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Artisans (Renaissance and Reformation)

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. The historiography of artisans and, to a lesser extent, apprentices in early modern Europe has experienced a renaissance of its own since the mid-1980s. Although a great deal of this literature has focused on the 18th century and therefore lies beyond the chronological scope of this article, a substantial body of important scholarship exists during the Renaissance and the Reformation. Within this literature a handful of classic studies written before the 1980s still prove useful, but the overwhelming number of articles and books to appear since then has completely transformed the field. Conflicted analyses of the craft economy and especially of the role of the institution of the guild within it have led the way, largely because of the “revisionist” debate that continues to engage historians’ energies. Traditionally, historians viewed guilds, because of their regulatory and monopolistc powers, as impediments to economic growth, but revisionist historians have challenged that position. They have found from archival research that the craft economy experienced significant economic growth during the early modern era, that guilds had little to do with it, and that the regulatory and monopolistic practices of guilds were relatively ineffective. This position has in turn been challenged by archival findings that guilds did in fact contribute to growth through innovative economic practices. Many entries in this article address these varying positions, but social, cultural, and gendered approaches to the artisanal experience are also well represented. Geographically, the historiography disproportionately centers on the British Isles, France, Italy, Germany, and more recently the Low Countries. Studies on Spanish artisans are sparse, and their eastern European and Scandinavian counterparts are only slightly better represented in the literature. A global, comparative perspective appears faintly on the horizon and likely will inform more artisanal studies in the future. Judging from the flurry of studies that emerged in the first decade of the 21st century, the historical interest in early modern artisans is vibrant and promises to be so for the foreseeable future.
  4.  
  5. General Overviews
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  7. Overviews of the history of European artisans are surprisingly scarce, with Farr 2000 the only example since the early years of the 20th century. Swanson 1989 offers an important general view on medieval English artisans, and the classic studies Hauser 2010 and Franklin 2004 (originally published in 1909 and 1906, respectively) are still useful. More recently, works such as Ehmer and Lis 2009 and Farr 2008 have begun to readdress the meaning of work and the place of the artisan within that intellectual framework, providing valuable entry points to the study of artisans.
  8.  
  9. Ehmer, Josef, and Catharina Lis, eds. The Idea of Work in Europe from Antiquity to Modern Times. Farnham, UK: Ashgate, 2009.
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  11. This volume is an important contribution to a neglected topic. The contributors examine work from a variety of perspectives expressed in literature, art, and economic theory. Especially important here are the contributions on artisans, both their place within the socioeconomic system and their sense of the meaning of work and its importance to their identity.
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  13. Farr, James R. Artisans in Europe, 1300–1914. New Approaches to European History. Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
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  15. This book is an introduction to the history of work in general and of artisans in particular in Europe from 1300 to 1914. It focuses on many aspects of artisan culture, including economic and guild life, and discusses social, rebellious, ceremonial, and leisure experience as well. Women, masters, journeymen, apprentices, and nonguild workers all receive substantial treatment.
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  17. Farr, James R. The Work of France: Labor and Culture in Early Modern Times, 1350–1800. Critical Issues in History: World and International History. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2008.
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  19. This book offers a synthesis of the ways men and women worked in early modern France and of what their labor meant to them and to society. The text demonstrates how the shifting and often contradictory forces of an emerging market economy immersed in a hierarchical society shaped the experience and the meanings of work.
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  21. Franklin, Alfred. Dictionnaire historique des arts, métiers, et professions exercés dans Paris depuis le treizième siècle. Edited by Jean-Cyrille Godefroy. New York: Burt Franklin, 2004.
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  23. Originally published in 1906. Organized in dictionary format, this book’s entries contain useful and often anecdotal information. The focus is France— essentially Paris—but it remains a valuable reference work.
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  25. Hauser, Henri. Ouvriers du temps passé. Paris: Nabu, 2010.
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  27. Originally published in 1909. This book is a classic, pioneering work on artisans and wage earners in preindustrial France by one of the earliest and most distinguished historians of labor in the 20th century.
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  29. Swanson, Heather. Medieval Artisans: An Urban Class in Late Medieval England. Oxford: Blackwell, 1989.
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  31. Covering the late 13th to the early 16th centuries, this book examines the organization of work; patterns of production and consumption; and political relations between artisans, merchants, and municipal rulers. The author finds that artisans responded to increased demand and consumption by increasing and diversifying production and engaging in entrepreneurial activities that challenged guild strictures of the time.
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  33. Edited Collections
  34.  
  35. Many of the best articles on early modern artisans can be found in collected volumes, often the published result of a prior conference or symposium. Kaplan and Koepp 1986 sets the bar high with a wide-ranging collection that opened artisanal studies to a social-cultural direction, an approach pursued by many of the contributors to Crossick 1997. Much of Safley and Rosenband 1993 deals with labor and production, whereas the contributors to Gadd and Wallis 2002 tend to follow an institutional approach. De Munck, et al. 2007; Prak, et al. 2006; Epstein and Prak 2010; and Lucassen, et al. 2009 all share the commitment that guilds in fact contributed to economic growth, aggressively countering the traditional assumption that they were impediments to it as well as the more recent revisionist position contending that growth in the craft economy largely occurred outside the guilds.
  36.  
  37. Crossick, Geoffrey, ed. The Artisan and the European Town, 1500–1900. Aldershot, UK: Scolar Press, 1997.
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  39. An important collection of articles, this volume examines the formative relationships between artisans and their urban environment. Most contributors explore in some fashion the nature of artisan identity, an increasingly important area of interest responding to the fundamental yet contested question “What was an artisan?”
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  41. De Munck, Bert, Steven L. Kaplan, and Hugo Soly, eds. Learning on the Shop Floor: Historical Perspectives on Apprenticeship. International Studies in Social History 12. New York: Berghahn, 2007.
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  43. An important collection of cutting-edge research that supports the position that guilds contributed to rather than impeded economic growth in premodern Europe, this volume pioneers in the contention that apprenticeship, as the essential institution enabling knowledge and technology transfer, was a key component of the growth.
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  45. Epstein, S. R., and Maarten Prak, eds. Guilds, Innovation, and the European Economy, 1400–1800. Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
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  47. Collection of articles proving by archival research on central and western Europe that guilds, through innovative business practices and products, technological change, and entrepreneurialism, were active and fundamental contributors to the economic growth that swept early modern Europe. Future research will likely meld this view with the revisionist position and thereby account for growth both within and beyond the guild.
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  49. Gadd, Ian Anders, and Patrick Wallis, eds. Guilds, Society, and Economy in London, 1450–1800. London: Center for Metropolitan History, 2002.
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  51. The contributions explore the various aspects of London’s early modern guilds—their regulatory apparatus covering apprenticeship, product quality, and monopoly rights as well as their roles in charity, social events, and politics. The volume engages the question of the decline of the regulatory reach of guilds, although no consensus is offered.
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  53. Kaplan, Steven Laurence, and Cynthia J. Koepp, eds. Work in France: Representations, Meanings, Organization, and Practice. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1986.
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  55. Coedited by Kaplan, the leading scholar on 18th-century artisans of his generation, this collection fast became a classic, launching the cultural approach to work and its meanings and thereby opening new avenues to the study of artisans and guilds. The articles tend to be interdisciplinary and engage diverse themes and methodologies.
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  57. Lucassen, Jan, Tine De Moor, and Jan Luiten van Zanden, eds. The Return of the Guilds. International Review of Social History Supplements 16. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2009.
