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Ambedkar Buddhism (Buddhism)

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  1.  
  2. Introduction
  3. Ambedkar Buddhism, or Navayana (“new vehicle”) Buddhism, began on 14 October 1956 in Nagpur, India, when nearly 400,000 Dalits, formerly known as Untouchables, converted from Hinduism. Led by Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar (b. 1891–d. 1956), the anti-caste activist, lawyer, politician, and scholar, the new Buddhists soon numbered in the millions, growing most notably in the populous states of Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh but also in poor villages and urban neighborhoods throughout India, and among Dalit expatriates abroad. Ambedkar believed that the ideals of universal human rights, self-reliance, and non-violent struggle (expressed in the slogans “liberty, equality, fraternity” and “educate, agitate, organize”) are grounded in the Dhamma, the ancient teaching of the Buddha. As Ambedkar gained recognition as a founding father of the Republic of India and principal draftsman of its Constitution, his Navayana Buddhism came to be identified as a form of socially engaged Buddhism, paralleling movements for self-determination and economic justice in Tibet, Vietnam, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, and Thailand. Further parallels to the Humanistic Buddhism of China and Taiwan, the Nichiren-inspired New Religions of Japan, and many engaged Buddhist organizations in the West have been analyzed by scholars. Ambedkar Buddhism is not well represented in mainstream Buddhist Studies, however, possibly because its focus on social change appears at odds with the traditional Buddhist emphasis on personal transformation. Some scholars regard Ambedkar’s Navayana and other engaged Buddhist movements as a “fourth yana” or practice vehicle, in contrast with the individual path of Hinayana (Theravada) Buddhism, the messianic and missionary spirit of Mahayana Buddhism (including Pure Land and Zen traditions), and the ritualism and scholasticism of Vajrayana Buddhism.
  4.  
  5. Writings and Speeches
  6. Ambedkar’s publications have appeared in English, Marathi, Hindi, and other languages, often translated from one to the other and covering his substantial output on politics, economics, history, sociology, and religion. The twenty-one volumes of Ambedkar 1979–2006 are the primary resource for scholars in English. Important statements on Buddhism that do not appear here, such as “Buddha and the Future of His Religion (Maha Bodhi, April–May, 1950) and his addresses to the Third Conference of the World Fellowship of Buddhists (December 1954, Rangoon) and the Fourth Conference of the World Fellowship of Buddhists (20 November 1956, Kathmandu) appear in Ambedkar 1982. Ambedkar 1996 contains a skillful reconstruction of an essay that remained incomplete at the author’s death, and a related work on the role of Women in Buddhism. For critical editions of the writings on Buddhism, Ambedkar 2002 and Ambedkar 2011 are extremely valuable. Ambedkar 2013 offers a unique perspective into Ambedkar’s writings on women. The two websites, Dr. B. R. Ambedkar and Dr. Ambedkar and His People, offer resources supported, respectively, by Ambedkar’s alma mater, Columbia University, and by activists within the Ambedkar Buddhist movement.
  7.  
  8. Ambedkar, Bhimrao Ramji. Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar: Writings and Speeches. 21 vols. Edited by Vasant Moon. Mumbai: Education Department, Government of Maharashtra, 1979–2006.
  9.  
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  11.  
  12. A wide-ranging collection of Ambedkar’s English writings (some previously unpublished), speeches, letters, manuscripts, and notes. Ambedkar’s major works related to Buddhism (The Buddha and His Dhamma, The Untouchables, Revolution and Counterrevolution in Ancient India, “Buddha and Karl Marx,” Pali Dictionary, and Buddha Pooja Path) are contained in this series.
  13.  
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  15.  
  16. Ambedkar, Bhimrao Ramji. Dr. Ambedkar on Buddhism. Edited by D. C. Ahir. Mumbai: Siddharth, 1982.
  17.  
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  19.  
  20. A concise anthology of excerpts from Ambedkar’s writings and speeches by a leading lay chronicler of the movement.
  21.  
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  23.  
  24. Ambedkar, Bhimrao Ramji. Buddhist Revolution and Counter-Revolution in Ancient India. Edited by D. C. Ahir. New Delhi: B. R. Publishing, 1996.
  25.  
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  27.  
  28. Editorial reconstruction of a work only one-third complete as it appears in Ambedkar 1979–2006, Volume 3, based on Ambedkar’s original outline, using cited materials from Ambedkar’s other writings. A related essay, “The Rise and Fall of Hindu Women,” is appended, along with the editor’s index.
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  31.  
  32. Ambedkar, Bhimrao Ramji. The Essential Writings of B. R. Ambedkar. Edited by Valerian Rodrigues. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2002.
  33.  
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  35.  
  36. The most comprehensive anthology of Ambedkar’s works, edited and annotated by the director of the Centre for Political Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University. The editor contextualizes Ambedkar Buddhism among selections treating methodology, ideology, religion, caste, and untouchability, identity, economics, nationalism, and constitutional law. With extensive notes, bibliographies, chronology, and index. The survey of Ambedkar primary and secondary writings in English and Indian languages is a valuable supplement to this bibliography.
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  39.  
  40. Ambedkar, Bhimrao Ramji. The Buddha and His Dhamma: A Critical Edition. Edited by Aakash Singh Rathore and Ajay Verma. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2011.
  41.  
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  43.  
  44. A scholarly edition of Ambedkar’s final work, with author’s original preface, introduction, and prologue, as well as editor’s preface, critical introduction, annotations, glossaries, bibliographies, and index. Builds upon the research of Vasant Moon, Anand Kausalyayan, Adele Fiske, Christopher Queen, Gary Tartakov, and others.
  45.  
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  47.  
  48. Ambedkar, Bhimrao Ramji. Against the Madness of Manu: B. R. Ambedkar’s Writings on Brahmanical Patriarchy. Edited by Sharmila Rege. New Delhi: Navayana, 2013.
  49.  
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  51.  
  52. University of Pune sociologist Rege offers a “feminist reclamation” of Ambedkar’s writings through critical introductions and annotations of selected texts, with full bibliography and index. Published by Navayana, the innovative publisher of Ambedkar and related anti-caste and Buddhist studies.
  53.  
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  55.  
