ibn Khaldūn and Tamerlane: Their Historic Meeting in Damascus, 1401 A.D. (803 A.H.). Berkeley: University of California Press, 1952.
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  11. A study of Ibn Khaldun’s legendary encounter with the Central Asian conqueror; contains an extensive bibliography.
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  13. Fischel, Walter J. Ibn Khaldun in Egypt: His Public Functions and His Historical Research (1382–1406); A Study in Islamic Historiography. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967.
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  15. A study of what is perhaps the most consistently successful period of Ibn Khaldun’s capricious career.
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  17. Fleischer, Cornell. “Royal Authority, Dynastic Cyclism, and ‘Ibn Khaldûnism’ in Sixteenth-Century Ottoman Letters.” In Ibn Khaldun and Islamic Ideology. Edited by Bruce B. Lawrence, 46–68. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1984.
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  19. Provides a more detailed discussion of the reception of Ibn Khaldun in the early modern Ottoman Empire. Also published in Journal of Asian and African Studies 18 (1983): 198–220.
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  21. Khalidi, Tarif. Arabic Historical Thought in the Classical Period. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
  22. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511583650Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  23. A more general study of the medieval Islamic historiographical tradition out of which Ibn Khaldun emerged.
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  25. Lawrence, Bruce B, ed. Ibn Khaldun and Islamic Ideology. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1984.
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  27. A collection of papers focusing on the reception of Ibn Khaldun’s work in premodern and modern Muslim lands.
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  29. Rosenthal, Franz. History of Muslim Historiography. 2d ed. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1968.
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  31. An older but still useful overview of the major classical Muslim historians. First edition published in 1952.
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  33. Shatzmiller, Maya. L’historiographie Mérinide: Ibn Khaldūn et ses contemporains. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1982.
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  35. Study emphasizing the differences between Ibn Khaldun and the local historiographical tradition of his age.
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  37. Bibliographies
  38.  
  39. There is no bibliography of works on Ibn Khaldun that is systematic and comprehensive as well as up to date. Fischel 1952, a study of Ibn Khaldun and Tamerlane, contains an expanded version of a bibliography Fischel originally compiled for a translation of Muqaddimah. A rather more elaborate and systematic bibliography is presented in al-Azmeh 1981, a study on Ibn Khaldun in modern scholarship, but this work has also become outdated. Ibn Khaldun 2002, a French translation by Abdesselam Cheddadi, contains a usefully extensive, though nowhere nearly complete, overview of more recent work. Kamarti 2006 provides a recent French- and Arabic-language catalogue of Khaldun’s work. For more up-to-date resources, one might view Islamic Philosophy Online’s “Ibn Khaldun: His Life and Work,” written by Muhammad Hozien. This online biography contains links to both Arabic and English texts. Ibn Khaldun on the Web as well as Ibn Khaldun Bibliography also provide recent bibliographies.
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  41. al-Azmeh, Aziz. Ibn Khaldun in Modern Scholarship: A Study in Orientalism. London: Third World Centre for Research and Publishing, 1981.
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  43. Features a systematic and annotated bibliography; valuable but by now sorely out of date.
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  45. Fischel, Walter J. Ibn Khaldūn and Tamerlane: Their Historic Meeting in Damascus, 1401 A.D. (803 A.H.). Berkeley: University of California Press, 1952.
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  47. Contains a detailed but unsystematic bibliography. Basically an expanded version of the bibliography compiled by Fischer for Rosenthal’s translation of Muqaddimah (Ibn Khaldun 1967, listed under Primary Works).
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  49. Hozien, Muhammad. Ibn Khaldun: His Life and Work. In Islamic Philosophy Online.
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  51. Islamic Philosophy Online is devoted to classical and modern Islamic philosophers. This page is devoted to Ibn Khaldun and contains Arabic and English texts of the Muqaddimah and other works.
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  53. Ibn Khaldun. Le livre des exemples. Vol. 1. Edited and translated by Abdesselam Cheddadi. Paris: Gallimard, 2002.
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  55. The introduction to this work lists the major publications on Ibn Khaldun in various languages.
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  57. Ibn Khaldun Bibliography.
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  59. Bibliographical page on an Arabic-language site listing relevant studies in various languages.
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  61. Ibn Khaldun on the Web.
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  63. An online listing of Web resources on Ibn Khaldun.