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  59. Reexamines the role and function of guilds in the precapitalist economy, offering articles that support through archival research the notion that guilds contributed to economic growth. The text pioneers in its international scope, with contributions on northern Africa, the Middle East, China, and Japan. The editors attempt to establish a comparative framework to analyze guilds across the globe from Antiquity to the Industrial Revolution.
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  61. Prak, Maarten, Catharina Lis, Jan Lucassen, and Hugo Soly, eds. Craft Guilds in the Early Modern Low Countries: Work, Power, and Representation. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2006.
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  63. This is an important collection based on deep archival research that asserts that guilds in the early modern Low Countries contributed to economic growth. This is a refutation of the traditional historiographical position that held that guilds impeded growth and a challenge to the more recent revisionist position that contends that economic growth occurred largely in the unregulated economy beyond the regulatory reach of the guilds.
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  65. Safley, Thomas Max, and Leonard N. Rosenband, eds. The Workplace before the Factory: Artisans and Proletarians, 1500–1800. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1993.
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  67. An important early contribution to the history of labor and production in the preindustrial period. The authors of these eleven archive-based articles focus on novel work processes and technological innovation.
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  69. Guilds
  70.  
  71. Guilds have long captured the attention of late medieval and early modern historians and continue to do so. Traditionally, an institutional approach dominated, and several more-recent institutional studies continue to be useful. Until the 1980s a consensus held that guilds were an impediment to economic growth because of their regulatory apparatus, but this position has now been challenged. Consequently, a great deal of scholarship on guilds addresses their role in the craft economy. Several scholars, however, have come to recognize the important noneconomic functions of guilds as well.
  72.  
  73. Institutional Approaches
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  75. Useful studies of guilds concerning their establishment and growth or contraction (De Munck, et al. 2006), institutional structure and organization (Caetano 1978, Pescador del Hoyo 1973, Sanz 1977), and political roles (Black 2003, Prak 2006) are still well represented in the literature.
  76.  
  77. Black, Antony. Guild and State: European Political Thought from the Twelfth Century to the Present. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 2003.
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  79. The author explores how guilds, as self-governing labor organizations guided by honor and committed to mutual aid, and municipalities, as self-governing polities built upon law, contributed to the emergence of the Western ideals of liberty and legal equality.
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  81. Caetano, Marcelo. “A história da organização dos mesteres na cidade de Lisboa.” Revista do Instituto Histórico e Geográfico Brasileiro 318 (1978): 285–300.
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  83. One of the few analyses of Portuguese guilds, this article examines the emergence of guilds in Lisbon in the late 14th century, their acquisition of political participation in the 15th, and their proliferation in the 16th, all developments that mirror guild historical trajectories elsewhere in Europe.
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  85. De Munck, Bert, Piet Lourens, and Jan Lucassen. “The Establishment and Distribution of Craft Guilds in the Low Countries, 1000–1800.” In Craft Guilds in the Early Modern Low Countries: Work, Power, and Representation. Edited by Maarten Prak, Catharina Lis, Hugo Soly, and Jan Lucassen, 32–73. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2006.
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  87. A valuable quantitative analysis of guild growth, demonstrating that guilds were more numerous and developed sooner in the southern Low Countries than in the northern because of the earlier urbanization there. Less convincing is the assertion that the guild system promoted the economic growth in both regions. Guilds filled other, noneconomic functions and could have expanded alongside the economy without contributing to its growth.
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  89. Pescador del Hoyo, María del Carmen. “Los gremios artesanos de Zamora.” Revista de archivos, bibliotecas y museos 76.1 (1973): 13–60.
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  91. Few close studies of Spanish guilds exist. This article on the craft guilds of Zamora contains valuable information on the development of the guilds during the early modern period. It provides an overview of the guild system as well as a presentation of individual guilds, covering organization; bylaws; hierarchical structure; powers; quality control; and social activities, both religious and secular. See also 77.1 (1974): 67–101; 77.2 (1974): 449–520; 78.1 (1975): 111–188; and 78.2 (1975): 605–691.
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  93. Prak, Maarten. “Corporate Politics in the Low Countries: Guilds as Institutions, 14th to 18th Centuries.” In Craft Guilds in the Early Modern Low Countries: Work, Power, and Representation. Edited by Maarten Prak, Catharina Lis, Hugo Soly, and Jan Lucassen, 74–106. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2006.
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  95. The author departs from most of the historiography on guilds that has focused attention on their economic and social aspects, examining instead their involvement in politics. He finds that guilds in the northern cities of the Low Countries had little power in contrast to those in the southern.
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  97. Sanz, Víctor. “Trabajo y gremios en la Espana de Siglo de Oro.” Boletín historico 43 (1977): 5–39.
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  99. The author examines power relations among the guilds, the municipalities, and the crown and finds that the influence of guilds ebbed over the century as municipalities and the crown struggled for jurisdiction over them. By the end of the century, the crown had triumphed, and the guilds had lost whatever power of independent action they once possessed.
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  101. Guilds and Economic Growth
  102.  
  103. Until the late 1980s, historians of guilds contended that they were impediments to economic growth. Revisionists then countered that guilds were important for noneconomic reasons and had little impact on the evident growth in the craft economy, much of which was occurring outside the guilds and beyond their regulatory reach. Challenged by the findings of revisionists revealing significant extraguild economic growth, scholars examined concrete economic practices of guild masters (entrepreneurialism, skills training and technology transfer, and product innovation) and contended that guilds were active contributors to the growth of the craft economy.
  104.  
  105. The Revisionist Position
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  107. The first salvo against the traditional view that guilds were impediments to economic growth was launched by the revisionists. Sosson 1990 demonstrates that guild records emphasize administrative and regulatory powers rather than actual economic practice and thus are misleading indicators of the guilds’ role in the latter, a position supported by Swanson 1988, which contends that the guilds’ primary function was not economic, but rather more political and social. Likewise, Poitrineau 1995 finds the regulatory structure of guilds to be “outmoded” in confronting the growing labor market, a position developed by Farr 1997, which shows that much of the growth in the craft economy occurred beyond the regulatory reach of the guilds. Ogilvie 2004 and Ogilvie 2005 demonstrate that guilds were valued not because of success in protecting product quality, training labor, or innovation, which they did not have, but because of their extra-economic functions of promoting solidarity and collective action. Ogilvie 2008 provides a revisionist reply to the criticism of Epstein 2008 (cited under Response to Revisionism).
  108.  
  109. Farr, James R. “On the Shop Floor: Guilds, Artisans, and the European Market Economy, 1350–1750.” Journal of Early Modern History 1.1 (1997): 24–54.
  110. DOI: 10.1163/157006597X00217Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  111. Joining the revisionist position that contends that economic growth occurred largely in the unregulated economy beyond the regulatory reach of the guilds, the author argues that so massive is the evidence that craft workers, both guildsmen and others, violated guild strictures on production and monopoly, that it must be concluded that a great deal of the economic activity in the cities and towns of early modern Europe occurred outside the guild system and was therefore unregulated and expanding with the growth of the wider market economy.
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  113. Ogilvie, Sheilagh. “Guilds, Efficiency, and Social Capital: Evidence from German Proto-Industry.” Economic History Review 57.2 (2004): 286–333.
  114. DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-0289.2004.00279.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  115. The author, a leader of the revisionist position, cites empirical evidence from early modern Germany questioning whether guilds functioned to promote product quality, innovation, or labor training. Instead, she asserts that guilds existed not because they were efficient institutions economically (they were not, she contends) but because their extra-economic functions geared toward solidarity and collective action brought social benefits to their members, if not to society as a whole.