  56. Dr. Ambedkar and His People.
  57.  
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  59.  
  60. Maintained by Dalit-Bahujan Media, the website is a gallery of social and political news related to Dalit and Buddhist life; journalistic, historical, and literary resources related to Dalit and Buddhist identity; Ambedkar and Buddhist canonical writings; video clips of speeches by Ambedkar and others; interviews; and social networking opportunities.
  61.  
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  63.  
  64. Dr. B. R. Ambedkar.
  65.  
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  67.  
  68. Maintained by Columbia University professor Frances Pritchett, this website supports an annotated, indexed, interactive text of Ambedkar’s Annihilation of Caste; a chronology of Ambedkar’s life; selected speeches, images, writings, video clips, and a searchable text of The Buddha and His Dhamma. Ambedkar earned his doctorate from Columbia in 1927.
  69.  
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  71.  
  72. Biography
  73. As the first Untouchable to pursue formal education, Ambedkar had become a sensation by the time of his high school graduation, prompting the headmaster of a neighboring school to throw a special matriculation party for him and to give him a biography of the Buddha. Tributes and profiles of Ambedkar’s life and work followed him through his career, accelerating in his final years. Keer 1987 and Kairmode 2000 began their projects during Ambedkar’s lifetime, then many others followed. The multi-volume works in Marathi of Kamble 1984–1987 and Kairmode 2000, and the works cited under Memoirs and Images view their subject from close up, while Kadam 1991, Omvedt 2004, and Jaffrelot 2005 see him through historical and social-scientific lenses. Keer 1987 and Moon 2002 approach from a middle ground, objective but not analytical.
  74.  
  75. Kadam, K. N. Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar and the Significance of His Movement: A Chronology. Mumbai: Popular Prakashan, 1991.
  76.  
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  78.  
  79. Kadam convincingly divides Ambedkar’s career into five phases, showing the social and political dynamics in play at each point. This is followed by a month-by-month chronology of Ambedkar’s career and surrounding events, and four appendices covering Ambedkar’s educational career and writings.
  80.  
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  82.  
  83. Kairmode, C. B. Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar Charitra. 2d ed. 14 vols. Pune, India: Sugava Prakashan, 2000.
  84.  
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  86.  
  87. In Marathi. The most authoritative biography of Ambedkar, according to Rodrigues 2002 (cited under Writings and Speeches). First six volumes published by the author between 1952 and his death in 1971. Remaining volumes were by the Maharashtra Sahitya Sanskriti Mandal, Mumbai, a consortium of scholars.
  88.  
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  90.  
  91. Kamble, B. C. Samagra Ambedkar Charitra. 11 vols. Mumbai, 1984–1987.
  92.  
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  94.  
  95. In Marathi. Along with two Marathi biographies by S. R. Kharat, Dr Babasaheb Ambedkaranchya Sahavasant (Pune, India: Bandhu Prakashan, 1982) and Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkarkaranchi Atmakatha (Pune, India: Thokal Prakashan, 1977), Kamble provides detailed historical analysis and intimate details of Ambedkar’s life and work, according to Rodrigues 2002 (cited under Writings and Speeches).
  96.  
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  98.  
  99. Keer, Dhananjay. Dr. Ambedkar: Life and Mission. Mumbai: Popular Prakashan, 1987.
  100.  
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  102.  
  103. The most widely known and cited biography in English, based on personal interviews with Ambedkar and extensive archival research. Originally published in 1954, it is authoritative and readable.
  104.  
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  106.  
  107. Jaffrelot, Christophe. Dr. Ambedkar and Untouchability: Analyzing and Fighting Caste. Delhi: Permanent Black, 2005.
  108.  
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  110.  
  111. The French sociologist presents Ambedkar as a deep intellectual who found in Deweyan pragmatism a sharp weapon to attack the ideology and violence of caste, and in Buddhism a strong shield against the lures of Brahmanic “sanskritization.” Sophisticated analysis of the historical and political settings of the Buddhist conversion.
  112.  
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  114.  
  115. Moon, Vasant. Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar. Translated from Marathi by Asha Damle. New Delhi: National Book Trust, 2002.
  116.  
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  118.  
  119. By the editor of Ambedkar’s writings and speeches, who offered security protection to the great man as a Dalit boy, this life is both comprehensive and intimate. Occasional footnoted references; no preface, bibliography, or index.
  120.  
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  122.  
  123. Omvedt, Gail. Ambedkar: Towards an Enlightened India. New Delhi: Penguin Viking, 2004.
  124.  
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  126.  
  127. Draws on the author’s previous studies of the history and dynamics of the Dalit movement to present its leader in clear detail. Omvedt is an American scholar and naturalized Indian citizen who has rich connections to the scholarly and activist communities related to Ambedkar Buddhism.
  128.  
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  130.  
  131. Memoirs and Images
  132. The category is necessarily hybrid, containing firsthand memories of Ambedkar, his life and times, and their depiction in literature, art, and film. Thanks to the Internet and YouTube, we may include the performing and cinematic arts in such a survey. Keer 1982 may be considered a supplement to Keer 1982, while Rattu 1995 and Rattu 1997, and Shastri 1989 are detailed accounts of Ambedkar’s last years. Tarkakov 2012 is the indispensable reference for understanding Ambedkar Buddhist art, while the travel book Uttar Pradesh 2010 demonstrates the continued use of monumental art and architecture in Indian Buddhism, more than two thousand years after the Ashokan monuments and the great universities at Nalanda and Taxila. Vyam, et al. 2011 is a new direction in Ambedkar narration, using the graphic novel as a transmission vehicle for all ages. Finally, YouTube offers a wealth of audio and video reproductions of archival material from Ambedkar’s time in Immortal Recorded Live Video Clips of Dr. Ambedkar.
  133.  
  134. Immortal Recorded Live Video Clips of Dr. Ambedkar.
  135.  
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  137.  
  138. A wealth of audio and video clips of Ambedkar’s activities, interviews, and commentators. Portions of the Jabbar Patel feature film, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar, may also be found. Like other Internet materials, these artistic depictions and glimpses into the past must be viewed or audited critically.
  139.  
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  141.  
  142. Keer, Dhananjay. Dr. Ambedkar: A Memorial Album. Mumbai: Popular Prakashan, 1982.
  143.  