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  65. Kamarti, Samia, ed. Ibn Khaldoun: Dans les trésors de Bibliothèque Nationale; Catalogue bibliographique. Tunis: Bibliotheque Nationale, 2006.
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  67. A bibliographical survey of the Khalduniana available in Tunisia’s National Library.
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  69. Primary Works
  70.  
  71. Ibn Khaldun was born in 1332 in Tunis, into a family originating in Islamic Spain. Throughout his life, he was torn between his political and scholarly ambitions. He served under various local rulers in his native region, and later in life became a qadi, or judge, in Cairo. One of the most famous episodes of his life, described in some detail in his memoirs, is his encounter with Timur Lenk (Tamerlane) during the latter’s siege, and eventual sack, of Damascus. Ibn Khaldun died shortly afterward, in 1406. Next to his voluminous historiographical work, the Kitāb al- ʿibar, Ibn Khaldun also wrote an autobiography and several minor works, notably the Lubāb al-muhassal fī usūl al-dīn (see Ibn Khaldun 1952), a conventional theological work, and the Shifāʾ al-sāʾil, a polemical work on speculative mysticism. The text of the Muqaddimah was first printed, almost simultaneously, by Quatremère in Paris in 1858 and by Hurini at the Bulaq printing house in Cairo in 1857 as the first volume of the Kitāb al-ʿibar. For many years, Quatremère’s edition was used as the standard version of the text. Recently, Cheddadi has published a critical text edition (Ibn Khaldun 2005), but this edition has not been universally accepted. Reportedly, a new edition based on a larger number of manuscripts is currently being prepared. There are few full translations of the Muqaddimmah, let alone the Kitāb al-ʿibar as a whole; and not all translations are entirely satisfactory. The most current translations are Ibn Khaldun 1967; Ibn Khaldun 1934–1938; and Ibn Khaldun 2002, which eclipses two earlier French renderings—Ibn Khaldun 1934–1938 (translated by de Slane) and Ibn Khaldun 1978 (translated by Monteil). Ibn Khaldun 1987, which presents selections of the Muqaddimmah translated by Issawa, and Ibn Khaldun 1991, a translation by Perez of another text, also deserve mention.
  72.  
  73. Ibn Khaldun. Histoire des berbères et des dynasties musulmanes de l’Afrique septentrionale. Translated by W. M. de Slane. Algiers: Imprimerie du gouvernement, 1852–1856.
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  75. An early translation of the Kitāb al-ʿibar.
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  77. Ibn Khaldun. Les prolégomènes d‘Ibn Khaldoun. 3 vols. Translated by W. M. de Slane. Paris: Geuthner, 1934–1938.
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  79. The first rendering into a modern Western language, but there is substantial disagreement about its merits: Marshall Hodgson is very critical (The Venture of Islam, Volume 2, p. 476), while al-Azmeh staunchly defends this rendering.
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  81. Ibn Khaldun. Lubāb al-muhassal fī usūl al-dīn. Edited and translated by Luciano Rubio. Tetouan, Morocco: Maʻhad Mawlay al-Ḥasan, 1952.
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  83. Text edition of Ibn Khaldun’s epitome of Fakhr al-Din’s Muhassal, a major theological work of the late 12th century.
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  85. Ibn Khaldun. The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History. 3 vols. 2d ed. Translated byFranz Rosenthal. Bollingen Series 43. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1967.
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  87. The most widely used modern translation; it has been criticized both for its rendering of Ibn Khaldun’s style and for its translations of technical philosophical vocabulary, but it is the only English-language version currently available. First published in 1958, and an abridged edition edited by N. J. Dawood was published in 1968.
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  89. Ibn Khaldun. Discours sur l’histoire universelle. Translated by Vincent Monteil. Paris: Sindbad, 1978.
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  91. A new French rendering partly inspired by Rosenthal’s version (Ibn Khaldun 1967); aims at making Ibn Khaldun accessible to a larger Francophone audience. Originally published in 1967–1968 (Beiruit: Commission internationale pour la traduction des chefs-d’oeuvre).
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  93. Ibn Khaldun. An Arab Philosophy of History: Selections from the Prolegomena of Ibn Khaldun of Tunis (1332–1406). Translated by Charles Issawi. Princeton, NJ: Darwin, 1987.