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  117. Ogilvie, Sheilagh. “The Use and Abuse of Trust: Social Capital and Its Deployment by Early Modern Guilds.” Jahrbuch für Wirtschaftsgeschichte 1 (2005): 15–52.
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  119. A companion piece to Ogilvie 2004. The author examines whether guilds contributed to trust in the areas of product quality, trained labor, and technological innovation and challenges the view that guilds fostered economic growth, countering that guild objectives were counter to the welfare of society and that the growth of the impersonal market rendered them obsolete.
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  121. Ogilvie, Sheilagh. “Rehabilitating the Guilds: A Reply.” Economic History Review 61.1 (2008): 175–182.
  122. DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-0289.2007.00417.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  123. A reply to the criticism in Epstein 2008 (cited under Response to Revisionism), the revisionist author asserts that Stephan R. Epstein’s attempt to rehabilitate guild contributions to economic growth is unsupported by empirical evidence. Ogilvie contends that guilds were economically inefficient institutions that adversely affected quality, skills, and innovation and that they lasted for so long in history for noneconomic reasons.
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  125. Poitrineau, Abel. “L’organisation du travail et ses dysfonctionnements dans la France du XVI siècle.” Journal of Medieval and Renaissance Studies 25.1 (1995): 107–127.
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  127. The author explores the conflicts that occurred in the labor economy when master guildsmen in particular and political authorities in general (city, church, and crown) clung to an “outmoded” regulatory and hierarchical system of work organization in the face of the growth of a teeming world of journeymen, apprentices, and urban and rural wageworkers working outside the guilds and resisting their control.
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  129. Sosson, Jean-Pierre. “Les métiers: Norme et réalité; L’exemple des anciens Pays-Bas mérionaux aux XIVe et XVe siècles.” In Le travail au Moyen Age: Une approche interdisciplinaire; Actes du colloque international de Louvain-la-Neuve, 21–23 mai 1987. Edited by Jacqueline Hamesse and Colette Muraille-Samaran, 339–348. Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium: Institut d’études médiévales de l’Université catholique de Louvain, 1990.
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  131. An early and seminal statement of the revisionist position, arguing that administrative and regulatory records offer a misleading picture of actual artisan practice. The author points in the direction developed by subsequent scholars that the regulatory reach of guilds was short and incomplete and that economic growth occurred outside the guild economy.
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  133. Swanson, Heather. “The Illusion of Economic Structure: Craft Guilds in Late Medieval English Towns.” Past and Present 121.1 (1988): 29–48.
  134. DOI: 10.1093/past/121.1.29Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  135. The author, through research primarily focused in York between the 14th and 16th centuries, explores how the reality of late medieval artisanal economic activity diverged from the ideal of a social order structured by hierarchy and male supremacy. An early voice of revisionism, she contends that the guilds’ primary function was not economic but rather more political and social. Available online by subscription.
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  137. Response to Revisionism
  138.  
  139. Since the mid-1980s the revisionist position has been challenged, led by MacKenney 1987, Mocarelli 2008, De Munck 2008, Ehmer 2009, Lis and Soly 2010, and Scognamiglio Cestaro 2006. A lively exchange between Epstein 2008 and Ogilvie 2008 (cited under The Revisionist Position) brings the debate over revisionism into sharp focus.
  140.  
  141. De Munck, Bert. “Skills, Trust, and Changing Consumer Preferences: The Decline of Antwerp’s Craft Guilds from the Perspective of the Product Market, c. 1500–c. 1800.” International Review of Social History 53.2 (2008): 197–233.
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  143. Explains the success and subsequent decline of the craft guilds in Antwerp in the 16th and 17th centuries in terms of consumer taste and demand. As taste shifted away from the luxury products upon which masters had built their markets and reputations toward less expensive goods produced by workers outside the guilds, the guilds’ economic significance declined. Available online through purchase.
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  145. Ehmer, Josef. “Rural Guilds and Urban-Rural Guild Relations in Early Modern Central Europe.” In The Return of the Guilds. Edited by Jan Lucassen, Tine De Moor, and Jan Luiten van Zanden, 143–158. International Review of Social History Supplements 16. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2009.
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  147. This article by a leading scholar of guilds and labor in early modern central Europe examines the social and economic consequences of the spread of a rural guild system and its relationship to both rural crafts outside these guilds and the urban guild system.
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  149. Epstein, Stephan R. “Craft Guilds in the Pre-Modern Economy: A Discussion.” Economic History Review 61.1 (2008): 155–174.
  150. DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-0289.2007.00411.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  151. The author, one of the leading critics of revisionism, challenges the view, voiced especially by Ogilvie 2008 (cited under The Revisionist Position), that revisionist interpretations of the history of craft guilds are misguided and underestimate the role of guilds in the economic growth of the early modern period. The author calls for more quantitative and regionally specified investigations of the economic contributions of craft guilds.
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  153. Lis, Catharina, and Hugo Soly. “Subcontracting in Guild-Based Export Trades, Thirteenth–Eighteenth Centuries.” In Guilds, Innovation, and the European Economy, 1400–1800. Edited by S. R. Epstein and Maarten Prak, 81–113. Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
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  155. Examines the role of subcontracting among entrepreneurial master artisans in the emergence of industrial capitalism, distinguishing it from merchant-organized protoindustry. Innovative production responding to surging demand achieved economies of scale, promoted specialization, increased labor productivity, accumulated capital, and minimized costs. The implications of this argument are enormous, suggesting that guild-based economic activity was more important for industrialization than mercantile protoindustry.
  156. Find this resource:
  157. Mackenney, Richard. Tradesmen and Traders: The World of the Guilds in Venice and Europe, c. 1250–c. 1650. Totowa, NJ: Barnes and Noble, 1987.
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  159. This book is one of the earliest syntheses that challenges the traditional view that guilds were in decline and a drag on economic growth in the preindustrial period. Arguing instead that guilds promoted innovation and entrepreneurship, the author focuses primarily on Venice and its mercer guild while offering occasional comparative perspectives on other European cities.
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  161. Mocarelli, Luca. “Guilds Reappraised: Italy in the Early Modern Period.” International Review of Social History 53.S16 (2008): 159–178.
  162. DOI: 10.1017/S0020859008003659Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  163. The article emerges from a collective research project on guilds in Italy that emphasizes the importance of guilds in economic growth, technological development, and apprenticeship. It joins the expanding literature that links economic growth, innovation, and technological knowledge and transfer to guild organizations. Available online through purchase.
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  165. Scognamiglio Cestaro, Sonia. “Patrimoni e corporazioni a Napoli tra XVI e XVIII secolo: Propriètà, poteri et profitti nell’economia urbana Europea di ancien regime.” Città e Storia 1.1 (2006): 93–114.
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  167. The author, countering traditional assumptions, offers evidence that guilds of Naples encouraged entrepreneurship within their ranks, specifically in the administration of property, by which members demonstrated clear characteristics of profit-oriented management.
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  169. Noneconomic Functions of Guilds
  170.  
  171. The role of guilds in the early modern economy has received much scholarly attention since the mid-1990s, but the revisionist view that contends that economic growth occurred largely in the unregulated economy beyond the regulatory reach of the guilds has pushed many scholars to consider guilds in their noneconomic functions (Cerutti 1990, Farr 2000, Ogilvie 2004, Swanson 1988). Heusinger 2010 is explicit in its call to consider guild history beyond its craft aspects, but earlier studies have anticipated this perspective. Often guided implicitly or explicitly by cultural history to weigh the symbolic aspects of artisan experience or identity, De Munck 2007, Farr 1997, and Rosser 1997 offer valuable alternative perspectives to guild history.
