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Media (Military History)

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. The media has evolved over time, from the mass press of the 19th century, through the radio, movie, and television industries of the 20th century, and the Internet and global TV networks of recent vintage. Each of these changes has created fresh problems for governments in wartime, whose first instinct is to try to control the media, censoring those stories that it thinks will undermine the war effort, while saturating the same media outlets with propaganda to sell the war to the homefront. The state’s success in these efforts is often at the heart of the literature. Much depends on the specific historical context. The changing nature of the media is one vital contextual element, and this is the subject of the essay’s second section. The other is either the type of war or type of state, and these are highlighted in the remaining sections, which explore the main conflicts since 1914. Finally, the literature on the media not only concentrates on the state’s power over the media; sometimes, it is also interested in the media’s role in developing popular culture about war or reflecting opinion about enemies or allies.
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  5. General Overviews
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  7. A number of general works set out the broad contours of the debate. Chronological accounts offer a broad comparative perspective across wars, looking at the main changes in the past hundred or so years. Other books focus on the crucial debate of where power lies: with the government or with the media and whether this varies across regime types and over time. Then there are the works that touch upon the media in passing, in an effort either to unearth broad cultural trends about war or to ascertain public attitudes toward a specific conflict, especially before the era of exhaustive opinion polling.
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  9. Chronological Accounts
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  11. The best way to get a sense of the media’s changing approach to war is through a broad chronological overview. Connelly and Welch 2005 and Seethaler, et al. 2013 emphasize the importance of changes in the media. Others concentrate on the government’s efforts to control the media. Osgood and Frank 2010 and Haridakis, et al. 2009 concentrate on propaganda efforts to sell war, the latter using insights from the field of communication theory. Matthews 1957, Braestrup 1985, and Sweeney 2006 concentrate on the military’s relationship with reporters in the war zone. Carruthers 2000 looks at the different tools governments have employed in different wars. Casey 2014 explores how the US media has reported combat deaths.
  12.  
  13. Braestrup, Peter. Battle Lines. New York: Priority, 1985.
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  15. A concise account of US military-media relations from World War II to the Grenada invasion in 1983.
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  17. Carruthers, Susan L. The Media at War. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave, 2000.
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  19. Differentiating between total wars, limited wars, and the modern phenomena of terrorism and globalization, a sophisticated account of how media practices operate in war.
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  21. Casey, Steven. When Soldiers Fall: How Americans have Confronted Combat Casualties from World War I to Afghanistan. New York: Oxford University Press, 2014.
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  23. Explores the American debates surrounding combat casualties, with emphasis on how the media has reported death.
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  25. Connelly, Mark, and David Welch, ed. War and the Media: Reportage and Propaganda, 1900–2003. London: Tauris, 2005.
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  27. A series of essays, organized chronologically, which explore the changing context of media and propaganda since 1900.
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  29. Haridakis, Paul M., Barbara S. Hugenberg, and Stanley T. Wearden, ed. War and the Media: Essays on News Reporting, Propaganda and Popular Culture. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2009.
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  31. A series of essays using insights from communication theory to explore the interaction between government and media during America’s wars.
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  33. Matthews, Joseph J. Reporting the Wars. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1957.
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  35. Details the main developments in military-media relations since the late 18th century, assessing crucial elements like censorship, official war news, and the profession of war correspondence.
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  37. Osgood, Kenneth, and Andrew K. Frank, ed. Selling War in a Media Age: The Presidency and Public Opinion in the American Century. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2010.
  38. DOI: 10.5744/florida/9780813034669.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  39. A series of essays on how successive administrations used the media to sell their wars.
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  41. Seethaler, Josef, Matthias Karmasin, Gabriele Melischek, and Romy Wöhlert, ed. Selling War: The Role of the Mass Media in Hostile Conflicts, from World War I to the War on Terror. Bristol, UK: Intellect, 2013.
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  43. A textbook of essays that explore the evolving interaction between the media and war, especially since World War II.
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  45. Sweeney, Michael S. The Military and the Press: An Uneasy Truce. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 2006.
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  47. A short, student-friendly account of the US military-media relationship, with one chapter looking at the World War I period, five exploring the 20th century, and two examining the current and future situation.
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  49. State Control
  50.  
  51. The extent to which the media is independent from state control is a key theme in the literature. Regime type clearly matters. In authoritarian regimes, state control of the media is often total (see World War II: Propaganda). The situation is murkier in democratic states. In times of war, governments can exert important formal powers, from censorship to propaganda. As Smith 1999 and Silver 2008 show, such actions raise profound questions about constitutionality in the United States, where the First Amendment is designed to protect press freedom. But democratic states also wield other forms of power. Herman and Chomsky 1994 offers a classic account of how the media, rather than act independently, effectively defends the interests of the powerful. Herman and Paterson 2000 uses the Kosovo crisis to support this argument. Kamalipour and Snow 2004 contains essays looking at a range of case studies from numerous countries. Cumings 1990 challenges the oft-held view that television has caused major problems for democratic governments since the 1960s, although its focus is on the author’s experiences making a Korean War documentary.
  52.  
  53. Cumings, Bruce. War and Television. London: Verso, 1990.
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  55. Based partly on the author’s experiences making a documentary of the Korean War and partly how television covered conflicts since Vietnam, it emphasizes how politicians use the media to achieve their goals.
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  57. Herman, Edward, and Chomsky. Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media. London: Vintage, 1994.
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  59. Seminal work that argues that the media defends the agenda of the privileged groups that dominate the state.
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  61. Herman, Edward, and D. Paterson. Degraded Capability: The Media and the Kosovo Crisis. New York: Praeger, 2000.
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  63. Argues that the media effectively acted as spokesperson for NATO during the Kosovo crisis, amplifying the official message.
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  65. Kamalipour, Yahya R., and Nancy Snow, eds. War, Media, and Propaganda: A Global Perspective. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2004.
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  67. A series of essays that range widely over propaganda and the media, looking at various historical case studies and a range of countries.
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  69. Silver, Derigan A. “National Security and The Press: The Government’s Ability to Prosecute Journalists for the Possession or Publication of National Security Information.” Communication Law and Policy 13 (2008): 447–483.
  70. DOI: 10.1080/10811680802388881Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  71. In the wake of the Bush administration’s aggressive attempts to prosecute journalists for publishing national security information, looks at the current federal laws that can be used for this purpose.
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  73. Smith, Jeffery A. War and Press Freedom: The Problem of Prerogative Power. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.
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  75. Examines the gradual erosion of press freedom during wartime in the United States, ending with an assessment of the difficulty of controlling the modern electronic media
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  77. Media Power
  78.  
  79. The idea that the state wields enormous power over the media has not gone unchallenged. Cohen 1963 offers an early insight into how the media influenced foreign-policy debates, including debates over war and peace, by arguing that it set the agenda, even if it did not determine the outcome. The changing nature of the media also makes it much more difficult for the government to control. Gowing 1994 and Gilboa 2003 emphasize that the speed of modern breaking news constrains decision-makers’ choices. Strobel 1997 and Miller 2007 concentrate on the “CNN effect,” especially the extent to which TV coverage generates pressure for officials to act. Jakobsen 2000 believes that the “CNN effect” is more indirect and invisible—that by focusing on one conflict and not another it distorts how these wars develop. Michalski and Gow 2007 argues that even if governments can control the media at the outset news coverage of the resulting wars can easily create unintended consequences that governments then have to respond to. De Franco 2012 looks more broadly at how the modern media has changed the whole strategic environment in which war unfolds.