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  145.  
  146. The most complete printed collection of archival photos of Ambedkar’s life and times, most supplied by private archivist V. G. Surwade. Reproduction quality is poor, and the captions neglect the date and provenance of the photos and, in some cases, the occasion.
  147.  
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  149.  
  150. Uttar Pradesh. Toward an Equalitarian Society: A U.P. Buddhist Tourism Guide Book. Lucknow, India: Information and Public Relations Department, 2010.
  151.  
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  153.  
  154. Hardcover, large-format book in Hindi and English, featuring articles, maps, and high-resolution photographs of the restoration of ancient Buddhist sites, construction of the new Gautam Buddha University, massive monuments honoring Buddha, Ambedkar, and U. P. Chief Minister Mayawati, with Mayawati’s correspondence with other officials associated with these lavish government projects.
  155.  
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  157.  
  158. Rattu, Nanak Chand. Reminiscences and Remembrances of Dr. B. R. Ambedkar. New Delhi: Falcon, 1995.
  159.  
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  161.  
  162. Collected and penned by Ambedkar’s personal secretary in his final years, the volume summarizes Ambedkar’s own “reminiscences” of significant events in his life and then turns to “remembrances” of those who knew him intimately and professionally. With appendix of writings and signatures in Ambedkar’s hand.
  163.  
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  165.  
  166. Rattu, Nanak Chand. Last Few Years of Dr. Ambedkar. New Delhi: Amrita, 1997.
  167.  
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  169.  
  170. A sequel to Rattu 1995, with additional episodes in Ambedkar’s life, as transcribed by the author. Most significantly, this is a detailed account of the final week of Ambedkar’s life and work (he was still correcting proofs of The Buddha and His Dhamma to the end) and the aftermath of his death. Rattu is a keen and devoted observer. With photos and index.
  171.  
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  173.  
  174. Shastri, Shankaranand. My Memories and Experiences of Babasaheb Dr. B. R. Ambedkar. Ghaziabad, India: Smt. Sumithra Shastri, 1989.
  175.  
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  177.  
  178. The author was a protégé of Ambedkar’s from 1935 to 1956. This memoir fills in many details missed in the biographies and memoirs of Keer and Rattu.
  179.  
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  181.  
  182. Tarkakov, Gary Michael. Dalit Art and Visual Imagery. Indian Institute of Dalit Studies. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2012.
  183.  
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  185.  
  186. Groundbreaking studies of the art and symbolism of the movement. The editor offers a valuable introduction to his best previously published studies and those of four other scholars. Prefaced by Sukhadeo Thorat, a leading thinker and activist of the Ambedkar movement. With 147 illustrations and sixteen color plates.
  187.  
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  189.  
  190. Vyam, Durgabai, Subhash, Srividya Natarajan, and S. Anand. Bhimayana: Experiences of Untouchability. New Delhi: Navayana, 2011.
  191.  
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  193.  
  194. A graphic novel of the life of Ambedkar and the movement that he inspired. Beautifully narrated, drawn, and produced in color by Navayana, the award-winning publisher of Ambedkariana. Suitable for readers of all ages.
  195.  
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  197.  
  198. Buddhist Lives
  199. Dozens of Ambedkarite Buddhist biographies and autobiographies have been penned in Marathi, Hindi, and other Indian languages. The following titles are among the best in English, featuring both historical predecessors in Ahir 1989, and Pawar and Moon 2006; and modern activists in Moon 2001, Pawar and Moon 2006, Das 2004, and Bose 2008. Within this grouping, Moon 2001 and Nimgade 2010 stand as paradigmatic examples of Ambedkar’s influence on the first generation of Dalit professionals and religious converts from the city of Nagpur, ground-zero of the movement. The role of Buddhism is integral to all of these stories, though it is not foregrounded in all of them as in the historical and critical studies. Teltumbde 2008 recounts the Khairlanji massacre and illustrates the imminence of sudden, violent death in the lives of Indian Dalits.
  200.  
  201. Ahir, D. C. The Pioneers of Buddhist Revival in India. New Delhi: Sri Satguru, 1989.
  202.  
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  204.  
  205. Profiles of thirty leaders who revived Buddhism in India: nine missionaries from outside India, twelve ordained Buddhist leaders of Indian birth, and nine lay activists, scholars, and converts, culminating in B. R. Ambedkar. With an appendix titled “Friends of Buddhism,” bibliography, and indices of persons and places.
  206.  
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  208.  
  209. Bose, Ajoy. Behenji: A Political Biography of Mayawati. New Delhi: Penguin, 2008.
  210.  
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  212.  
  213. A journalist’s biography of the Dalit politician who sponsored the restoration of Buddhist pilgrimage cites, the foundation of a Buddhist university, and the glorification of Ambedkar’s legacy. Buddhism is mentioned only twice in the book, but Mayawati’s association with Dalit Buddhism is widely acknowledged (see Uttar Pradesh 2010, cited under Memoirs and Images).
  214.  
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  216.  
  217. Das, Bhagwan. In Pursuit of Ambedkar. New Delhi: Navayana, 2004.
  218.  
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  220.  
  221. Autobiographical sketches by the research assistant to Ambedkar in his last days, and editor of the four-volume collection of Ambedkar speeches, Thus Spoke Ambedkar (1963–1990). With photographs, a CD documentary on Das’s life, and introduction by S. Anand, Navayana publisher and project sponsor.
  222.  
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  224.  
  225. Moon, Vasant. Growing up Untouchable in India: A Dalit Autobiography. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2001.
  226.  
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  228.  
  229. Dalit activist and editor of Ambedkar 1979–2006 (cited under Writings and Speeches) relates his childhood in Nagpur, birthplace of the Buddhist revival and the ultra-conservative Hindu R. S. S. movement that opposed it. Includes maps, photos, art, chronology, glossary, biographical notes, bibliography, index, and a critical introduction by Eleanor Zelliot, leading historian of the Ambedkar movement.
  230.  
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  232.  
  233. Nimgade, Namdeo. In the Tiger’s Shadow: The Autobiography of an Ambedkarite. New Delhi: Navayana, 2010.
  234.  