  172.  
  173. Cerutti, Simona. La ville et les métiers: Naissance d’un langage corporatif (Turin, 17e–18e siecle). Recherches d’histoire et de sciences sociales. Paris: Éditions de L’école des hautes études en sciences sociales, 1990.
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  175. Framing her analysis in the significance of corporatism as an ideological system, the author charts the appearance of guilds in Turin in the late 17th century and examines their roles as political and social entities through the 18th. An important study of guilds in their extra-economic functions.
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  177. De Munck, Bert. “La qualite du corporatisme: Stratégies économiques et symboliques des corporations anvernoises, XVIe–XVIIe siècles.” Revue d’histoire moderne et contemporaine 54.1 (2007): 116–144.
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  179. This article refutes the traditional argument that guild regulations created egalitarian and harmonious entities protecting the small and independent family business. Based on research focused in Antwerp in the 16th and 17th centuries, the study points out that because the regulations permitted subcontracting and putting-out systems of labor practices, guilds served other, noneconomic purposes.
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  181. Farr, James R. “Cultural Analysis and Early Modern Artisans.” In The Artisan and the European Town, 1500–1900. Edited by Geoffrey Crossick, 56–74. Aldershot, UK: Scolar Press, 1997.
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  183. Pushing our understanding of the definition of the artisan through the methodology of cultural analysis, the author contends that artisan identity was constructed from more than the individual’s role in production, as traditional historiography had always assumed. By stressing the importance of extra-economic activity in the lives of artisans, this article contributes to the emerging revisionist position.
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  185. Farr, James R. Artisans in Europe, 1300–1914. New Approaches to European History. Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
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  187. Joining the revisionist position that contends that economic growth occurred largely in the unregulated economy beyond the regulatory reach of the guilds, the author demonstrates that noneconomic functions of guilds were more important to craftspeople than economic ones. Focusing on many aspects of artisan culture, the author notably shows that guilds established and reinforced social status and an ethic of honor that structured it.
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  189. Heusinger, Sabine von. “Von ‘antwerk’ bis ‘Zünft’: Methodische Überlegungen zu den Zünften im Mittelalter.” Zeitschrift für historische Forschung 37.1 (2010): 37–71.
  190. DOI: 10.3790/zhf.37.1.37Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  191. The article, based on research focused in Strasbourg in the late Middle Ages, contends that guild studies in the future must consider the multiple types and functions of these organizations, taking analyses beyond their craft aspects by considering their importance to social status, charity, politics, and military defense.
  192. Find this resource:
  193. Ogilvie, Sheilagh. “Guilds, Efficiency, and Social Capital: Evidence from German Proto-Industry.” Economic History Review 57.2 (2004): 286–333.
  194. DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-0289.2004.00279.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  195. The author asserts that guilds lasted so long in European history not because they were efficient economic institutions (they were not, she contends) but because their extra-economic functions geared toward solidarity and collective action brought social benefits to their members, if not to society as a whole.
  196. Find this resource:
  197. Rosser, Gervase. “Crafts, Guilds, and the Negotiation of Work in the Medieval Town.” Past and Present 154 (1997): 3–31.
  198. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  199. Joining the body of literature on guilds recognizing that regulatory and administrative records of guilds are normative and idealistic rather than a reflection of real conditions, this article explores instead the shifting and partially overlapping interests of journeymen and masters and uncovers that workers joined guilds strategically, for their own objectives, primarily to establish the good personal reputation that was necessary for obtaining credit and ultimately for survival.
  200. Find this resource:
  201. Swanson, Heather. “The Illusion of Economic Structure: Craft Guilds in Late Medieval English Towns.” Past and Present 121.1 (1988): 29–48.
  202. DOI: 10.1093/past/121.1.29Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  203. An early voice of revisionism, which contends that economic growth occurred largely in the unregulated economy beyond the regulatory reach of the guilds, the author argues that the guilds’ primary function was not economic but rather more political and social.
  204. Find this resource:
  205. Regional and Local Studies
  206.  
  207. The renaissance in artisan studies since the 1980s has largely been built on archival studies conducted at the regional or local levels. This work has been unevenly distributed geographically, with most of the literature concentrated in the British Isles, central Europe, France, Italy, and the Low Countries.
  208.  
  209. British Isles
  210.  
  211. Woodward 1995 is a local study of artisans in the British Isles that focuses on specific economic practices, whereas Booton 1999 studies political and administrative developments.
  212.  
  213. Booton, Harold. “The Craftsmen of Aberdeen between 1400 and 1550.” Northern Scotland 19 (1999): 1–19.
  214. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  215. Taking a traditional administrative and political perspective, the author’s findings mirror a European development, as many craft guilds in the Scottish city were incorporated in the 15th century, granting them limited political participation in the municipal council and regulatory powers within the guild as well as local and regional monopoly rights.
  216. Find this resource:
  217. Woodward, Donald. Men at Work: Labourers and Building Craftsmen in the Towns of Northern England, 1450–1750. Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
  218. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511522871Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  219. Using sources from local archives, the author addresses conditions of work in the building trades, levels of remuneration, gender differences in work, and relationships with employers.
  220. Find this resource:
  221. Central Europe
  222.  
  223. Horn 1987 and Kremer 1956–1957 are useful studies of Jewish artisans, whereas Groebner 1993 provides a close analysis of local subsistence economies, and Stromer 1991 studies rural credit-based putting-out systems. Bräuer 1993–1994 offers a useful historiographical survey on crafts in Saxony.
  224.  
  225. Bräuer, Helmut. “Entwicklungstendenzen und Perspektiven der Erforschung Sächsischer Zunfthandwerksgeschichte.” Jahrbuch für Regionalgeschichte 19 (1993–1994): 35–56.
  226. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  227. This article offers a useful historiographical survey of works since the 19th century on early modern crafts in Saxony, with a call for interdisciplinary and comparative approaches in future research.
  228. Find this resource:
  229. Groebner, Valentin. “Black Money and the Language of Things: Observations on the Economy of the Laboring Poor in Late Fifteenth-Century Nuremberg.” Tel Aviver Jahrbuch für deutsche Geschichte 22 (1993): 275–291.
  230. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  231. This valuable and uncommon analysis of the nonguild working poor—including many artisans—in Nuremberg between 1460 and 1510 reveals patterns of irregular employment and low wages paid mostly in low-value copper (“black”) coins. The article uncovers a local subsistence economy that functioned through ready credit and the production and sale of ordinary personal possessions, above all textiles.
  232. Find this resource:
  233. Horn, Maurycy. “Powstanie i rozwój terytorialny żydowskich cechów rzemieślniczych w dawnej Polsce (1613–1795).” Biuletyn Żydowskiego Instytutu Historycznego w Polsce 3.4 (1987): 5–20.
  234. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  235. One of the few studies of early modern Jewish guilds, this article charts the emergence of Jewish craftsmen’s guilds in the first half of the 17th century in Kazimierz, near Kraków, and in Lvov. Their numbers grew to more than one hundred by 1795, existing on landed estates as well as in royal towns.
  236. Find this resource:
  237. Kremer, Moses. “Jewish Artisans and Guildsmen in Former Poland, 16th–18th Centuries.” Yivo Annual of Jewish Social Science 11 (1956–1957): 211–242.