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  81. Cohen, Bernard C. The Press and Foreign Policy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1963.
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  83. An early work emphasizing the press’s importance in agenda setting, determining which foreign policy issues the public debate focuses on.
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  85. de Franco, Chiara. Media Power and the Transformation of War. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave, 2012.
  86. DOI: 10.1057/9781137009753Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  87. Argues that the modern media has transformed the environment within which war is made.
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  89. Gilboa, Eyton. “Television News and U.S. Foreign Policy: Constraints on Real-Time Coverage.” Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics 8 (2003): 97–113.
  90. DOI: 10.1177/1081180X03256576Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  91. Argues that the speed of TV transmission constrains policymakers.
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  93. Gowing, Nik. Real-Time Television Coverage of Armed Conflicts and Diplomatic Crises: Does it Pressure or Distort Foreign Policy Decisions? Joan Shorenstein Center on the Press, Politics, and Public Policy, Working Paper 94. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, 1994.
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  95. Focuses on the speed of modern media communications, arguing that this influences choices and priorities during crisis moments.
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  97. Jakobsen, Peter Viggo. “Focus on the CNN Effect Misses the Point: The Real Media Impact on Conflict Management Is Invisible and Indirect.” Journal of Peace Research 37 (2000): 131–143.
  98. DOI: 10.1177/0022343300037002001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  99. Argues that one of the modern media’s most important influences is in selecting what conflicts to focus on, which has an invisible and indirect impact on how these wars unfold.
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  101. Michalski, Milena, and James Gow. War, Image, and Legitimacy: Viewing Contemporary Conflict. London: Routledge, 2007.
  102. DOI: 10.4324/9780203089224Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  103. Assesses the impact of images on the legitimacy of modern war, stressing how unintended consequences can limit the government’s ability to control the news.
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  105. Miller, Derek B. Media Pressure on Foreign Policy: The Evolving Theoretical Framework. New York: Palgrave, 2007.
  106. DOI: 10.1057/9780230605008Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  107. Focuses on the extent to which the media “pressures” the state into particular foreign-policy choices, in the wake of discussions about the so-called CNN effect, with a focus on the 1990s.
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  109. Strobel, W. P. Late-Breaking News: The News Media’s Influence on Peace Operations. Washington, DC: Institute of Peace, 1997.
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  111. Looks at different dimensions of the “CNN effect”: how the media sets the agenda, how its coverage generates pressure for action, and the impact of rapid communications.
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  113. Media as Opinion
  114.  
  115. Rather than look at the issue of power, some works use the media as a reflection of public opinion during wartime. Media organizations, after all, exist not merely to wield power. They also need to sell their product, either to the public or to advertisers, whose views they want to embrace and not attack. Historians have found media sources particularly useful for uncovering popular attitudes in the era before exhaustive opinion polling. Adler and Paterson 1970 and Levering 1976 explore how the American media portrayed Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union during the 1940s. Bell 1990 and Shaw 1998 do the same for Britain.
  116.  
  117. Adler, Les K., and Thomas G. Paterson. “Red Fascism: The Merger of Nazi Germany and Soviet Russia in the American Image of Totalitarianism, 1930s–1950s.” American Historical Review 75 (1970): 1046–1064.
  118. DOI: 10.2307/1852269Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  119. Based partly on media sources, explores American images of the enemy during the World War II and early Cold War era.
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  121. Bell, Philip M. H. John Bull and the Bear: British Public Opinion, Foreign Policy, and the Soviet Union, 1941–1945. London: Edward Arnold, 1990.
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  123. Looks at the interaction between opinion and policy, with some emphasis on the media as an expression of opinion.
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  125. Levering, Ralph. American Opinion and the Russian Alliance. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1976.
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  127. Explores how many US media organizations viewed the Soviet ally during World War II.
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  129. Shaw, Tony. “The British Popular Press and the Early Cold War.” History 83 (1998): 66–85.
  130. DOI: 10.1111/1468-229X.00063Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  131. Uses the popular press to shed light on broader British values at the onset of the Cold War.
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  133. War, Media, and Culture
  134.  
  135. The media is also a major transmission belt for cultural producers. Stewart and Carruthers 1996 and Paris 2000 explore how the media has helped to shape different cultural perceptions of war in Britain over more than a hundred years. Huebner 2008 looks more specifically at how American warriors have been represented since World War II. Schubart 2009 explores war as entertainment in popular culture. Karatzogianni 2012 develops theoretical insights from five disciplines to explore these questions.
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  137. Huebner, Andrew J. The Warrior Image: Soldiers in American Culture from the Second World War to the Vietnam Era. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2008.
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  139. Looks at how images of servicemen were represented in popular culture, arguing that stereotype of the patriotic civilian soldier was challenged well before Vietnam.
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  141. Karatzogianni, Athina, ed. Violence and War in Culture and the Media: Five Disciplinary Lenses. Abingdon UK: Routledge, 2012.
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  143. Essays use historical, cultural, sociological, and gender perspectives to explore the complex interaction between war and media over time and between different media forms.
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  145. Paris, Michael, Warrior Nation: Images of War in British Popular Culture, 1850–2000. London: Reaktion, 2000.
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  147. Examines how different forms of media made war an important theme in British popular culture.
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  149. Schubart, Rikke, ed. War Isn’t Hell, It’s Entertainment: Essays on Visual Media and the Representation of Conflict. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2009.
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  151. Series of wide-ranging essays that explore how the media exploits war for its own purposes and the impact its representations of conflict have on the consumers of popular culture.
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  153. Stewart, Ian, and Susan L. Carruthers, ed. War, Culture, and the Media: Representations of the Military in 20th Century Britain. Madison, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1996.
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  155. A series of essays that look at how the British media has represented war in popular culture.
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  157. Changing Media
  158.  
  159. The media has not remained static. Technological change has meant the press has had to compete with movies, radio, television, and the Internet. Each of these changes has given audiences a new experience of war, sometimes making it more vivid and sometimes more superficial. They have also presented governments with more challenges, as breaking news has become ever quicker and news broadcasts have increasingly transcended state boundaries.
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  161. Press
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  163. The 19th century saw the birth of a mass “penny press.” Reilly 2010 shows how the US war with Mexico War in the 1840s became the first comprehensively covered conflict. Andrews 1955 and McNeely, et al. 2010 look at different dimensions of the media’s Civil War coverage. Brown 1967 tackles one of the central claims of this period: that the “yellow” press of the late 19th century actually sparked the US war with Spain. Desmond 1980 looks more broadly at the changing nature of news reporting in the last two decades of the press’s effective monopoly. O’Keefe 1972 offers a detailed account of the New York press’s coverage of the first three years of World War I.
  164.  
  165. Andrews, J. Cutler. The North Reports the Civil War. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1955.
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  167. Invaluable overview of Union reporting.
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  169. Brown, Charles H. The Correspondents’ War: Journalists in the Spanish-American War. New York: Scribner’s, 1967.
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  171. A classic, traditional account of how the “yellow press” first whipped a war fervor and then stretched the truth if that was the best way to increase circulation, although the author also looks beyond these reporters to the more respectable press, which loathed Hearst and Pulitzer.
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  173. Desmond, Robert W. Windows on the World: The Information Process in a Changing Society, 1900–1920. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1980.
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  175. Looks at the changing nature of news reporting in the World War I era.
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  177. McNeely, Patricia G., Debra Reddin van Tuyll, and Henry H. Schulte. Knights of the Quill: Confederate Correspondents and Their Civil War Reporting. West Lafayette, IN.: Purdue University Press, 2010.