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  236.  
  237. Engaging memoir of the second ex-Untouchable to earn a PhD in the United States, after Ambedkar. Nimgade rose from village poverty to eminence as a university professor and researcher, inspired by Ambedkar’s emphasis on higher education and public service. With photos, bibliography, and preface by Christopher Queen.
  238.  
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  240.  
  241. Pawar, Urmila, and Meenakshi Moon. We Also Made History: Women in the Ambedkarite Movement. Translated from Marathi and with an introduction by Wandana Sonalkar. New Delhi: Zubaan, 2006.
  242.  
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  244.  
  245. As in the case of the Mayawati biography, this history of women’s involvement in the Ambedkar movement does not focus on Buddhist conversion or practice. Rather, the authors’ twelve interpretive chapters and forty-four profiles of movement leaders show the importance of religious identity and conversion in their lives. Bibliography and eight archival photographs.
  246.  
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  248.  
  249. Teltumbde, Anand. Khairlanji: A Strange and Bitter Crop. New Delhi: Navayana, 2008.
  250.  
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  252.  
  253. The author documents the ritualistic massacre of a Dalit family on the outskirts of Nagpur on 29 September 2006, at a time when a million pilgrims were celebrating the fiftieth anniversary of the Buddhist conversions. In the process, he introduces the reader to the lives of the victims and their killers and to the dysfunctional public institutions (police, courts, and press) that enable widespread caste-based violence across India. An index is also included.
  254.  
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  256.  
  257. Historical Studies
  258. While most histories of modern India take account of the anti-caste movements that emerged under British colonial rule in the 19th century, as well as the intensification of these forces under Ambedkar’s leadership since the 1920s, few studies have read the Buddhist conversions of 1956 back into this history to document the role of religious identity along the way. Each of the following volumes contributes to this enterprise. Zelliot 2013 is the doctoral dissertation, now in its third edition, that launched Ambedkar historical studies. Zelliot 1979, Ahir 1998, and Aloysius 1998 offer historical background, and Ramteke 1983 offers documentary and demographic background to the rise of the Buddhist revival. Wilkinson and Thomas 1972 and Macy and Zelliot 1980 focus more on religious belief and practice than historical precedent and dynamics. Omvedt 2003 promotes understanding by placing all of this on the longest timeline.
  259.  
  260. Ahir, D. C. Fifty Years of Independence: 1947–1997. Status, Growth and Development: Buddhism. New Delhi: B. R. Publishing, 1998.
  261.  
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  263.  
  264. Covers five decades surrounding the 1956 conversion. Particularly valuable is the author’s assessment of the role of the Dalai Lama and the Tibetan exile community, the rise of the Vipassana meditation movement led by S. N. Goenka, and of Buddhist lay societies, academic studies, and monastic viharas. Excellent index.
  265.  
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  267.  
  268. Aloysius, G. Religion as Emancipatory Identity: A Buddhist Movement among the Tamils under Colonialism. New Delhi: New Age International, 1998.
  269.  
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  271.  
  272. A critical history of the revival of Buddhism in Tamil-speaking India during the late 19th century and early 20th century. Ten appendices include historical documents and Ambedkar’s preface to the third edition of P. Lakshmi Narasu’s Essence of Buddhism, a classic expression of Tamil Buddhism. With a detailed index.
  273.  
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  275.  
  276. Macy, Joanna Rogers, and Eleanor Zelliot. “Tradition and Innovation in Contemporary Indian Buddhism.” In Studies in the History of Buddhism. Edited by A. K. Narain, 133–153. New Delhi: B. R. Publishing, 1980.
  277.  
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  279.  
  280. A path-breaking study of Ambedkar Buddhism by a historian and a scholar-activist, based on archival material and field observations. Remains a concise and comprehensive phenomenology of the movement.
  281.  
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  283.  
  284. Omvedt, Gail. Buddhism in India: Challenging Brahmanism and Caste. New Delhi: SAGE, 2003.
  285.  
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  287.  
  288. Magisterial survey from classical Buddhism to its Navayana descendant. Omvedt follows Ambedkar in viewing the competition of Brahmanism and Buddhism as ruling ideologies, with caste as the battleground separating and motivating them. Omvedt’s theory of the origin and development of the caste system is a novel one. Bibliography and index included.
  289.  
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  291.  
  292. Ramteke, D. L. Revival of Buddhism in Modern India. New Delhi: Deep and Deep, 1983.
  293.  
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  295.  
  296. Richly documented history of the rise, fall, and revival of Buddhism in India. Written by a Pali and Buddhist Studies professor and director of colleges of the People’s Education Society, founded by Ambedkar in the 1940s. Extensive appendices, bibliography, and index.
  297.  
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  299.  
  300. Wilkinson, T. S., and M. M. Thomas, eds. Ambedkar and the Neo-Buddhist Movement. Madras, India: The Christian Literature Society, 1972.
  301.  
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  303.  
  304. An early and still useful collection of essays on Ambedkar Buddhism. Of particular value are B. A. M. Paradkar’s “The Religious Quest of Ambedkar” and Richard Taylor’s “The Ambedkarite Buddhists.”
  305.  
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  307.  
  308. Zelliot, Eleanor. “The Indian Rediscovery of Buddhism, 1855–1956.” In Studies in Pali and Buddhism: A Memorial Volume in Honor of Bhikkhu Jagdish Kashyap. Edited by A. K. Narain and L. Zwilling, 389–406. New Delhi: B. R. Publishing, 1979.
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  311.  
  312. Another influential study by Zelliot, showing that the Buddhist revival in India derived from five strands: scholarship, religious practice, popular writing, remnant Buddhist communities, and low-caste converts such as the Ambedkar movement. Each of these is analyzed in depth. With forty references.
  313.  
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  315.  
  316. Zelliot, Eleanor. Ambedkar’s World: The Making of Babasaheb and the Dalit Movement. New Delhi: Navayana, 2013.
  317.  
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  319.  
  320. A reissue of the University of Pennsylvania doctoral dissertation (1969) by the first historian to study the Ambedkar movement in depth. Zelliot introduces the historical, cultural, and personal factors that culminated in the Buddhist conversions of 1956 and their aftermath. Extensive notes, bibliography (up to 1969), and index.