  238. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  239. This article is an uncommon and therefore useful analysis of the relations between Jewish master workmen and their journeymen and apprentices in early modern Poland, including information on wages and working conditions and a consideration of the influence of religion on these relations.
  240. Find this resource:
  241. Stromer, Wolfgang von. “Der Verlag als strategisches System einer am gutem Geld armen Wirtschaft, am Beispiel Oberdeutchlands in Mittelalter und Früher Neuzeit.” Vierteljahrschrift für Sozial und Wirtschaftsgeschichte 78.2 (1991): 153–171.
  242. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  243. Explores the creation of a credit-based putting-out system of rural regional craft shops organized by merchants as well as enterprising master artisans that led toward product standardization, price control, and coordinated response to demand from large markets in major trading centers. The widespread use of credit enabled the development of this system with minimal cash investment.
  244. Find this resource:
  245. France
  246.  
  247. A substantial literature on artisans in France exists for the 18th century (beyond the chronological scope of this article), but useful local or regional studies for the period before 1650 do exist. Farr 1988 offers an innovative approach that blends administrative, demographic, economic, and cultural aspects, whereas Poitrineau 1995 explores the conflict between the organization of the labor economy and political authorities charged with its regulation. Geremek 1968 also focuses on the labor economy, assessing how demand and trade transformed it, whereas Farr 1989 explores how consumer demand drove structural changes both within and beyond the guild.
  248.  
  249. Farr, James R. Hands of Honor: Artisans and Their World in Dijon, 1550–1650. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1988.
  250. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  251. A close analysis of the artisans of an important regional capital. The author demonstrates, first, that through concerted and deliberate action the masters of the guilds augmented their share of the growing wealth in the city and, second, that they increasingly forged a coherent and shared culture rooted in a sense of honor that informed their social as well as economic decisions.
  252. Find this resource:
  253. Farr, James R. “Consumer, Commerce, and the Craftsmen of Dijon: The Changing Social and Economic Structure of a Provincial Capital, 1450–1750.” In Cities and Social Change in Early Modern France. Edited by Philip Benedict, 134–173. London and Boston: Unwin Hyman, 1989.
  254. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  255. The author demonstrates that artisans, both within and beyond the guilds, responded to the shifting and growing patterns of consumer demand during the early modern century (as the elite, magisterial class grew and attracted capital to the city) by gearing production to this demand and channeling increasing wealth in their direction.
  256. Find this resource:
  257. Geremek, Bronislaw. Le salariat dans l’artisanat parisien aux XIIIe–XVe siècles: Étude sur la marché de la main-d’oeuvre au Moyen Âge. Translated by Anna Posner and Christiane Klapisch-Zuber. Industrie et artisanat. The Hague: Mouton, 1968.
  258. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  259. This is a pioneering, systematic study of Parisian artisanal wage earners and the extent to which the labor force was transformed by expanding trade in the late Middle Ages. The author explores the use of apprentices as cheap labor and charts the emergence of journeymen brotherhoods that employed the strike as a weapon in labor relations with masters.
  260. Find this resource:
  261. Poitrineau, Abel. “L’organisation du travail et ses dysfonctionnements dans la France du XVI siècle.” Journal of Medieval and Renaissance Studies 25.1 (1995): 107–127.
  262. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  263. The author examines the ineffective attempts of the guild masters and the political authorities to regulate the world of work as the number of laborers working outside the guilds expanded with the growth of the manufacturing economy.
  264. Find this resource:
  265. Italy
  266.  
  267. Local and regional studies are well represented in the literature on Italy, ranging from close analyses of noneconomic functions of guilds (Cerutti 1990) to discussion of a regional putting-out network of production (D’Amico 2000). Davis 1991 examines the greatest manufacturing enterprise in early modern Europe, the Venetian arsenal, with an eye toward its economic, social, and cultural aspects among both men and women, whereas Goldthwaite 1980 explores the impact of the growth in luxury construction on artisan wealth during the Renaissance, and, more recently, Goldthwaite 2005 explores the entrepreneurialism of a specific silk weaver.
  268.  
  269. Cerutti, Simona. La ville et les métiers: Naissance d’un langage corporatif (Turin, 17e–18e Siecle). Paris: Éditions de L’école des hautes études en sciences sociales, 1990.
  270. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  271. The author explores the emergence of guilds in Turin in the late 17th and 18th centuries, focusing more on their political and social roles rather than their economic ones. Corporatism as an ideological system rather than a primarily economic one is emphasized.
  272. Find this resource:
  273. D’Amico, Stefano. “Crisis and Transformation: Economic Organization and Social Structures in Milan, 1570–1610.” Social History 25.1 (2000): 1–21.
  274. DOI: 10.1080/030710200363249Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  275. The author demonstrates that by the end of the 16th century an efficient putting-out system of production had supplanted the urban-based craft guilds and brought urban and rural artisan workshops into a regional economic network dominated by merchant bankers. Economic organization therefore cannot be part of the explanation for the decline of Milan in the 17th century, the author arguing that the causes for that must be found elsewhere.
  276. Find this resource:
  277. Davis, Robert C. Shipbuilders of the Venetian Arsenal: Workers and Workplace in the Preindustrial City. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991.
  278. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  279. A deeply researched analysis of what was perhaps the greatest manufacturing complex in early modern Europe, this book on the shipbuilders (masters, apprentices, and wage laborers) examines the economic as well as social and cultural roles of the men (and women) of this large sector of the Venetian populace.
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Goldthwaite, Richard A. The Building of Renaissance Florence: An Economic and Social History. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980.
  282. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  283. In this classic study the author finds that the great wealth of Renaissance Florence triggered a demand for luxury, including the building of monuments and palaces, and demonstrates how, where, and how much wealth was distributed across the city and specifically toward and within the artisanry.
  284. Find this resource:
  285. Goldthwaite, Richard A. “An Entrepreneurial Silk Weaver in Renaissance Florence.” I Tatti Studies: Essays in the Renaissance 10 (2005): 69–126.
  286. DOI: 10.2307/4603727Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  287. Accounts of a successful silk weaver are analyzed by one of the great historians who has worked on artisans, demonstrating that entrepreneurialism and guild membership were not antithetical.
  288. Find this resource:
  289. The Low Countries
  290.  
  291. Without doubt the Low Countries are the most vibrant region of Europe for regional or local studies of artisans, and the range of foci is extensive. Of special note are DuPlessis and Howell 1982, which first called attention to an artisanal small commodity production system and its role in political and social stability; Dambruyne 2005, which explores artisanal mobility and proletarianization; and Deceulaer 1998, Lis and Soly 2010, and Soly 2008, which examine in different ways the economic strategies of guild artisans.
  292.  
  293. Dambruyne, Johan. “Proletarisering in de corporatieve wereld? De doorstroommogelijkheden van gezellen in Vlaamse en Brabantse ambachten ca. 1450–1650.” Revue belge de philologie et d’histoire 83.2 (2005): 367–397.
  294. DOI: 10.3406/rbph.2005.4928Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  295. Through archival research and statistical presentation on the mobility of artisans in Ghent, Antwerp, and Brussels, the author challenges the assumption that widespread proletarianization (the emergence of a wage-earning laboring class outside the guilds) took hold in the cities of the Low Countries in early modern Europe, suggesting instead that many artisans remained in the guild system rather than becoming transient wage laborers.
  296. Find this resource:
  297. Deceulaer, Harald. “Guildsmen, Entrepreneurs, and Market Segments: The Case of the Garment Trades in Antwerp and Ghent (Sixteenth to Eighteenth Centuries).” International Review of Social History 43.1 (1998): 1–29.