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  95. Compact anthology giving a good first impression of the Muqaddimah as a whole.
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  97. Ibn Khaldun. La voie et la loi, ou le maître et le juriste. Translated by René Perez. Paris: Sindbad, 1991.
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  99. Translation of Shifāʾ al-sāʾil, a theological treatise by Ibn Khaldun on the relation of Sufism and shaykhs to the Sharia, or revealed law.
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  101. Ibn Khaldun. Le livre des exemples. Edited and translated by Abdesselam Cheddadi. Bibliothèque de la Pléiade 490. Paris: Gallimard, 2002.
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  103. A very careful new translation in the prestigious Bibliothèque de la Pléiade series; includes a translation of Ibn Khaldun’s autobiography. This translation eclipses two earlier French renderings, Ibn Khaldun 1934–1938 and Ibn Khaldun 1978.
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  105. Ibn Khaldun. Al-Muqaddima: Texte en arabe établi, présenté et annoté par Abdesselam Cheddadi. Temara, Morocco: Maison des Arts des Sciences et des Lettres, 2005.
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  107. New text edition attempting to replace Hurini’s and Quatremère’s editions by a version more closely corresponding to early-21st-century scholarly standards.
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  109. Interpretations
  110.  
  111. Modern readings of Ibn Khaldun’s work have often been shaped by disputable positivist and Orientalist assumptions, and by partisan attempts to claim him as an ancestor of modern sociology, economics, historical materialism, and the like. Two of the most influential readings of the 20th century are Gibb 1933, a short article, and Mahdi 1957, a more substantial monograph; both interpretations have been rejected by Aziz al-Azmeh (see al-Azmeh 1981 and al-Azmeh 1982). In turn, al-Azmeh’s skepticism in challenged in Baali 2005. Cheddadi 2006 emphasizes Khaldun’s relevance for the study of modern social sciences, and Simon 2002 provides a very useful overview of modern studies of Ibn Khaldun. Two recent studies that explore the relevance of Ibn Khaldun’s ideas for premodern Europe are Pomian 2006 and Martinez-Gros 2006.
  112.  
  113. al-Azmeh, Aziz. Ibn Khaldun in Modern Scholarship: A Study in Orientalism. London: Third World Centre for Research and Publishing, 1981.
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  115. Demanding but rewarding study that, along with al-Azmeh 1982, seriously challenges both Gibb 1933 and Mahdi 1957 for their unquestioned modernist and Orientalist assumptions, and argues that Ibn Khaldun did not succeed in establishing a radically new science that transcended the conceptual boundaries of his own time.
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  117. al-Azmeh, Aziz. Ibn Khaldūn: An Essay in Reinterpretation. London: Frank Cass, 1982
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  119. Thought-provoking introduction; argues, against ahistoric readings, that Ibn Khaldun did not transcend the epistemological boundaries of his own time, and remains alien to the present. Reprinted in 2003 (Budapest: Central European University Press).
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  121. Baali, Fuad. The Science of Human Social Organization: Conflicting Views on Ibn Khaldun’s (1332–1406) Ilm al-umran. Mellen Studies in Sociology 45. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen, 2005.
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  123. A critical study of modern readings, arguing that much confusion arises from a misunderstanding of the term ʿumran, and challenging al-Azmeh’s extreme historicism in his works (see al-Azmeh 1981 and al-Azmeh 1982).
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  125. Cheddadi, Abdesselam. Ibn Khaldûn: L’homme et le thèoricien de la civilisation. Paris: Gallimard, 2006.
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  127. Recent monograph on Ibn Khaldun’s life and work, emphasizing his relevance for the modern social sciences.
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  129. Gibb, H. A. R. “The Islamic Background of Ibn Khaldūn’s Political Theory.” Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies 7 (1933): 23–31.
  130. DOI: 10.1017/S0041977X00105361Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  131. A classical statement that, against the positivist reading, emphasizes Ibn Khaldun’s essentially premodern and religious outlook.
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  133. Mahdi, Muhsin. Ibn Khaldûn’s Philosophy of History: A Study in the Philosophic Foundation of the Science of Culture. London: Allen & Unwin, 1957.
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  135. Reads Ibn Khaldun as a follower of Ibn Rushd, as an Aristotelian rationalist philosopher, and as an ultimately nonreligious thinker posing as a pious Muslim.