  321.  
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  323.  
  324. Collections
  325. The high quality of these scholarly collections belies the infancy of Ambedkar Buddhist studies. Zelliot 1992 is possibly the most influential collection of essays on the Ambedkar movement. The anthologies edited by Jondhale and Beltz 2004 and Narain and Ahir 1994 zero in on the revival and transformation of Buddhism following the conversions of 1956, while the collections edited by Joshi 1986, Queen and King 1996, Mungekar and Rathore 2007, and Ranga 2000 treat Ambedkar Buddhism in broader contexts. All collections are uneven, both empirically and methodologically, but most scholarly commentators on Ambedkar Buddhism have advanced the discussion in useful ways. It is notable that mainstream Buddhist Studies has ignored Ambedkar Buddhism, by and large, considering the size and rapid rise of the movement and the novelty of its orientation.
  326.  
  327. Jondhale, Surendra, and Johannes Beltz, eds. Reconstructing the World: B. R. Ambedkar and Buddhism in India. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2004.
  328.  
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  330.  
  331. Papers originally presented at an international symposium at the University of Pune in 1998, organized in three categories: Ambedkar’s search for Buddhism, reinventing an egalitarian and universal religion, and Buddhist movements in modern India. The collection is multidisciplinary and methodologically advanced. Fully indexed.
  332.  
  333. Find this resource:
  334.  
  335. Joshi, Barbara R., ed. Untouchable! Voices of the Dalit Liberation Movement. London: Zed Books, 1986.
  336.  
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  338.  
  339. Twenty-seven articles and excerpts of previous writings detailing the social and political environment surrounding the Dalit movement, featuring literature, artwork, and photographs of the Dalit Panther movement. The voices include activists and academics in India, Britain, and North America, whose aim is “total abolition of Untouchability.” With tables and bibliography.
  340.  
  341. Find this resource:
  342.  
  343. Mungekar, Bhalchandra, and Aakash Singh Rathore, eds. Buddhism and the Contemporary World: An Ambedkarian Perspective. Sponsored by the Dr. Ambedkar Institute of Social and Economic Change. New Delhi: Bookwell, 2007.
  344.  
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  346.  
  347. Papers presented at a conference organized by a member of the prime minister’s planning commission and former Vice Chancellor of the University of Mumbai (Mungekar), and a reader in philosophy, Delhi University (Rathore). Chapters treat the current shape of the movement and its future challenges.
  348.  
  349. Find this resource:
  350.  
  351. Narain, A. K., and D. C. Ahir, eds. Dr. Ambedkar, Buddhism, and Social Change. New Delhi: B. R. Publishing, 1994.
  352.  
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  354.  
  355. Articles by leading authorities on Ambedkar Buddhism, including Ahir, Fitzgerald, Kadam, Lokamitra, Meshram, Narain, Queen, Redmond, Rodrigues, Chandra, Tartakov, and Zelliot. Originally offered at the Bhikkhu Jagdish Kashyap Institute of Buddhist and Asian Studies in Sarnath, founded by editor Narain, emeritus professor of history at the University of Wisconsin. Index included.
  356.  
  357. Find this resource:
  358.  
  359. Queen, Christopher S., and Sallie B. King, eds. Engaged Buddhism: Buddhist Liberation Movements in Asia. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1996.
  360.  
  361. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  362.  
  363. Places Ambedkar Buddhism in the context of Engaged Buddhism in Asia. Queen compares Ambedkar’s influence with that of H. S. Olcott and Anagarika Dharmapala and treats Ambedkar’s thought in depth. Alan Sponberg profiles the Trailokya Bauddha Mahasangha Sahayaka Gana (TBMSG), the largest network of Ambedkar Buddhist training institutions. Bibliographies and index.
  364.  
  365. Find this resource:
  366.  
  367. Ranga, M. L., ed. B. R. Ambedkar: His Life, Work and Relevance. New Delhi: Manohar, 2000.
  368.  
  369. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  370.  
  371. Chapters by scholar-activists Pranjpe, Gupta, Goel, Rao, Omvedt, Ahir, Misra, Yadav, and Chahal treat Ambedkar on politics, economics, conversion, and the conflict with Gandhi. The editor and some contributors attempt to address the neglect of Ambedkar studies in the academy. Six appendices comprise selected Ambedkar writings. Bibliography and index included.
  372.  
  373. Find this resource:
  374.  
  375. Zelliot, Eleanor. From Untouchable to Dalit: Essays on the Ambedkar Movement. New Delhi: Manohar, 1992.
  376.  
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  378.  
  379. Thirteen essays by historian Zelliot, collected for the first time. Despite the author’s claim that these chapters are repetitive, lack theory, and comparison to other movements, they are among the most well-informed and carefully articulated studies available. Bibliographies and index included.
  380.  
  381. Find this resource:
  382.  
  383. Caste Studies
  384. Ambedkar Buddhism is, among other things, a collective response to the sufferings of life under the Indian caste system. If the Buddha dhamma is premised on the universality of human suffering, the Untouchables and their heirs, the Dalits, may lay claim to special knowledge. Yet a study of the social/societal nature of caste requires a semantic shift in the meaning of suffering in Ambedkar Buddhism, from a radically individual one to a collective one. Buddhists outside of India, or those who are not socially disabled by caste, find it hard to follow this shift. Consequently the study of caste, its history, sociology, psychology, and politics is necessary for an adequate grasp of Ambedkar Buddhism. Human Rights Watch 1999 documents the precise and disturbing nature of the suffering. The following studies range from Ambedkar 1990, Ambedkar’s radical “undelivered speech,” to the classical sociology in Srinivas 1999 and Mendelsohn and Vicziany 1998, to the recent historical assessments of Dirks 2001, Rao 2009, Mani 2005, and Omvedt 1995.
  385.  
  386. Ambedkar, Bhimrao Ramji. Annihilation of Caste: An Undelivered Speech. Edited by Mulk Raj Anand. New Delhi: Arnold, 1990.
  387.  
  388. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  389.  
  390. Ambedkar’s passionate yet reasoned attack on the multiple abuses of the caste system in South Asia. Originally self-published in 1936 when the sponsoring Hindu organization withdrew its support. This edition includes two responses by M. K. Gandhi, Ambedkar’s rejoinder, and an interview of Ambedkar by the editor.