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  179. A comprehensive examination of war reporting in the Confederacy, pointing out that Southern correspondents faced fewer restrictions than their counterparts in the North, and stressing that the media of the day tended to be parochial and partisan, with reporters operating as commentators, rather than neutral observers.
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  181. O’Keefe, Kevin J. A Thousand Deadlines: The New York City Press and American Neutrality, 1914–1917. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1972.
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  183. Explores how the New York press covered World War I at a time of U.S. neutrality.
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  185. Reilly, Tom. War with Mexico! America’s Reporters Cover the Battlefield. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2010.
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  187. Shows how the Mexican War interacted with the emergence of the “penny press” to produce the first comprehensively covered war. It tells the story both of the thirteen or so correspondents on the ground and the impact of their reporting on the nation at large.
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  189. Radio
  190.  
  191. The advent of radio started to break down national barriers. Although punishment for listening to enemy broadcasts could be severe, especially in totalitarian states, radio could easily transmit across borders. Keene 2009 examines how the Axis powers used three Allied-born broadcasters to relay propaganda to the West. Russo 2013 explores how West and East used radio in their propaganda battles for hearts and minds in the Cold War. Ultimately, however, radio’s central role in the 1940s was to inform, entertain, and thereby raise the morale of its domestic audience. Hosley 1984 looks at the problems faced by the first generation of radio foreign correspondents, as they attempted to cover the international crisis. Bergmeier and Lotz 1997 explores the various ways that the Nazis used radio for domestic propaganda purposes. Horten 2002 examines how the US government forged an effective partnership with its own networks. Nicholas 1996 stresses the BBC’s importance to sustaining British morale. Briggs 1985 is the best starting point for exploring the first phase of the BBC’s history, including the World War II years.
  192.  
  193. Bergmeier, Horst J. P., and Rainer E. Lotz. ‪Hitler’s Airwaves: The Inside Story of Nazi Radio Broadcasting and Propaganda Swing. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1997.
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  195. Looks at how the Nazi regime used radio for its wartime propaganda purposes.
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  197. Briggs, Asa. The BBC: The First Fifty Years. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985.
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  199. Standard history of the British broadcaster, covering the World War II period.
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  201. Horten, Gerd. Radio Goes to War: The Cultural Politics of Propaganda during World War II. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002.
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  203. Looks at how American radio entered an informal and effective partnership with the state to sell World War II to the public.
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  205. Hosley, David. As Good as Any: Foreign Correspondence on American Radio, 1930–1940. Westport, CT: Praeger, 1984.
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  207. Explores the evolution of the US radio’s foreign broadcasting, as the international crisis developed before World War II.
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  209. Keene, Judith. Treason on the Airwaves: Three Allied Broadcasters on Axis Radio during World War II. Westport, CT: Praeger, 2009.
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  211. Examines the broadcasts John Amery, Charles Cousens, and Tokyo Rose made from Axis radio in World War II.
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  213. Nicholas, Sian. The Echo of War: Home Front Propaganda and the Wartime BBC, 1939–45. New York: Manchester University Press, 1996.
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  215. Examines the crucial role the BBC played in sustaining domestic morale.
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  217. Russo, Linda. “Radio Wars: Broadcasting in the Cold War.” Cold War History 13 (2013): 145–152.
  218. DOI: 10.1080/14682745.2012.757134Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  219. Useful starting place to explore the use of radio in East–West Cold War propaganda battles.
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  221. Images of War
  222.  
  223. Since radio technology was often too cumbersome to cover the battlefield, its audiences were generally spared graphic sounds of death and destruction. The growth of photographic journalism promised a very different outcome. Moeller 1989 explores the American experience of photojournalism from the 1890s to the 1970s; Taylor 1991 performs a similar function for Britain between 1914 and 1983. Beurier 2008 shows how French propagandists could be surprisingly lax it letting vivid pictures from the Western Front into the public domain. Earhart 2008 and Roeder 1993 emphasize how the Japanese and American governments were far more prudent in World War II, carefully regulating what the public saw. Whelan 2001 contains some of the most famous images from this era, taken by the legendary photographer Robert Capa. Tulloch and Blood 2012 likewise focuses on output, assessing why five pictures became iconic images of war. Verschueren 2012 examines the more disparate forms of images that now flood the media. Chetty 2004 focuses on images of women during war.
  224.  
  225. Beurier, Joëlle. “Information, Censorship, or Propaganda? The Illustrated French Press in the First World War.” In Untold War: New Perspectives in First World War Studies. Edited by Heather Jones, Jennifer O’Brien, and Christoph Schmidt-Supprian, 293–324. Boston: Brill, 2008.
  226. DOI: 10.1163/ej.9789004166592.i-449Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  227. Explores the extent to which normally stringent French censorship allowed graphic battlefield images to be published in the French illustrated press.
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  229. Chetty, Adhis. “Media Images of Women during War—Vehicles of Patriarchy’s Agenda?” Agenda 18 (2004): 32–41.
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  231. Argues that the media’s representation of women in wartime “tends to disempower and silence” them.
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  233. Earhart, David C. Certain Victory: Images of World War Two in the Japanese Media. London: Sharpe, 2008.
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  235. Offers an excellent account of how battlefield images were relayed to the Japanese public.
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  237. Moeller, Susan. Shooting War: Photography and the American Experience of Combat. New York: Basic Books, 1989.
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  239. Explores the history of American photojournalism from the Spanish–American War to Vietnam.
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  241. Roeder, George H. The Censored War: American Visual Experience during World War II. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1993.
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  243. Looks at what images the US government allowed into the public domain and when and why its policy changed.
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  245. Taylor, John. War Photography: Realism in the British Press. London: Routledge, 1991.
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  247. Focuses on what images were published in the British press and why, from World War I to the Falklands.
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  249. Tulloch, John, and R. Warwick Blood. Icons of War and Terror: Media Images in an Age of International Risk. New York: Routledge, 2012.
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  251. Looks at five iconic images of war taken between 1972 and 2005 to argue that such influential pictures challenge, rather than confirm, existing notions.
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  253. Verschueren, Paul. Picturing Afghanistan: The Photography of Foreign Conflict. New York: Hampton, 2012.
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  255. Using both European and American sources, explores how public affairs, psychological operations, the press, and photo books developed multiple ways of using photography to depict the Afghan War, 2001–2012.
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  257. Whelan, Richard, ed. Robert Capa: The Definitive Collection. London: Phaidon, 2001.
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  259. Contains more than nine hundred of Capa’s photographs, from his career spanning 1932–1954.
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  261. The Movie Age
  262.  
  263. The movie industry was different from other media forms. Although newsreels were based on factual images of war, most films were fictional representations of what had happened. This made them particularly attractive to propagandists, who wanted to push scripts in a particular direction. Friedrich 1997 tells the behind-the-scenes story of Hollywood in its golden age, which coincided with World War II and the early years of the Cold War. Doherty 1993 and Koppes and Black 1990 look at Hollywood’s output, the former stressing its alliance with Washington and the latter emphasizing the clashes. Culbert 1990 reproduces many of the relevant primary sources to document this relationship. Bennett 2001 offers an in-depth case study of one, notorious World War II film. Reeves 1983 examines how the British government used films in its World War I propaganda. Shaw 2000 does the same for the early Cold War era.
  264.  
  265. Bennett, Todd, “Culture, Power, and Mission to Moscow: Film and Soviet–American Relations during World War II.” Journal of American History 88 (2001): 489–518.