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  137. Martinez-Gros, Gabriel. Ibn Khaldûn et les sept vies de l’islam. Paris: Actes Sud, 2006.
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  139. Explores the question of how far Ibn Khaldun’s theories are applicable to ancient and early modern Europe.
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  141. Pomian, Krzystztof. Ibn Khaldûn au prisme de l’Occident. Paris: Gallimard, 2006.
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  143. Reading by a prominent historian of medieval and modern Europe that sees Ibn Khaldun’s innovations as matched by similar tendencies in contemporary Latin writers.
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  145. Simon, Robert. Ibn Khaldūn: History as Science and the Patrimonial Empire. Translated by Klára Pogátsa. Bibliotheca Orientalis Hungarica. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 2002.
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  147. A recent survey by the Hungarian translator of the Muqaddimah; includes an extensive overview of modern Arab and Western Ibn Khaldun studies.
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  149. Modern Studies
  150.  
  151. Apart from these comprehensive interpretations of Ibn Khaldun’s work, there are numerous more specialized studies dealing with his view on what at present would amount to specific subdisciplines of his wider undertaking, such as economics, sociology, or political theory. Many of these readings are informed by modernist or positivist assumptions that risk imposing present-day conceptions and disciplinary divisions onto his work. Bouthoul 1930 and Nassar 1967 discuss Ibn Khaldun in terms of modern-day sociology, social philosophy, and economics. Baali 1988 discusses Ibn Khaldun as the “father of sociology,” and Chabane 1998 provides a sociologically informed study of Khaldun’s writings. Simon 1959 reads Ibn Khaldun as the precursor of the German science of culture. Rabiʿ 1967 focuses on Ibn Khaldun’s doctrines of kingship, Oumlil 1982 discusses his historiography, and Ahmad 2003 studies his views on knowledge.
  152.  
  153. Ahmad, Zaid. The Epistemology of Ibn Khaldūn. London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2003.
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  155. Detailed critical study of Ibn Khaldun’s views on knowledge as formulated in chapter 6 of the Muqaddimah.
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  157. Baali, Fuad. Society, State, and Urbanism: Ibn Khaldun’s Sociological Thought. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1988.
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  159. Study that sets out to validate the often made claim of Ibn Khaldun as the “father of sociology” by describing in detail how his work amounts to a new science of social organization that anticipates, in particular, Auguste Comte.
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  161. Bouthoul, Gaston. Ibn Khaldoun, sa philosophie sociale. Paris: Geuthner, 1930.
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  163. Classic statement that reads Ibn Khladun as a precursor of positivist sociology.
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  165. Chabane, Djamel. La pensée de l’urbanisation che Ibn Khaldûn. Paris: L’Harmattan, 1998.
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  167. A sociologically informed study of Ibn Khaldun’s writings on urban civilization, which proposes to read the key term ʿumran as “urbanization” rather than “society” or “civilization.”
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  169. Nassar, Nassif. La pensée réaliste d’Ibn Khaldûn. Paris: PUF, 1967.
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  171. Argues, in particular against Lacoste, that Ibn Khaldun, despite his interest in the economic life of cities, gives no absolute priority to the economical, and instead emphasizes the dominance of the political.
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  173. Oumlil, Ali. L’histoire et son discours: essai sur la méthodologie d’Ibn Khaldoun. 2d ed. Publications de la Faculté des lettres et des sciences humaines à Rabat, Thèses et mémoires 4. Rabat, Morocco: Société marocaine des éditeurs réunis, 1982.
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  175. Discusses Ibn Khaldun’s historiographical methodology and tries to provide a synthetic view of his historiography as a whole.
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  177. Rabiʿ, Muhammad Mahmoud. The Political Theory of Ibn Khaldūn. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1967.
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  179. Focuses on Ibn Khaldun’s doctrines of kingship (mulk) and the caliphate.
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  181. Simon, Heinrich. Ibn Khaldûns Wissenschaft von der menschlichen Kultur. Leipzig: Harrassowitz, 1959.
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  183. Reads Ibn Khaldun as a precursor of the German neo-Kantian Kulturwissenschaft or science of culture.
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  185. Modern “Rediscovery”
  186.  