  391.  
  392. Find this resource:
  393.  
  394. Dirks, Nicholas B. Castes of Mind: Colonialism and the Making of Modern India. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001.
  395.  
  396. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  397.  
  398. The author argues that caste is not the perennial mark of Indian social organization, but “a modern phenomenon . . .the product of an historical encounter between India and Western colonial rule.” Ambedkar realized that religious identity and morality, beyond politics and economics, must drive caste reform. Extensive notes and index.
  399.  
  400. Find this resource:
  401.  
  402. Mani, Braj Ranjan. Debrahmanising History: Dominance and Resistance in Indian Society. New Delhi: Manohar, 2005.
  403.  
  404. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  405.  
  406. A journalist-scholar’s history of the conflict between Brahman and anti-Brahman movements in India, with chapters on Vedic civilization, early Buddhism, Bhakti poet-saints, British-Brahmanic orientalism, and modern reformers, culminating with Ambedkar. The role of Buddhism as the leading anti-Brahmanical heterodoxy is featured throughout. Includes notes, bibliography, and index.
  407.  
  408. Find this resource:
  409.  
  410. Mendelsohn, Oliver, and Marika Vicziany. The Untouchables: Subordination, Poverty and the State in Modern India. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
  411.  
  412. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511612213Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  413.  
  414. Australian professors of law and economics detail the history, politics, and social experience of Dalits in India. Chapter 3 focuses on the role of religion from the 19th century to 1956. The most comprehensive social scientific account of the practice and ideology of untouchability. Bibliography and index included.
  415.  
  416. Find this resource:
  417.  
  418. Narula, Smita. Broken People: Caste Violence against India’s “Untouchables.” New York: Human Rights Watch, 1999.
  419.  
  420. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  421.  
  422. Based on interviews of three hundred Dalit men and women, a hundred government officers, social workers, Dalit activists, and attorneys in 1998. A scathing survey of systematic violence perpetrated in the name of caste in India. Seven appendices comprise legal, political, and sociological documents related to caste violence in India. Nine color plates.
  423.  
  424. Find this resource:
  425.  
  426. Omvedt, Gail. Understanding Caste: From Buddha to Ambedkar and Beyond. 2d ed. Dalit Visions. New Delhi: Orient Longman, 1995.
  427.  
  428. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  429.  
  430. The author surveys 2,500 years of anti-caste movements, including Buddhism, the medieval poet-saints, 19th-century reformers, Ambedkar, Dalit Panthers and their literature, feminists, and the rise of the Bahujan Samaj Party. Revised edition (previously titled Dalit Visions), with comprehensive index.
  431.  
  432. Find this resource:
  433.  
  434. Rao, Anupama. The Caste Question: Dalits and the Politics of Modern India. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009.
  435.  
  436. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  437.  
  438. Charts a course between Louis Dumont’s theory of caste as the DNA of Indian society, and Dirks, who argues that caste was decisively shaped by British colonialists. She offers an historical anthropology of Dalit experience, the influence of Ambedkar, and the conversion to Buddhism. Extensive notes and index.
  439.  
  440. Find this resource:
  441.  
  442. Srinivas, M. N., ed. Caste: Its Twentieth Century Avatar. New Delhi: Penguin, 1999.
  443.  
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  445.  
  446. Sociologist Srinivas’s notion of “sanskritization” (upward aspiration/downward disdain) was prefigured by Ambedkar’s work at Columbia University in 1915. This excellent collection advances the discussion. Neera Burra’s contribution, “Buddhism, Conversion and Identity: A case Study of Village India,” is among the best micro-studies of Ambedkar Buddhism available. Index included.
  447.  
  448. Find this resource:
  449.  
  450. Conversion Studies
  451. Conversion studies have become an important category in the academic study of religion. Because of the size and social reverberations of the Dalit conversions, Ambedkar Buddhism offers rich opportunities for insight into the psychology and politics of mass conversions. These authors draw useful conclusions from documentary and field research. Webster 1999 and Beltz 2005 see the field from inside the communities formed by caste and religious affiliation, while Viswanathan 1998 places the phenomenology of conversion into a larger discussion of social and political evolution. Shastree 1996 raises disturbing questions about the ways in which conversion may introduce ambiguity and dysfunction in some settings, while Singh 1990 offers a broad range of views, both positive and negative, on the prospects of religious conversion in India.
  452.  
  453. Beltz, Johannes. Mahar, Buddhist and Dalit: Religious Conversion and Socio-Political Emancipation. New Delhi: Manohar, 2005.
  454.  
  455. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  456.  
  457. Untangles the hybrid identities of Ambedkar Buddhists, showing how the conversions of 1956 and following transformed the self-understanding of Ambedkar’s caste community, the Mahars of Maharashtra. Buddhism and its accommodations with the Hindu majority hold center stage in this rich study. Bibliography and index included.
  458.  
  459. Find this resource:
  460.  
  461. Shastree, Uttara. Religious Converts in India: Socio-Political Study of New-Buddhists. New Delhi: Mittal, 1996.
  462.  
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  464.  
  465. In this detailed sociological study, the author shows how a revolution of rising expectations associated with Buddhist conversion has left many Dalits disappointed and confused, leading to the rise in the 1970s of the militant Dalit Panthers and of Dalit Sahitya, “Literature of the Oppressed.” Bibliography and index included.
  466.  
  467. Find this resource:
  468.  
  469. Singh, Sanghasen, ed. Ambedkar on Buddhist Conversion and its Impact. New Delhi: Eastern Book Linkers, 1990.
  470.  
  471. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  472.  
  473. This compilation of papers and research documents on the Ambedkar Buddhist conversion by Indian scholars reveals the wide range of interpretations that the conversions have generated among academics. Sixteen chapters in English, seventeen in Hindi, with four appendices.
  474.  
  475. Find this resource:
  476.  
  477. Viswanathan, Gauri. Outside the Fold: Conversion, Modernity, and Belief. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998.
  478.  
  479. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  480.  