  266. DOI: 10.2307/2675103Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  267. Shows how the Roosevelt administration worked with powerful groups to produce a film that it hoped would bolster support for its wartime diplomacy, concluding that it failed in this task but did give the US movie industry an entrée into the Soviet market.
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  269. Culbert, David, ed. Film and Propaganda in America: A Documentary History. World War II. 2 Parts. New York: Greenwood, 1990.
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  271. A useful documentary collection that demonstrates the linkages between Washington and Hollywood.
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  273. Doherty, Thomas. Projections of War: Hollywood, Culture, and World War II. New York: Columbia University Press, 1993.
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  275. Examines how and why Hollywood helped to sell the war effort.
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  277. Friedrich, Otto. City of Nets: A Portrait of Hollywood in the 1940s. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997.
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  279. A social and cultural history of Hollywood in the age of World War II and the Cold War, looking at the personalities who made the class films of this period.
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Koppes, Clayton R., and Gregory D. Black. Hollywood Goes to War: How Politics, Profits, and Propaganda Shaped World War II Movies. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990.
  282. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  283. Explores the power struggles between Washington and Hollywood, as propagandists tried to shape the moviemakers’ output.
  284. Find this resource:
  285. Reeves, Nicholas. “Film Propaganda and Its Audience: The Example of Britain’s Official Films during the First World War.” Journal of Contemporary History 18 (1983): 463–494.
  286. DOI: 10.1177/002200948301800306Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  287. Looks at the British government’s use of film propaganda, stressing how movies like the Battle of the Somme showed surprisingly graphic footage of the Western Front’s horrors.
  288. Find this resource:
  289. Shaw, Tony. British Cinema and the Cold War: The State, Propaganda, and Consensus. London: Tauris, 2000.
  290. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  291. Shows how the British film industry propagandized the Cold War to the British public.
  292. Find this resource:
  293. Television
  294.  
  295. Television’s impact on war has been the most controversial, largely because of Vietnam. America’s defeat established the notion that television had lost the war, not necessarily because it was more biased but because it simplified issues and relayed home gruesome images of the battlefield. Culbert 1998 argues that violent TV images did matter at a crucial moment of the war, while Philo 2002 insists that television tends to focus on “dramatic, violent, and tragic images” (p. 185). Yet the literature on Vietnam has increasingly challenged this conventional wisdom. Lichty and Fouhy 1987 uses content analysis to develop the view, now accepted by many other works, that television’s output was far less graphic than has often been asserted (see also Hallin 1986, cited under The Vietnam War). Hoskins 2005 emphasizes that Vietnam remained very much an American story. Bernhard 1999 points out that just over a decade earlier, the advent of television news coincided with the start of the Cold War, and that in this period the government had little difficulty controlling television. Barnouw 1978 provides a more general overview of the early years of US television. Mirzoeff 2005 explores what it was like to watch images of the initial Iraq War in 2003.
  296.  
  297. Barnouw, Erik. Tube of Plenty: The Evolution of American Television. Rev. ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1978.
  298. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  299. Standard history of US television.
  300. Find this resource:
  301. Bernhard, Nancy. U.S. Television News and Cold War Propaganda, 1947–1960. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
  302. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  303. Looks at how US television networks worked with the government to disseminate propaganda in the early years of the Cold War.
  304. Find this resource:
  305. Culbert, David, “Television’s Visual Impact on Decision-Making in the USA, 1968: The Tet Offensive and Chicago’s Democratic National Convention.” Journal of Contemporary History 33 (1998): 419–449.
  306. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  307. Argues the color TV images of violence in 1968 had an important impact on the US political debate in that key year.
  308. Find this resource:
  309. Hoskins, Andrew. Televising War: From Vietnam to Iraq. New York: Continuum, 2005.
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  311. Explores the shift from Vietnam, where the US media focused on the American story, to the more immediate and global coverage of modern conflicts.
  312. Find this resource:
  313. Lichty, Laurence W., and Edward Fouhy. “Television Reporting of the Vietnam War; or Did Walter Cronkite Really Lose the War.” World and I (1987): 581–585.
  314. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  315. Summarizes an intensive content analysis of TV news to challenge the claim that the American audience was bombarded with images of violence.
  316. Find this resource:
  317. Mirzoeff, Nicholas. Watching Babylon: The War in Iraq and Global Visual Culture. London: Routledge, 2005.
  318. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  319. Examines what it was like to watch the visual TV images of the Iraq War, from the start of the “shock-and-awe” campaign to Saddam’s capture.
  320. Find this resource:
  321. Philo, Greg. “Television News and Audience Understanding of War, Conflict, and Disaster.” Journalism Studies 3 (2002): 173–186.
  322. DOI: 10.1080/14616700220129955Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  323. Emphasizes that TV coverage of war gives viewers very little context but focuses instead on dramatic, violent, and tragic images.
  324. Find this resource:
  325. Modern Technology
  326.  
  327. Television has not only evolved dramatically in recent years; it also has to operate in a more complex media environment. Hoskins and O’Loughlin 2010 looks at the impact that rapid, even instantaneous, media coverage has on government policy and public attitudes. Thussu and Freeman 2003 emphasizes the importance of 24/7 broadcasting. Baum 2003 examines how the US media has repackaged foreign-policy news to make it more interesting to its audience. Seib 2004 and Tumber and Webster 2006 stress that the media is now globalized, often transcending state borders. Like Berenger 2004 and Berenger 2006, these works also point out that the Internet not only has these same characteristics of speed but has also produced other forms of media coverage, especially blogging, which lack the skills and controls of the traditional media. Youngs 2009 looks at the role that Internet and mobile communications.
  328.  
  329. Baum, Matthew. Soft News Goes to War: Public Opinion and Foreign Policy in the New Media Age. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003.
  330. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  331. Explores how the mass media, especially television, has repackaged foreign-policy news, turning it into entertainment and attracting larger audiences in the process.
  332. Find this resource:
  333. Berenger, Ralph D., ed. Global Media Go to War: Role of News and Entertainment Media during the 2003 Gulf War. Spokane, WA: Marquette, 2004.
  334. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  335. A collection of essays that explores the role of all forms of global media, including the Internet, especially the Iraq War.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. Berenger, Ralph D., ed. Cybermedia Go to War: The Role of Converging Media during and after the 2003 Iraq War. Spokane, WA: Marquette, 2006.
  338. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  339. Companion to the Berenger 2004 volume that takes the story beyond 2003 and looks more intensively at the new media.
  340. Find this resource:
  341. Hoskins, Andrew, and Ben O’Loughlin. War and the Media: The Emergence of Diffused War. Cambridge, UK: Polity, 2010.
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  343. Examines how the Internet, interactive media, faster communications, have created a “diffused war,” which in turn produces greater unpredictability for governments, their militaries, and their publics.
  344. Find this resource:
  345. Seib, Philip. Beyond the Front Lines: How the News Media Cover a World Shaped by War. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave, 2004.
  346. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  347. Explores how conflicts are covered in a high-tech, globalized world.
  348. Find this resource:
  349. Thussu, Daya Kishan, and Des Freeman, ed. War and the Media: Reporting Conflict 24/7. London: SAGE, 2003.
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  351. Looks at the age of 24/7 broadcasting and internet information warfare in the early phase of Bush’s “war on terror.”
  352. Find this resource:
  353. Tumber, Howard, and Frank Webster. Journalists under Fire: Information War and Journalistic Practices. London: SAGE, 2006.
  354. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  355. Explores the problems of reporting war in the age of smart weapons, digital technologies, and a global media.