  187. Modern readings of Ibn Khaldun are often informed by particular scientific and even political assumptions, aims, and interests. Thus, the French colonization of North Africa gave a major boost to the study of Ibn Khaldun’s description of tribal societies, which seemed to provide a ready-made source of knowledge of the Berbers and the laws allegedly governing their rise and decline, and hence a tool to govern them effectively. Almost simultaneously, however, the Bulaaq printing house in Egypt published the first Arab-printed version of the Muqaddimah, as part of the Nahda or Arabic literary renaissance. Late-19th-century readings are often decisively shaped by the positivist social science of Comte and Durkheim. Later studies are more often informed by Marxist conceptions of economy and society, as well as by an Orientalist opposition between irrational premodern Islam and modern antireligious (Western) scientific rationality. For a detailed critique of such assumptions from a secular modern perspective, see al-Azmeh 1981 and al-Azmeh 1982 (both cited under Interpretations). Hannoum 2003 continues the critique of Orientalism started in al-Azmeh’s work; important earlier readings by 20th-century Arab intellectuals include Hussein 1917 and Enan 1979. Influential Western readings may be found in Lacoste 1984 and Gellner 1981. Laroui 2001 compares Ibn Khaldun’s views on the state with those of Machiavelli.
  188.  
  189. Enan, Mohammad A. Ibn Khaldun: His Life and Works. New Delhi: Kitab Bhavan, 1979.
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  191. Among the most influential of Arab nationalist readings, along with Satiʾ al-Husri’s Dirāsāt ‘an Muqaddimat ibn Khaldûn (Studies on Ibn Khaldun’s Muqaddimah), which remains untranslated. Originally published in 1933.
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  193. Gellner, Ernest. Muslim Society. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1981.
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  195. An influential, and controversial, attempt by an anthropologist to employ Ibn Khaldun for a comprehensive understanding of the Islamic world in the past and the present.
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  197. Hannoum, Abdelmajid. “Translation and the Colonial Imaginary: Ibn Khaldûn Orientalist.” History and Theory 42.1 (2003): 61–81.
  198. DOI: 10.1111/1468-2303.00230Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  199. Describes how Ibn Khaldun’s categories, such as jîl, ummah, and tabaqah, have been assimilated to the modern notion of race by French scholarship in the service of colonialism.
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  201. Hussein, Taha. Étude analytique et critique de la philosophie sociale d’Ibn Khaldoun. Paris: Faculté des lettres, 1917.
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  203. The first proper monograph on Ibn Khaldun’s social thought, written as a Ph.D. dissertation by the future Egyptian minister and man of letters, under the supervision of Émile Durkheim.
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  205. Lacoste, Yves. Ibn Khaldun: The Birth of History and the Past of the Third World. Translated by David Macy. London: Verso, 1984.
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  207. Influential Marxist reading that sees Ibn Khaldun as describing the political economy of the medieval Maghreb; rejects earlier French readings as driven by colonialist projects.
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  209. Laroui, Abdallah. Mafhûm al-‘aql. 2d ed. Casablanca: Arab Cultural Center, 2001.
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  211. (The concept of reason.) Chapters 4 through 8 of this work set out to present a novel reading of Ibn Khaldun, based primarily on a close reading of the sections of the Muqaddimah dealing with economic life in the cities.
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  213. Comparisons
  214.  
  215. One popular way of claiming Ibn Khaldun’s universality is by comparing his ideas to those of premodern or modern European authors. Statements comparing Ibn Khaldun to the likes of, among others, Machiavelli, Montesquieu, Marx, and Comte abound, but they are rarely elaborated systematically. Clearly, much remains to be done in this area, but Goodman 1972 and Stowasser 1983 are substantial attempts at comparing Ibn Khaldun with classical figures of Western political thought, by two prominent scholars of the Islamic tradition.
  216.  
  217. Goodman, Lenn Evan. “Ibn Khaldun and Thucydides.” Journal of the American Oriental Society 92.2 (1972): 250–270.
  218. DOI: 10.2307/600652Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  219. Argues that there are striking similarities in methods, assumptions, and conclusions in the historical thinking of both authors.
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  221. Stowasser, Barbara Freyer. Religion and Political Development: Some Comparative Ideas on Ibn Khaldûn and Machiavelli. Occasional Papers series. Washington, DC: Georgetown University, Center for Contemporary Arab Studies, 1983.
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  223. A brief discussion confronting Ibn Khaldun’s views on religion with those of Machiavelli from a political-theoretical perspective.
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