  481. Treats religious conversion as an act of rebellion against the state: the British throne and the Indian Raj. Profiling John Henry Newman, Pandita Ramabai, Annie Besant, and Ambedkar, the author cites court documents, census reports, and popular fiction to make her case. Notes, bibliography, and index included.
  482.  
  483. Find this resource:
  484.  
  485. Webster, John C. B. Religion and Dalit Liberation. New Delhi: Manohar, 1999.
  486.  
  487. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  488.  
  489. Writing as a Christian theologian, the author explores implications of the Dalit conversions for the practice of Buddhism, Hinduism, and Christianity in the multi-religious Indian environment. The author credits Ambedkar with seeing the crucial role that religion must play in the struggle for social liberation. Bibliography included.
  490.  
  491. Find this resource:
  492.  
  493. Critical Monographs
  494. Writers on Ambedkar Buddhism, like commentators on Ambedkar’s writings on politics, economics, and sociology often reach different conclusions. Some writers are critical in finding fault with Ambedkar and aspects of his movement (Wanjari 2003), while others are critical in their attention to research methods and findings. Ahir 1998, an assessment of Ambedkar’s The Buddha and His Dhamma, offers a good example of an objective study that nevertheless does not have the resources of Oxford’s 2011 critical edition of the work, Ambedkar 2011 (cited under Writings and Speeches). Ilaiah 2001, like Tagade 2004, works hard to win approval for the Ambedkar movement. Narasu 2009 (originally published in 1907) revisits the Buddha Dhamma in an altogether original and innovative way, while Nanda 2002 assesses Ambedkar’s dhamma in light of Columbia University professor John Dewey’s pragmatic philosophy. Pandyan 1996 views the rise of Ambedkar Buddhism from the perspective of the Indian Christian convert community. The reader must define the term “critical” in each case.
  495.  
  496. Ahir, D. C. Dr. Ambedkar’s Vision of Dhamma: An Assessment. New Delhi: B. R. Publishing, 1998.
  497.  
  498. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  499.  
  500. Evaluates the fidelity of Ambedkar’s The Buddha and His Dhamma to its Pali sources, and concludes that agreement outweighs omission and interpolation. While no substitute for the new critical edition, Ambedkar 2011 (cited under Writings and Speeches), it offers a window into the way in which thoughtful Ambedkar Buddhists read the work. Bibliography and index included.
  501.  
  502. Find this resource:
  503.  
  504. Ilaiah, Kancha. God as Political Philosopher: Buddha’s Challenge to Brahmanism. Kolkata, India: Samya, 2001.
  505.  
  506. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  507.  
  508. Argues that the Buddha first introduced notions of justice, human rights, and the dignity of labor and community. Following in the steps of anti-caste reformers Iyothee Thass, Rahul Sankrityayan, and Ambedkar, the author takes mainstream scholars of Buddhism to task for neglecting the social implications of the Dhamma. Bibliography and index included.
  509.  
  510. Find this resource:
  511.  
  512. Narasu, P. Lakshmi. The Essence of Buddhism. New Delhi: Samyak Prakashan, 2009.
  513.  
  514. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  515.  
  516. Groundbreaking work by a physics professor at Madras Christian College. Conceives Buddhism as a harbinger of modern conceptions of nature and society. First prefaced by Anagarika Dharmapala in 1907; reissued with a new preface by Ambedkar in 1948. Ambedkar’s reading of the Buddha dhamma was deeply influenced by this work. Originally published in 1907.
  517.  
  518. Find this resource:
  519.  
  520. Nanda, Meera. Breaking the Spell of Dharma and Other Essays. New Delhi: Three Essays. 2002.
  521.  
  522. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  523.  
  524. Argues for a conceptual triangulation between the Buddha, Ambedkar, and American philosopher John Dewey. The result is a new understanding of Ambedkar’s facility in linking ancient religious teaching with modern philosophical pragmatism. The Deweyan Buddha essay has been republished as A Prophet Facing Forward (New Delhi: Critical Quest, 2006).
  525.  
  526. Find this resource:
  527.  
  528. Pandyan, K. David. Dr. B. R. Ambedkar and the Dynamics of Neo-Buddhism. New Delhi: Gyan, 1996.
  529.  
  530. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  531.  
  532. A survey of Ambedkar Buddhism by a Methodist minister and scholar active in Buddhist-Christian dialogue. Sketches Ambedkar’s life, the social philosophy of Navayana Buddhism, the new Buddhist practice and its reception by Western observers. With three appendices, bibliography, and index.
  533.  
  534. Find this resource:
  535.  
  536. Tagade, Shyam. Buddha Dhamma Mission of Bodhisattva Ambedkar. Nagpur, India: Pradnya Maitri Pratisthan, 2004.
  537.  
  538. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  539.  
  540. An Ambedkar activist responds to Worshipping False Gods: Ambedkar and the Facts which Have Been Erased, an ad hominem attack on Ambedkar by journalist Arun Shouri (1997). An exhaustive survey of Ambedkar Buddhist belief and practice. While not a scholarly work, it provides rich resources for those studying the movement.
  541.  
  542. Find this resource:
  543.  
  544. Wanjari, Vinod. Vipassana and Buddhist Movement. Calgary, Canada: Dr. Ambedkar International Mission, 2003.
  545.  
  546. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  547.  
  548. Argues that the revival of Vipassana meditation practice in India and abroad by retired businessman S. N. Goenka presents a serious threat to the practice of Ambedkar Buddhism. Points to a sharp cleavage in the movement between those who endorse and those who dismiss meditation.
  549.  
  550. Find this resource:
  551.  
  552. Ambedkar-Gandhi Studies
  553. Ambedkar and Gandhi clashed decisively in the 1930s around the issue of a separate electorate for the Untouchables. Comparing the political and religious careers of the two fathers of modern India yields useful insights into their personalities but more importantly to the religious and philosophical foundations of their movements. Krishan 1997 and Lelyveld 2011 credit Ambedkar with success in shaping Buddhism to the needs of the times. Vakil 1991 and Roy 2006 illustrate the veil that continues to separate Ambedkar’s achievement from the eyes of elite Indian scholars.
  554.  
  555. Krishan, Asha. Ambedkar and Gandhi: Emancipators of Untouchables in Modern India. Mumbai: Himalaya, 1997.
  556.  