  356. Find this resource:
  357. Youngs, Gillian. “Media and Mediation in the ‘War on Terror’: Issues and Challenges.” Critical Studies on Terrorism 2 (2009): 95–102.
  358. DOI: 10.1080/17539150902752846Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  359. Summarizes a research seminar series, stressing the impact that the new media—especially the Internet and mobile communications—is having on security issues.
  360. Find this resource:
  361. World War I
  362.  
  363. World War I erupted when the mass press was at its height. A large literate audience, new forms of advertising revenue, and improved technologies that made it easier to reproduce photographs combined to create powerful newspaper titles often dominated by big names like William Randolph Hearst in the United States or Lord Northcliffe in Britain. Yet the belligerent states were keen to control and channel this power. Given the size of the struggle and the stakes, they wanted to censor sensitive information, while also using the press to disseminate propaganda. The result was generally a close, though often tense, relationship between governments and the press.
  364.  
  365. Censorship and Propaganda
  366.  
  367. Most states implemented stringent censorship on their media. Collins 1992 and Rajfus 1999 examine the French system, the former looking at its evolution and the latter offering a trenchant criticism. Marquis 1978 contrasts the main elements of British and German propaganda and the way that the two governments interacted with their mass press. Thompson 1999 provides a detailed case study of one powerful British press baron’s relationship with the state. Mock 1941 looks at all forms of censorship in the United States; Vaughn 1980 examines American wartime propaganda and the Wilson administration’s complex relationship with all media forms.
  368.  
  369. Collins, Ross F. “The Development of Censorship in World War I France.” Journalism Monographs 131 (1992): 1–25.
  370. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  371. Traces the major changes in the evolution of French censorship.
  372. Find this resource:
  373. Marquis, Alice Goldfarb. “Words as Weapons: Propaganda in Britain and Germany during the First World War.” Journal of Contemporary History 13 (1978): 467–498.
  374. DOI: 10.1177/002200947801300304Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  375. As part of a general attempt to contrast British and German propaganda, Goldfarb assess the different ways the two governments attempted to control war news.
  376. Find this resource:
  377. Mock, James R. Censorship–1917. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1941.
  378. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  379. Classic account on all the forms of censorship the US government instituted after it entered World War I.
  380. Find this resource:
  381. Rajfus, Maurice. La Censure: Militaire et policière. Paris: Le Cherche midi éditeur, 1999.
  382. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  383. Critical account of the stringency of French censorship.
  384. Find this resource:
  385. Thompson, J. Lee. Politicians, the Press, and Propaganda: Lord Northcliffe and the Great War, 1914–1919. London: Kent State University Press, 1999.
  386. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  387. Looks at the World War I career of this influential press lord, exploring his complex relationship with the government, on the one hand, and his media empire, on the other.
  388. Find this resource:
  389. Vaughn, Stephen. Holding Fast the Inner Lines: Democracy, Nationalism, and the Committee on Public Information. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1980.
  390. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  391. Examines in detail the US government’s propaganda efforts, including its extensive relationships with various media forms.
  392. Find this resource:
  393. Media Coverage
  394.  
  395. Given the extent of censorship and propaganda, the media could rarely report the reality of war. Farrar 1998 examines the types of anodyne stories from the front that made it into the British press. Williams 1999 explores how the Australian media helped to create the ANZAC legend while purporting to cover the war. Crozier 1959 examines the actions of American reporters on and around the front. Cornebise 1984 looks at the types of war reports that soldier journalists wrote for their own newspapers.
  396.  
  397. Cornebise, Alfred E. The Stars and Stripes: Doughboy Journalism in World War I. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1984.
  398. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  399. Examines an important phenomenon that emerged in this war: newspapers by and for the frontline troops.
  400. Find this resource:
  401. Crozier, Emmet. American Reporters on the Western Front, 1914–1918. New York: Oxford University Press, 1959.
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  403. Entertaining narrative that details the exploits of American correspondents at the American Expeditionary Forces press camp, especially their constant battles with the censor.
  404. Find this resource:
  405. Farrar, Martin J. News from the Front: War Correspondents on the Western Front, 1914–1918. Stroud, UK: Sutton, 1998.
  406. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  407. The standard account of British reporting from the Western Front, combining details of official censorship and control with the correspondents’ dispatches of the main British battles.
  408. Find this resource:
  409. Williams, John F. Anzacs, the Media, and the Great War. Sydney: UNSW Press, 1999.
  410. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  411. Explores how the mass media created the ANZAC legend, while also comparing contemporaneous press content about ANZAC battles with what historical conventional wisdom.
  412. Find this resource:
  413. World War II
  414.  
  415. World War II saw an important evolution in the media at war. Although both sides again instituted rigorous censorship regimes and disseminated intensive propaganda messages, there were important differences between how the democracies and dictatorships dealt with the media. There were also important technological changes, especially radio’s coming of age. Radio was particularly important in relaying news of the London blitz to an American audience, but with the networks preferring all news broadcasts to be live, it was normally difficult for this relatively new medium to capture graphic sounds of the fighting. Instead, print journalists continued to dominate. Whatever the medium, reporters had two particularly controversial events to cover: the major air raids, from the Blitz to the atomic bomb, and the Holocaust.
  416.  
  417. Censorship
  418.  
  419. Censorship was again stringent on both sides but with important differences. Sweeney 2001 examines the strengths and limitations of the US Office of Censorship, which relied largely on a voluntary code. Steele 1985 argues that the numerous informal methods of news management the Roosevelt administration deployed were largely effective. Goren 1980 looks in detail at one exception: the notorious security breach when the Chicago Tribune published a story that revealed how the Allies had broken the secret Japanese codes. Mitchell 1983 provides a basic outline of the various forms of strict control deployed by the Japanese government. Schmidt-Scheeder 1977 demonstrates how the German government relied on its own correspondents to provide the bulk of news reporting from the front.
  420.  
  421. Goren, Dina. “Communication Intelligence and the Freedom of the Press: The Chicago Tribune’s Battle of Midway Dispatch and the Breaking of the Japanese Naval Code.” Journal of Contemporary History 16 (1980): 663–666.
  422. DOI: 10.1177/002200948101600403Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  423. Explores the US government’s response to the Chicago Tribune’s story that revealed how the Allies had broken the Japanese codes.
  424. Find this resource:
  425. Mitchell, Richard H. Censorship in Imperial Japan. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1983.
  426. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  427. Provides the basic outline of Japanese censorship policies.
  428. Find this resource:
  429. Schmidt-Scheeder, Georg. Reporter Der Hölle: Die Propaganda-Kompanien Im 2. Weltkrieg. Stuttgart, Germany: Motorbuch, 1977.
  430. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  431. A good starting point for exploring the German correspondents who worked for the official Propaganda-Kompanien, including original primary source material.
  432. Find this resource:
  433. Steele, Richard W. “News of the ‘Good War’: World War II News Management.” Journalism Quarterly 62 (1985): 707–716, 783.
  434. DOI: 10.1177/107769908506200401Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  435. Argues that the relatively solid media support for World War II was a product of Roosevelt’s skillful management of the news.
  436. Find this resource:
  437. Sweeney, Michael S. Secrets of Victory: The Office of Censorship and the American Press and Radio in World War II. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001.
  438. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  439. Looks at the activities of the Office of Censorship and the implementation of its voluntary censorship code.
  440. Find this resource:
  441. Propaganda
  442.  