  298. DOI: 10.1017/S0020859098000017Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  299. This article is an important close analysis of the economic choices artisans in the garment trades in Ghent and Antwerp made concerning their production and marketing strategies. The author finds that guildsmen selected a specific economic path, depending on their objectives of producing for an impersonal, local consumer market, a personal domestic market, or a product-oriented export market. Available online through purchase.
  300. Find this resource:
  301. DuPlessis, Robert S., and Martha C. Howell. “Reconsidering the Early Modern Urban Economy: The Cases of Leiden and Lille.” Past and Present 94.1 (1982): 49–84.
  302. DOI: 10.1093/past/94.1.49Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  303. This seminal article demonstrates that the market economy in general and the export-oriented economy in particular grew not necessarily as a result of merchant capitalism but also within a “small commodity production” system that was maintained by municipal governments controlled by merchants and merchant manufacturers interested in maintaining social stability by securing the workshop economy. Available online by subscription.
  304. Find this resource:
  305. Lis, Catharina, and Hugo Soly. “Subcontracting in Guild-Based Export Trades, Thirteenth–Eighteenth Centuries.” In Guilds, Innovation, and the European Economy, 1400–1800. Edited by S. R. Epstein and Maarten Prak, 81–113. Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
  306. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  307. Examines how guild-based economies of scale characterized by specialization of production, accumulation of capital, and increased labor productivity emerged in a context of surging demand and contributed fundamentally to the emergence of industrial capitalism.
  308. Find this resource:
  309. Soly, Hugo. “The Political Economy of European Craft Guilds: Power Relations and Economic Strategies of Merchants and Master Artisans in the Medieval and Early Modern Textile Industries.”International Review of Social History 53.S16 (2008): 45–71.
  310. DOI: 10.1017/S002085900800360XSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  311. This is an essay on the political economic role of European craft guilds, focusing on the power relationships and economic strategies of merchants and master artisans, noting the inability of merchants to control craft guildsmen from selling their products. Available online through purchase.
  312. Find this resource:
  313. Wages and Labor Markets
  314.  
  315. Throughout the history of artisan studies, historians have attempted to gauge the importance of wages in the lives of craftspeople and often to link them to the labor market in particular times and places. More-recent research continues to sustain this interest. Refined quantitative analyses of wage rates and standards of living (Reith 2003, Sosson 1979, Trivellato and Borghetti 1999, Woodward 1981) are well represented, as are studies of the organization of labor and the wage system (Epstein 1991), labor legislation (Cohn 2007), and labor markets themselves (Lanaro 2008) and the problem of illicit or nonguild workers within them (De Munck 2010, Hoffmann 2007).
  316.  
  317. Cohn, Samuel. “After the Black Death: Labour Legislation and Attitudes towards Labour in Late-Medieval Western Europe.” Economic History Review 60.3 (2007): 457–485.
  318. DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-0289.2006.00368.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  319. The author connects the black death with royal and municipal legislation throughout Europe to control wages and prices, arguing that these were not prompted by the realities of the supply and demand for labor but rather from fear of economically empowered subaltern classes in a general atmosphere of anxiety from the mass mortality and extreme social behavior.
  320. Find this resource:
  321. De Munck, Bert. “One Counter and Your Own Account: Redefining Illicit Labour in Early Modern Antwerp.” Urban History 37.1 (2010): 26–44.
  322. DOI: 10.1017/S0963926810000052Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  323. This article examines the problem of illicit labor, but instead of focusing on labor market deregulation or protoindustrialization (masters circumventing the guilds’ rules on hiring or large merchants creating putting-out systems), the author notes that guilds were keen to confront interloping wholesalers and mercers, who entered into production without being masters, by extending and refining their rules. Available online through purchase.
  324. Find this resource:
  325. Epstein, Steven A. Wage Labor and Guilds in Medieval Europe. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991.
  326. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  327. An important analysis of the organization of labor in medieval towns and the predominance of a wage system within them. The author provides useful information on guilds and guild organization, on women and Jews in the workforce, and on the value given to labor.
  328. Find this resource:
  329. Hoffmann, Philip R. “In Defence of Corporate Liberties: Early Modern Guilds and the Problem of Illicit Artisan Work.” Urban History 34.1 (2007): 76–88.
  330. DOI: 10.1017/S096392680700435XSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  331. This article, based on research in Lübeck, Germany, joins a growing list of works that focus on the importance of illicit (nonguild, clandestine) labor in the early modern economy and considers its significance as a political problem for the guildsmen who viewed it as an encroachment on their corporate liberties. Available online through purchase.
  332. Find this resource:
  333. Lanaro, Paola. “Corporations et confréries: Les etrangers et le marché du travail à Venise (XVe–XVIIIe siècles).” Histoire urbaine 21 (2008): 33–49.
  334. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  335. The author analyzes the economic and social role of foreign merchants and artisans in Venice in the Middle Ages and the early modern era, noting their formation into communities and underscoring the intense struggle that periodically beset the labor market between Venetians and foreigners.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. Reith, Reinhold. “Arbeit und Lohn im städtischen Handwerk des späten Mittelalters und der frühen Neuzeit: Überlegungen und Materialien zu einer Neubewertung.” Jahrbuch des Vereins für Geschichte der Stadt Wien 59 (2003): 219–242.
  338. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  339. This quantitative study of various trades in medieval and early modern Vienna reveals the emergence of discretionary wage rates for journeymen and apprentices based on skill, speed, and quality of product. It offers useful data for comparative purposes.
  340. Find this resource:
  341. Sosson, Jean-Pierre. “Corporation et pauperisme aux XIVe et XVe siècles: Le salariat du bâtiment en Flandre et en Brabant, et notamment à Bruges.” Tijdschrift voor geschiedenis 92.4 (1979): 557–575.
  342. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  343. An early study of builders’ wages in Brugge, Brussels, and Antwerp, showing that the purchasing power of journeymen and especially of excavators declined during this period.
  344. Find this resource:
  345. Trivellato, Francesca, and Maria Novella Borghetti. “Salaires et justice dans les corporations vénitiennes au 17e siècle: Le cas des manufactures de verre.” Annales: Histoire, Sciences Sociales 54.1 (1999): 245–273.
  346. DOI: 10.3406/ahess.1999.279743Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  347. The authors quantitatively analyze the wages of master and apprentice glassblowers in Venice following the plague of 1630–1631. The authors find that individual skill and productivity determined wage levels more than status, although guilds did try to protect masters’ wages through guild policies.
  348. Find this resource:
  349. Woodward, Donald. “Wage Rates and Living Standards in Pre-Industrial England.” Past and Present 91.1 (1981): 28–46.
  350. DOI: 10.1093/past/91.1.28Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  351. The author challenges the traditional interpretation that artisan wealth declined during the 16th and 17th centuries, suggesting that wage rates are a misleading indicator. He offers instead that the incomes of many workers were greater than simple wages, for often they were small independent business owners and received extra income for the labor of their apprentices, the sale of raw materials, or involvement in agriculture.
  352. Find this resource:
  353. Technical Knowledge
  354.  
  355. Attempts to demonstrate that guilds contributed to economic growth drove scholars to explore “technology transfer,” the spread of knowledge and techniques that are an essential component of growth, and simultaneously to downplay the significance of guild technical “secrets.” Some interpret this from a legal and demographic perspective (Epstein 2004), whereas others situate it in an openness to change resulting from booming demand in the marketplace (Trivellato 2010). A link between the institution of apprenticeship and technological training and transfer is a frequent focus as well (De Munck 2007, Epstein 2010, Trivellato 2010, Wallis 2008). Several studies examine the role that geographic mobility of artisans played in this dissemination (Domonkos 1982, Epstein 2004, Reith 2010, Schilling 1983), although not all scholars conclude that growth necessarily resulted from it (Belfanti 2004, De Munck 2007).