  557. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  558.  
  559. The author was professor of history and principal of Elphinstone College in Mumbai, Ambedkar’s alma mater. This is a balanced appraisal of the two emancipators and a sincere tribute to Elphinstone’s most distinguished graduate. Appendices, extensive bibliography, and names index included.
  560.  
  561. Find this resource:
  562.  
  563. Lelyveld, Joseph. Great Soul: Mahatma Gandhi and His Struggle with India. New York: Knopf, 2011.
  564.  
  565. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  566.  
  567. While the encounters of Gandhi and Ambedkar occupy only a portion of this work, the author’s account of the Dalit leader’s personality and his engagement with Buddhism is perceptive and valuable. Extensive notes, bibliography, and index included.
  568.  
  569. Find this resource:
  570.  
  571. Roy, Ramashray. Gandhi and Ambedkar: A Study in Contrast. New Delhi: Shipra, 2006.
  572.  
  573. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  574.  
  575. A study of the religious, social, and political ingredients of the Ambedkar-Gandhi encounter. In the end, the author sees Ambedkar and the Buddhist conversion as confounding factors in the prospects for Dalit liberation, rather than positive ones. With bibliography and notes.
  576.  
  577. Find this resource:
  578.  
  579. Vakil, A. K. Gandhi Ambedkar Dispute: An Analytical Study. New Delhi: Ashish, 1991.
  580.  
  581. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  582.  
  583. Attempts to address what he believes is the neglect of Ambedkar’s Hindu sympathies in his dealings with Gandhi. Offers an analysis of Ambedkar’s path to religious conversion, but raises doubts about Ambedkar’s role as a social reformer and spiritual leader, compared to Gandhi’s. With bibliography and index.
  584.  
  585. Find this resource:
  586.  
  587. Beyond India
  588. In his final years, while researching The Buddha and His Dhamma and preparing for his conversion to Buddhism, Ambedkar consulted with many Buddhist leaders, among them the English monk, Ven. Sangharakshita (née Dennis Lingwood). These encounters are described in Sangharakshita 1986, along with the most detailed narrative of Ambedkar’s life-passage to Buddhism. The other volumes in this list are by English Buddhists who have volunteered in the Trilokya Bauddha Mahasangha Sahayaka Gana (TBMSG) (Blakiston 1990 and Pilchick 1988) and by works of scholars who profile the rise of the Ambedkar movement among the Friends of the Western Buddhist Order, founded by Sangharakshita following his Asian sojourn in the 1950s such as Sponberg 1996; and organizations of expatriate Ambedkar Buddhists living in the United Kingdom such as those following Rattu 1999. Websites for the Federated Ambedkarite and Buddhist Organizations of the United Kingdom and the Jai Bhim Network of Hungary indicate the dispersion of Ambedkar Buddhists among Indian expatriates in Britain and new converts in Hungary who identify with the oppressed citizens of the country of their origins.
  589.  
  590. Blakiston, Hilary. But a Little Dust: Life amongst the ex-Untouchables of Maharashtra. Cambridge, MA: Allborough, 1990.
  591.  
  592. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  593.  
  594. Memoir of the journey of an English nurse and midwife from an Anglican vicarage to a shantytown near Pune, in service to the Ambedkar Buddhist community there. Intimate and engaging. Ten black-and-white photos.
  595.  
  596. Find this resource:
  597.  
  598. Federation of Ambedkarite and Buddhist Organizations
  599.  
  600. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  601.  
  602. The website maintained by an umbrella organization serving Ambedkar Buddhists in the United Kingdom features background on Buddhism, Ambedkar, and the history of the tradition among Indians living in Britain. With photo galleries, audio-video resources, books and articles, links to affiliates, and discussion boards.
  603.  
  604. Find this resource:
  605.  
  606. Jai Bhim Network in Hungary.
  607.  
  608. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  609.  
  610. Documents the history and activism of the Roma (“gypsy”) people of Hungary who have embraced Ambedkar Buddhism as the religion of an oppressed, kindred people: the Dalits of India. Originally proselytized by the FWBO Buddhists of England, the Roma people point to their ethnic and linguistic roots in India.
  611.  
  612. Find this resource:
  613.  
  614. Pilchick, Terry. Jai Bhim! Dispatches from a Peaceful Revolution. Glasgow: Windhorse, 1988.
  615.  
  616. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  617.  
  618. A traveler’s account of the neighborhoods where the British-funded TBMSG had established training centers and medical clinics for the Navayana Buddhists. The traveler, a young English monk calling himself Nagabodhi, contrasts the life of the ex-Untouchables to his former life in Tooting, London.
  619.  
  620. Find this resource:
  621.  
  622. Rattu, Nanak Chand, ed. Pioneers of Ambedkar Buddhist Movement in United Kingdom. New Delhi: Amrit, 1999.
  623.  
  624. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  625.  
  626. A documentary history of the establishment of Ambedkar Buddhist organizations in the United Kingdom, by Ambedkar’s former personal secretary. Featured are The Indian Buddhist Society of the United Kingdom, the Bharatiya Buddhist Council, and India House. Contains letters, photos, speeches, and reminiscences.
  627.  
  628. Find this resource:
  629.  
  630. Sangharakshita, Bhikkhu (née Dennis Lingwood). Ambedkar and Buddhism. Glasgow: Windhorse, 1986.
  631.  
  632. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  633.  
  634. The most thorough account of Ambedkar’s seemingly inexorable movement toward Buddhism, from his receipt of a biography of the Buddha at his high school graduation, to the time of his conversion in 1956, from one who shaped Ambedkar Buddhism to the present day.
  635.  
  636. Find this resource:
  637.  
  638. Sponberg, Alan. “TBMSG: A Dhamma Revolution in Contemporary India.” In Engaged Buddhism: Buddhist Liberation Movements in Asia. Edited by Christopher Queen and Sallie B. King, 73–120. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1996.
  639.  
  640. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  641.  
  642. The most complete history and overview of the Trailokya Bauddha Mahasangha Sahayaka Gana, founded by Ven. Sangharakshita and headquartered in Pune, with branches throughout India. With photos, notes, and bibliography.
  643.  
  644. Find this resource:
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