  443. There was even more variation in the belligerents’ use of the media to propagandize their publics. Berkhoff 2012 focuses on one extreme: the almost total control the Soviet government exerted over its media. Kushner 2006 draws out the main themes of Japanese propaganda. Kallis 2005, Uziel 2008, and Welch 1993 look at the more complex way that the Nazi regime dealt with its media. The constant bureaucratic clashes are at the heart of this literature on Nazi Germany, as Goebbels’s propaganda ministry struggled to gain ascendancy over what the media could report. Clashes between an infant propaganda agency and more established military and diplomatic departments were an even bigger problem in democratic states. Balfour 1979 compares British and German propaganda. McLaine 1979 looks at the problems the British Ministry of Information had to confront. Winkler 1978 performs a similar function for the US Office of War Information.
  444.  
  445. Balfour, Michael. Propaganda in War, 1939–1945. London: Routledge, 1979.
  446. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  447. Compares British and German propaganda, both at home and at broad, including setting out the two states’ relationships with their media.
  448. Find this resource:
  449. Berkhoff, Karel. Motherland in Danger: Soviet Propaganda during World War II. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012.
  450. DOI: 10.4159/harvard.9780674064829Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  451. Explores Soviet propaganda, spotlighting the tight control the state exerted over the media.
  452. Find this resource:
  453. Kallis, Aristotle. Nazi Propaganda and the Second World War. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005.
  454. DOI: 10.1057/9780230511101Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  455. Looks at the main elements of Nazi propaganda, including the battles Goebbels’s propaganda ministry had with other branches of the sprawling Nazi state, as it sought to forge a clear stance for the media to follow.
  456. Find this resource:
  457. Kushner, Barak. The Thought War: Japanese Imperial Propaganda. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press, 2006.
  458. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  459. Outlines the central elements of Japanese propaganda.
  460. Find this resource:
  461. McLaine, Ian. Ministry of Morale: Home Front Morale and the Ministry of Information in World War II. London: George, Allen & Unwin, 1979.
  462. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  463. Explores how the British Ministry of Information worked and struggled with the media in its efforts to bolster domestic morale.
  464. Find this resource:
  465. Uziel, Daniel. The Propaganda Warriors: The Wehrmacht and the Consolidation of the German Home Front. New York: Lang, 2008.
  466. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  467. Looks more specifically at the military dimension of Nazi Germany’s propaganda and news management.
  468. Find this resource:
  469. Welch, David. The Third Reich: Politics and Propaganda. London: Routledge, 1993.
  470. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  471. A useful starting point to examine the main themes of Nazi propaganda.
  472. Find this resource:
  473. Winkler, Allan M. The Politics of Propaganda: The Office of War Information. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1978.
  474. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  475. Assesses the troubles the Office of War Information had on the home front, both in dealing with other parts of the executive branch and in liaising with the competitive US media.
  476. Find this resource:
  477. Air Power
  478.  
  479. The emergence of air power in World War II created a series of interesting dynamics for the military–media relationship. On the one hand, media images of cities reduced to rubble and containing thousands of civilian deaths promised to exert a profound impact on public opinion. It might frighten the next target into submission, embolden the current sufferers to demonstrate that they could “take it,” or generate enormous sympathy for neutrals on the sidelines. Southworth 1977 shows how the German bombing of Guernica became a cause célèbre around the world. Calder 1991 looks at how different forms of media developed a positive image of the British civilians’ response to the Blitz. At the heart of Cull 1995 is the story of how the British government worked with American reporters to send this positive story to the United States. On the other hand, the air force was such a new branch of warfare—and so confident that it could win the war on its own—that in many countries it went to great lengths to propagandize its actions. Sherry 1987 shows what the media-savvy US air force did to burnish its image. Francis 2008 examines how the positive image of the British airman was established.
  480.  
  481. Calder, Angus. The Myth of the Blitz. London: Pimlico, 1991.
  482. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  483. Argues that the media helped to create a blitz myth, that revolved around the notion that the British could “take” whatever the Luftwaffe dropped on them.
  484. Find this resource:
  485. Cull, Nicholas John. Selling War: The British Propaganda Campaign against American “Neutrality” in World War II. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995.
  486. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  487. Explores how the British government actively worked with the American media, including broadcasters like Murrow during the blitz, to undermine the US public’s desire to remain neutral.
  488. Find this resource:
  489. Francis, Martin. The Flyer: British Culture and the Royal Air Force, 1939–1945. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.
  490. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199277483.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  491. Assesses the evolution of the positive image of British pilots in popular culture, from the “few” who won the Battle of Britain to the bombers who were the first men to take the war directly to the enemy.
  492. Find this resource:
  493. Sherry, Michael S. The Rise of American Air Power: The Creation of Armageddon. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1987.
  494. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  495. In exploring the growth of the US air force, stresses how it worked with the media to create a positive image of what air power could achieve.
  496. Find this resource:
  497. Southworth, Herbert Rutledge. Guernica! Guernica! A Study of Journalism, Diplomacy, Propaganda, and History. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977.
  498. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  499. Explores how the initial news stories of the German bombing of this Spanish town during the Civil War reverberated through Britain, France, and the United States.
  500. Find this resource:
  501. Holocaust
  502.  
  503. Allied media coverage of the Holocaust has been one of the most controversial issues in the literature. Lipstadt 1985 is a heavily documented account of how and why the US media played down reports of the Nazi extermination of the Jews. Abzug 1985 shows how the liberation of the concentration camps in the spring of 1945 proved far more newsworthy. Kondoyanidi 2010 places Soviet media coverage of the death camps in the context of Soviet censorship throughout the war.
  504.  
  505. Abzug, Robert H. Inside the Vicious Heart: Americans and the Liberation of the Nazi Concentration Camps. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985.
  506. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  507. Examines how the liberation of Nazi concentration camps in the spring of 1945 exerted a profound impact on American society.
  508. Find this resource:
  509. Kondoyanidi, Anita. “The Liberating Experience: War Correspondents, Red Army Soldiers, and the Nazi Extermination Camps.” Russian Review 69 (2010): 438–462.
  510. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9434.2010.00575.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  511. Tells the surprisingly neglected story of the Soviet liberation of Nazi death camps in 1945, usefully placing this episode in the context of the Soviet government’s stringent censorship policy throughout the war.
  512. Find this resource:
  513. Lipstadt, Deborah E. Beyond Belief: The American Press and the Coming of the Holocaust. New York: Free Press, 1985.
  514. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  515. Classic account of to what extent, and why, the US media played down news of the Holocaust.
  516. Find this resource:
  517. Korean War
  518.  
  519. The Korean War erupted at the height of the American Cold War consensus—a time when many in the media either shared the view that communism was a vicious global menace or were cowed into pushing this view by powerful voices in the American state. Bayley 1981 shows how one of the most powerful, Senator Joe McCarthy, used the media for his own ends. Doherty 2003 examines why television proved so timid in its early days. Fousek 2000 and Rose 1999 look at media attitudes before the start of the war. Casey 2008 argues that the government, in fact, rarely found it easy to control the media during the war, partly because the military initially refused to institute censorship and partly because a number of powerful media bosses, though fiercely anticommunist, were not sympathetic to the government’s Asia policies. Echols 1951 provides a defense of the US military’s media policies.
  520.  
  521. Bayley, Edwin R. Joe McCarthy and the Press. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1981.
  522. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  523. Shows how McCarthy effectively used the press to give his allegations of communists in government more traction in American society.
  524. Find this resource:
  525. Casey, Steven. Selling the Korean War: Propaganda, Politics, and Public Opinion. New York: Oxford University Press, 2008.