  356.  
  357. Belfanti, Carlo. “Guilds, Patents, and the Circulation of Technical Knowledge: Northern Italy during the Early Modern Age.” Technology and Culture 45.3 (2004): 569–589.
  358. DOI: 10.1353/tech.2004.0111Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  359. The author explores the diffusion of technical knowledge through the mobility of skilled workers in northern Italy in the early modern era. He contends that guilds, however, impeded the spread of such knowledge by granting mobile craftspeople patents on their techniques and appropriating them into the store of guild secrets. He connects this secrecy to slowed product innovation and especially to the decline of the silk industry. Available online through purchase.
  360. Find this resource:
  361. De Munck, Bert. “Construction and Reproduction: The Training and Skills of Antwerp Cabinetmakers in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries.” In Learning on the Shop Floor: Historical Perspectives on Apprenticeship. Edited by Bert De Munck, Steven L. Kaplan, and Hugo Soly, 85–110. International Studies in Social History 12. New York: Berghahn, 2007.
  362. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  363. Demand-driven, galloping specialization and product innovation presented training difficulties for guilds that the limited traditional apprenticeship system could not resolve, but the institution of apprenticeship remained important because it was recognized as a “representation and legitimization of . . . quality” among the masters it produced. Its symbolic properties were therefore more important than the actual development or transfer of skills and technical knowledge.
  364. Find this resource:
  365. Domonkos, Ottó. “Wanderrouten ungarischer Handwerksgesellen und deren Bedeutung für den technischen Fortschritt.” Jahrbuch für Wirtschaftsgeschichte 1 (1982): 99–111.
  366. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  367. This is an uncommon analysis of artisans from early modern Hungary who traveled throughout central and western Europe learning new industrial techniques. The author traces their routes and notes that when they returned to Hungary they employed the new techniques and stimulated economic transformation. The argument about the development of a Hungarian bourgeoisie and the dissolution of feudalism is less helpful.
  368. Find this resource:
  369. Epstein, S. R. “Property Rights to Technical Knowledge in Premodern Europe, 1300–1800.” American Economic Review 94.2 (2004): 382–387.
  370. DOI: 10.1257/0002828041301777Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  371. The author examines the dissemination of technical knowledge during this period and notes that the impediments to it—few technical publications, poor modes of transportation, guilds jealously guarding trade secrets—gradually eased with urbanization, increased mobility of workers, and public patent laws that broke the hold of guilds on trade secrets.
  372. Find this resource:
  373. Epstein, S. R. “Craft Guilds, Apprenticeship, and Technological Change in Pre-Industrial Europe.” In Guilds, Innovation, and the European Economy, 1400–1800. Edited by S. R. Epstein and Maarten Prak, 52–80. Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
  374. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  375. This previously published article (Journal of Economic History 58.3 [1998]: 684–714) has fast assumed seminal status and makes the important argument that “the primary purpose of craft guilds was to provide adequate skills training through formal apprenticeship” and that technological change and innovation were unintended but fundamentally important effects of this “investment in skills.”
  376. Find this resource:
  377. Reith, Reinhold. “Circulation of Skilled Labour in Late Medieval and Early Modern Europe.” In Guilds, Innovation, and the European Economy, 1400–1800. Edited by S. R. Epstein and Maarten Prak, 114–142. Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
  378. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  379. The author connects technology and skills transfer with patterns of artisanal mobility. Sound archival research reveals geographic patterns of mobility and the complexity and segmentation of labor markets (which he usefully divides into five types).
  380. Find this resource:
  381. Schilling, Heinz. “Innovation through Migration: The Settlements of Calvinistic Netherlanders in Sixteenth- and Seventeenth-Century Central and Western Europe.” Histoire sociale/Social History 16.31 (1983): 7–33.
  382. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  383. The author notes that 100,000 Dutch Calvinists immigrated to England, France, Germany, and Scandinavia during these two centuries and contends that their immigration may have been of greater importance than the later Huguenot emigration from France. The Dutch migrants included many skilled craftspeople and, as carriers of technical knowledge, became a major innovative force in the economic “modernization” of their new homelands.
  384. Find this resource:
  385. Trivellato, Francesca. “Guilds, Technology, and Economic Change in Early Modern Venice.” In Guilds, Innovation, and the European Economy, 1400–1800. Edited by S. R. Epstein and Maarten Prak, 199–231. Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
  386. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  387. The author demonstrates that the silk and glass industries in Venice, driven by booming demand (especially in the export sector), embraced technological innovation without mechanization and did so through a relative openness in these guilds to technological transfer through skills training via apprenticeship.
  388. Find this resource:
  389. Wallis, Patrick. “Apprenticeship and Training in Premodern England.” Journal of Economic History 68.3 (2008): 832–861.
  390. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  391. The author presents new data showing that although a high proportion of apprenticeships in 17th-century London ended before the term of service was completed, neither master nor apprentice suffered from this and the objective of acquisition of skill and transfer of technical knowledge was satisfactorily achieved. Available online through purchase.
  392. Find this resource:
  393. Social and Cultural Studies
  394.  
  395. A wide range of studies of artisans informed by social and cultural historians gives strong evidence to the vibrancy of the field. Identity (Farr 1997), social status and mobility (Dambruyne 1998), rites and rituals (Balyshok 1987, van Bruaene 2006), social ties and common attitudes (Cavallo 2010), honor and shame (Farr 1987, Stuart 2006), and popular literature (Ladd 2001, Stevenson 2002) are among the topics that have attracted excellent treatment.
  396.  
  397. Balyshok, V. G. “Obriady I obychai zhiznennogo tsikla ukrainskikh tsekhovykh remeslennikov (XVI–seredina XVII v).” Sovetskaya etnografiya 2 (1987): 41–51.
  398. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  399. The author discusses various rites and customs marking career developments of craftspeople in the Ukrainian guilds.
  400. Find this resource:
  401. Cavallo, Sandra. Artisans of the Body in Early Modern Italy: Identities, Families, and Masculinities. Gender in History. Manchester, UK, and New York: Manchester University Press, 2010.
  402. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  403. The author explores the role of artisans involved in various aspects of the care, comfort, and appearance of the body, revealing pronounced social ties and a common concern about health and well-being among “artisans of the body,” such as barber-surgeons, jewelers, tailors, wig makers, and upholsterers. Identity formation among males was constructed through professional and public responsibilities and not simply through marriage and head-of-household status.
  404. Find this resource:
  405. Dambruyne, Johan. “Guilds, Social Mobility, and Status in Sixteenth-Century Ghent.” International Review of Social History 43.1 (1998): 31–78.
  406. DOI: 10.1017/S0020859098000029Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  407. The author finds that upward social mobility was more prevalent in guilds than previously thought and that access to mastership and guild governance positions increased in the second half of the 16th century, largely because of imperial legislation that altered restrictive guild-admission policies.
  408. Find this resource:
  409. Farr, James R. “Crimine nel vicinato: Ingiurie, matrimonio e onore nella Digione del XVIe e XVII secolo.” Quaderni Storici 22.3 (1987): 839–854.