  526. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195306927.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  527. Examines how all levels of the government sometimes worked with, and often battled, the US media in its efforts to sell the war.
  528. Find this resource:
  529. Doherty, Thomas. Cold War, Cool Medium: Television, McCarthyism, and American Culture. New York: Columbia University Press, 2003.
  530. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  531. Examines why television was such a meek medium in the Korean War era, only belatedly challenging the excesses of McCarthyism.
  532. Find this resource:
  533. Echols, Marion P. “Information in the Combat Zone.” Army Information Digest 6 (1951): 60–64.
  534. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  535. A defense of MacArthur’s media policy in the Korean theater by his press chief.
  536. Find this resource:
  537. Fousek, John. To Lead the Free World: American Nationalism and the Cultural Roots of the Cold War. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000.
  538. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  539. Uses a range of media sources to uncover the basic roots of American Cold War culture.
  540. Find this resource:
  541. Rose, Lisle A. The Cold War Comes to Main Street: America in 1950. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1999.
  542. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  543. Sets out the main elements of the American Cold War debate in 1950, the year the Korean War started.
  544. Find this resource:
  545. The Vietnam War
  546.  
  547. Because claims that “the media lost the war” continue to resonate, Vietnam remains one of the most researched areas. As well as the works on television (see Television), Hallin 1986 offers the most compelling and influential argument that the US media merely reflected changing public attitudes to the war and rarely showed controversial or challenging images that would alienate its audience. Wyatt 1993 goes further and argues that the government could often successfully manage and manipulate the press. Turner 1985 disagrees, maintaining that Johnson generally found it difficult to sell his Vietnam policies and that this was one of his biggest failings. Hammond 1990–1996 provides the most authoritative account of the military–media relationship. Landers 2004 explores how the weekly magazines reported the war, maintaining that even in the TV age they retained considerable influence. Pach 2010 examines Nixon’s fraught relationship with the media in the context of his Vietnamization policy. Oliver 2006 focuses on how news of the My Lai massacre was broken and developed. Rudenstine 1996 provides a history of the Pentagon Papers case, one of the most notorious US government attempts to use the law to prevent the publication of a story.
  548.  
  549. Hallin, Daniel C. The “Uncensored War”: The Media and Vietnam. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986.
  550. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  551. The classic account that challenged the notion that a biased media lost the war, arguing that the media largely reflected—rather than created—the shift in opinion.
  552. Find this resource:
  553. Hammond, William M. Public Affairs: The Military and Media, 1962–1973. 2 vols. Washington, DC: Center of Military History, 1990–1996.
  554. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  555. The comprehensive and invaluable official history, it was published in an abridged version as Reporting Vietnam by the University Press of Kansas in 1998.
  556. Find this resource:
  557. Landers, James. The Weekly War: Newsmagazines and Vietnam. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2004.
  558. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  559. Detailed account of how Newsweek, Time, and U.S. News & World Report covered the war, arguing that their in-depth reports remained important in the TV age.
  560. Find this resource:
  561. Oliver, Kendrick. The My Lai Massacre in American History and Memory. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 2006.
  562. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  563. Sophisticated account of how and why the media made the My Lai massacre a major issue.
  564. Find this resource:
  565. Pach, Chester. “‘Our Worst Enemy Seems to Be the Press’: TV News, the Nixon Administration, and U.S. Troop Withdrawal from Vietnam, 1969–1973.” Diplomatic History 34 (2010): 555–565.
  566. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-7709.2010.00869.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  567. Examines Nixon’s difficulties with the news media when pursuing Vietnamization, and how he blamed it for his problems.
  568. Find this resource:
  569. Rudenstine, David. The Day the Presses Stopped: A History of the Pentagon Papers Case. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996.
  570. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  571. A history of the Nixon administration’s effort to stop the press publishing the Pentagon Papers.
  572. Find this resource:
  573. Turner, Kathleen J. Lyndon Johnson’s Dual War: Vietnam and the Press. Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1985.
  574. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  575. Argues that Johnson’s inability to communicate his Vietnam policies effectively to the press was at the heart of his tragedy.
  576. Find this resource:
  577. Wyatt, Clarence R. Paper Soldiers: The American Press and the Vietnam War. New York: Norton, 1993.
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  579. A sustained challenge to the notion that the press lost the war; argues, instead, that the government successfully manipulated the press.
  580. Find this resource:
  581. Persian Gulf War
  582.  
  583. Coming at the end of the Cold War and at a time when the new 24/7 cable news networks were in their infancy the Persian Gulf War sparked a large literature on the military–media relationship. Denton 1993 and Bennett and Paletz 1994 emphasize the changing nature of television coverage. Virilio 2002 pushes this even further, arguing that the war marked a major turning point in history. Rollins 1992 and Taylor 1992 both point out the government’s success in ensuring that the media only showed an antiseptic version of the war. Robinson 2002 looks more broadly at the CNN effect during the 1990s.
  584.  
  585. Bennett, W. Lance, and David L. Paletz, ed. Taken by Storm: The Media, Public Opinion and U.S. Foreign Policy in the Gulf War. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994.
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  587. A series of essays that examine the media’s importance in this war as well as looking at the changing nature of journalism in the post-Cold War world.
  588. Find this resource:
  589. Denton, Robert E., Jr., ed. The Media and the Persian Gulf War. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1993.
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  591. Essays range broadly over all types of media, with the emphasis on the “processes and effects” of media coverage.
  592. Find this resource:
  593. Robinson, Piers. The CNN Effect: The Myth of News, Foreign Policy, and Intervention. London: Routledge, 2002.
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  595. Assesses the impact of 24/7 television in the immediate post-Cold War era, including the interventions in Iraq, Somalia, Bosnia, and Kosovo.
  596. Find this resource:
  597. Rollins, Peter C. “Introduction: The Gulf War and Television.” Film & History: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Film and Television Studies 22 (1992): 1–10.
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  599. Introduction to a series of essays in this special issue, highlighting the changing nature of the media and the success the government had in controlling it.
  600. Find this resource:
  601. Taylor, Philip M. War and the Media: Propaganda and Persuasion in the Gulf War. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1992.
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  603. Explores the US government’s efforts to control the media.
  604. Find this resource:
  605. Virilio, Paul. Desert Screen: War at the Speed of Light. London: Continuum, 2002.
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  607. Argues that the Persian Gulf War was the first information war.
  608. Find this resource:
  609. “War on Terror”
  610.  
  611. In the wake of Bush’s “war on terror,” the literature tended to highlight a deepening of the trends first seen in the Persian Gulf War. On the one hand, the changes to media coverage became more pronounced with the rise of the Internet and a more aggressive and global 24/7 TV news. On the other hand, the government retained significant power over the media, especially in 2003 when Bush used it to sell his war and then embedded correspondents covering the fighting.
  612.  
  613. Propaganda
  614.  
  615. The George W. Bush administration was particularly forceful in making the case for the Iraq War in 2003 and attacking dissenters thereafter. Much of the literature on the media’s role criticizes its willingness either to go along with the administration’s propaganda or be cowed by the administration’s threats. Conroy and Hanson 2008 looks at the government’s close relationship with the media. Artz and Kamalipour 2005 concentrates on the initial invasion, as does Robinson, et al. 2010, although its focus is on the British experience. Di Maggio 2009 explores the limits to media dissent even when the war started to go badly. Kumar 2006 argues that the media’s failure to scrutinize Bush’s case for war raises larger questions about its usefulness. Norris, et al. 2003 focuses on the use of bold headlines to create support for Bush’s hawkish policies. Nacos, et al. 2011 stress the Bush administration’s creation of a climate of fear to sell its counterterrorism agenda.
  616.  
  617. Artz, Lee, ‪and Yahya R. Kamalipour, eds. Bring ‘Em On: Media and Politics in the Iraq War. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2005.
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  619. With contributions from the field of mass communication, political science, and sociology, looks at how politicians used the media to prepare the public for war in 2003.
  620. Find this resource:
  621. Conroy, Thomas, and Jarice Hanson, eds. Constructing America’s War Culture: Iraq, Media, and Images at Home. Lanham, MD: Lexington, 2008.
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  623. A series of essays that explore how the George W. Bush administration effectively used the “hyper-commercial U.S. media” to sell the Iraq War to the American people.
  624. Find this resource:
  625. DiMaggio, Anthony. When the Media Goes to War: Hegemonic Discourse, Public Opinion, and the Limits of Dissent. New York: Monthly Review Press, 2009.
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  627. Argues that US media coverage essentially supported the Bush administration’s case for war, “internalizing and disseminating official views” while ignoring dissenters.
  628. Find this resource:
  629. Kumar, Deepa. “Media, War, and Propaganda: Strategies of Information Management during the 2003 Iraq War.” Communication and Critical/Cultural Studies 3 (2006): 48–69.
  630. DOI: 10.1080/14791420500505650Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  631. Examines why the media accepted Bush’s arguments for war in 2003, arguing this was a major failure in its role of scrutinizing government.
  632. Find this resource:
  633. Nacos, Brigitte L., Yaeli Bloch-Elkon, and Robert Y. Shapiro. Selling Fear: Counterterrorism, the Media and Public Opinion. Chicago: Chicago University Press, 2011.
  634. DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226567204.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  635. Shows how the Bush administration used the media to create a climate of fear in support of its counterterrorism policies.
  636. Find this resource:
  637. Norris, Pippa, Montague Kern, and Marion Just, eds. Framing Terrorism: The News Media, the Government, and the Public. New York: Routledge, 2003.
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  639. A series of essays that emphasize the importance of headlines in agenda setting and creating support for hawkish policies.
  640. Find this resource:
  641. Robinson, Piers, Peter Goddard, Katy Parry, and Craig Murray. Pockets of Resistance: British News Media, War, and the Theory in the 2003 Invasion of Iraq. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 2010.
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  643. Detailed account of the British media’s coverage of the 2003 invasion of Iraq.
  644. Find this resource:
  645. Embedded Correspondents
  646.  
  647. Almost as controversial was the US military’s system of embedding correspondents. Cortell, et al. 2009 examines the motives behind the decision to embed. Katovsky and Carlson 2003 collects some of the main reports the embeds produced in the first phase of that year’s war. Paul and Kim 2004 and Rid 2007 place embedded reporting in historical context. Jones 2008 provides a popular account of media reporting.
  648.  
  649. Cortell, Andrew P., Robert M. Eisinger, and Scott L. Althaus. “Why Embed: Explaining the Bush Administration’s Decision to Embed Reporters in the 2003 Invasion of Iraq.” American Behavioral Scientist 52 (2009): 657–677.
  650. DOI: 10.1177/0002764208326514Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  651. Looks at the reasons for the decision to embed, emphasizing the Afghan experience, current communication technologies, and an effort to provide frontline access.
  652. Find this resource:
  653. Jones, Charles. Red, White, or Yellow? The Media and the Military at War in Iraq. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole, 2008.
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  655. A pacey, entertaining, and impassioned look at how the media reported war in the age of Fox news and blogging.
  656. Find this resource:
  657. Katovsky, Bill, and Timothy Carlson, ed. Embedded: The Media at War in Iraq. Guilford, CT: Lyons, 2003.
  658. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  659. An anthology of US news stories on the initial phase of the Iraq War, with a trenchant introduction on the strengths and pitfalls of embedded reporting.
  660. Find this resource:
  661. Paul, Christopher, and James J. Kim. Reporters on the Battlefield: The Embedded Press System in Historical Context. Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 2004.
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  663. Explores why the system of embedded reporting was deemed to be so successful during the initial phase of the Iraq War in 2003, looking at the extent to which it fulfilled key goals, like not compromising security, ensuring reporters’ safety, maintaining quality journalism, and satisfying public demand for war news.
  664. Find this resource:
  665. Rid, Thomas. War and Media Operations: The U.S. Military and the Press from Vietnam to Iraq. New York: Routledge, 2007.
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  667. Examines the American military’s news management since Vietnam, culminating in its embedding reporters in the 2003 Iraq War.
  668. Find this resource:
  669. Global Media Responses
  670.  
  671. While the US media largely supported its government, elsewhere the situation was far more complex. Miles 2005 provides a well-written account of the most prominent non-American news source: Al-Jazeera. Seib 2008 argues that Al-Jazeera’s reporting has been so important that it has created a new “effect,” which further erodes the importance of state borders. Van der Veer and Munshi 2004 examines how the media in Middle Eastern and Asian countries responded to post 9/11 events. Kabha and Caspi 2011 offers a detailed account of the Palestinian press. Gavrielty-Nuri 2013 shows how the Israeli media has helped to normalize war in that country’s popular discourse. Wolfsfeld 1997 sees these government efforts to control the media as part of a larger attempt to dominate the political process. Moeller 2008 offers a useful comparison between American, British, and Arab media responses to terror.
  672.  
  673. Gavrielty-Nuri, Dalia. The Normalization of War in Israeli Discourse, 1967–2008. Lanham, MD: Lexington, 2013.
  674. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  675. Uses the notion of “war-normalizing discourse” to examine how war has become central to Israel’s identity in recent decades.
  676. Find this resource:
  677. Kabha, Mustafa, and Dan Caspi. The Palestinian Arab In/Outsiders: Media and Conflict in Israel. London: Vallentine Mitchell, 2011.
  678. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  679. Summarizes the different organs that make up the Palestinian press and the problems that it has to navigate, including Israeli censorship and lack of money,
  680. Find this resource:
  681. Miles, H. Al-Jazeera: The Inside Story of the Arab News Channel That Is Challenging the West. New York: Grove, 2005.
  682. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  683. Detailed and readable account of Al-Jazeera’s rise and its consequences for the global media.
  684. Find this resource:
  685. Moeller, Susan. Packaging Terrorism: Co-opting the News for Politics and Profit. New York: Wiley-Blackwell, 2008.
  686. DOI: 10.1002/9781444306040Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  687. Although concentrating on how the American media packages the war on terror, it contains comparisons with the British and Arab media.
  688. Find this resource:
  689. Seib, Philip. Al Jazeera Effect: How the New Global Media Are Reshaping World Politics. Washington, DC: Potomac, 2008.
  690. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  691. Argues that today’s “Al Jazeera effect” takes that the old “CNN effect” a stage further, shaping responses to international events that transcend old borders.
  692. Find this resource:
  693. Van der Veer, Peter, and Shoma Munshi, ed. Media, War, and Terrorism: Responses from the Middle East and Asia. London: Routledge, 2004.
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  695. Contrasts the largely unified American and European media response to 9/11 and its aftermath, with the vigorous media debates in many Middle Eastern and Asian countries.
  696. Find this resource:
  697. Wolfsfeld, Gadi. Media and Political Conflict: News from the Middle East. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1997.
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  699. In the context of the Middle East conflict, explores the efforts of states to control the news media and the extent to which they have succeeded.
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