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  411. Assault and slander—frequently by artisan youth groups and often of a sexual nature—were the most common petty crimes committed in 16th- and 17th-century Dijon, yet they were considered with the utmost seriousness by victim, assailant, and bystander, revealing a value system rooted in marriage and sexual honor among artisans.
  412. Find this resource:
  413. Farr, James R. “Cultural Analysis and Early Modern Artisans.” In The Artisan and the European Town, 1500–1900. Edited by Geoffrey Crossick, 56–74. Aldershot, UK: Scolar Press, 1997.
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  415. A useful and innovative exploration of the methods of cultural analysis applied to the construction of an artisan’s identity, suggesting that it was determined by more than his or her role in production as traditional historiography has assumed.
  416. Find this resource:
  417. Ladd, Roger A. “Thomas Deloney and the London Weavers’ Company.” Sixteenth Century Journal 32.4 (2001): 981–1001.
  418. DOI: 10.2307/3648988Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  419. The Elizabethan writer and weaver Thomas Deloney wrote polemical tracts advocating the social needs of his craft as well as novels idealizing the weavers’ guild. An important insight into a literate artisan’s mentality. Available online through purchase.
  420. Find this resource:
  421. Stevenson, Laura Caroline. Praise and Paradox: Merchants and Craftsmen in Elizabethan Popular Literature. Past and Present Publications. Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002.
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  423. Originally published in 1985. The author explores popular Elizabethan literature, with specific attention to the changes in the literary image of the craftsperson from clown or rebel to loyal and contented “gentle craftsman.”
  424. Find this resource:
  425. Stuart, Kathy. Defiled Trades and Social Outcasts: Honor and Ritual Pollution in Early Modern Germany. Cambridge Studies in Early Modern History. Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
  426. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  427. This book presents an anthropologically informed social and cultural history of “dishonorable people” (including skinners, linen weavers, and barber-surgeons) in early modern Germany, exploring how honor and dishonor structured opportunities and identity within the social and political relations of society.
  428. Find this resource:
  429. van Bruaene, Anne-Laure. “‘A wonderfull tryumfe, for the wynnyng of a pryse’: Guilds, Ritual, Theater, and the Urban Network in the Southern Low Countries, ca. 1450–1650.” Renaissance Quarterly 59.2 (2006): 374–405.
  430. DOI: 10.1353/ren.2008.0252Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  431. The Chambers of Rhetoric, associations of skilled artisans, shopkeepers, and local merchants, contributed to the definition of urban culture in the southern Low Countries through public theater and civic ritual. Available online by subscription.
  432. Find this resource:
  433. Religion
  434.  
  435. Throughout the 20th century a lengthy scholarship explored the nexus between artisans and Protestantism, reflected here by Hauser 1899, Farr 1985, Seaver 1980, Seaver 1985, and Russell 1983. Moving away from causal connections between artisans and religious persuasion, however, more-current interests in the relationship between artisans and religion focus less on beliefs and more on cultural practices. Bos 2006 shifts attention to the redefinition of charity as mutual aid, whereas Thijs 2006 broadens the scope of giving to “cultural investment” in general. Similarly, Broadhead 1996 gauges guild commitment to communal values through a religious lens.
  436.  
  437. Bos, Sandra. “A Tradition of Giving and Receiving: Mutual Aid within the Guild System.” In Craft Guilds in the Early Modern Low Countries: Work, Power, and Representation. Edited by Maarten Prak, Catharina Lis, Hugo Soly, and Jan Lucassen, 174–193. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2006.
  438. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  439. The author contrasts the relationship between religion and mutual aid services of guilds and journeymen associations, finding that after the Dutch Revolt the relationship was severed in the North (where mutual aid evolved into a secularized insurance system), whereas in the Catholic South, aid continued to be a religious virtue defined as charity.
  440. Find this resource:
  441. Broadhead, Philip. “Guildsmen, Religious Reform, and the Search for the Common Good: The Role of the Guilds in the Early Reformation in Augsburg.” Historical Journal 39.3 (1996): 577–597.
  442. DOI: 10.1017/S0018246X00024444Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  443. The author examines the attitudes of guildsmen toward communal values and institutions in the wake of the Reformation and finds that wide varieties existed from guild to guild, depending on their economic status and commitment to evangelicalism. Poor guildsmen, such as weavers, tended to support enforcement of the common good to protect their status and income, whereas the more affluent were less supportive of communal principles.
  444. Find this resource:
  445. Farr, James R. “Popular Religious Solidarity in Sixteenth-Century Dijon.” French Historical Studies 14.2 (1985): 192–214.
  446. DOI: 10.2307/286582Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  447. Engaging the debate about artisanal attraction to Protestantism, the author finds that neighborhood solidarity was the most powerful factor in determining religious affiliation before 1561 and that Protestant militancy declined rapidly after the suppression of Huguenot neighborhoods in the early 1570s. Available online through purchase.
  448. Find this resource:
  449. Hauser, Henri. “La Réforme et les classes populaires en France au XVIe siècle.” Revue d’histoire moderne et contemporaine 1 (1899): 24–37.
  450. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  451. Linking Protestantism and artisans for the first time, the author defined the terms of a historiography that spanned most of the 20th century.
  452. Find this resource:
  453. Russell, Paul. “‘Your Sons and Daughters Shall Prophesy . . .’: Common People and the Future of the Reformation in the Pamphlet Literature of Southwestern Germany to 1525.” Archiv für Reformationsgeschichte 74 (1983): 122–140.
  454. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  455. The author examines apocalyptically oriented pamphlets written by artisans inspired by the events of 1523–1524 and addressed to their fellow “common man” on how they were silenced in the aftermath of the failed revolution.
  456. Find this resource:
  457. Seaver, Paul. “The Puritan Work Ethic Revisited.” Journal of British Studies 19.2 (1980): 35–53.
  458. DOI: 10.1086/385754Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  459. The author challenges the argument that urban craftspeople of early Stuart England embraced the Puritan ethic of wealth accumulation and entrepreneurial activity, asserting instead that they retained medieval values that repudiated economic ambition as greed.
  460. Find this resource:
  461. Seaver, Paul S. Wallington’s World: A Puritan Artisan in Seventeenth-Century London. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1985.
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  463. Based on an analysis of the extraordinary and extensive personal papers of a London Puritan turner, this text probes popular attitudes about the religious reforms of Charles I, godly revolution, the civil war, and the rise of Cromwell and the Protectorate.
  464. Find this resource:
  465. Thijs, Alfons K. L. “Religion and Social Structure: Religious Rituals in Pre-Industrial Trade Associations in the Low Countries.” In Craft Guilds in the Early Modern Low Countries: Work, Power, and Representation. Edited by Maarten Prak, Catharina Lis, Hugo Soly, and Jan Lucassen, 157–173. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2006.
  466. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  467. The author gauges the different patterns of economic and cultural investment in religion by guilds in the northern and southern Low Countries and sees accelerating differences between the Calvinist North and the Catholic South. In the South, guildsmen spent on “cultural capital” with an eye toward prestige (guildhalls, luxurious altars), whereas guilds in the North instead invested in social benefit funds.
  468. Find this resource:
  469. Political Studies
  470.  
  471. In most institutional histories of guilds, the authors examine the guild’s role in politics, usually municipal but sometimes royal (see Institutional Approaches), but more-specific studies are well represented in the literature as well (Endres 1975, Dambruyne 2003, Sanz 1977, Naujoks 1974). Notable departures into the broader world of popular politics and artisanal participation therein are Corteguera 2002 and, in the context of resistance to authority, Farr 2000, Sharp 1980, and Trexler 1993.
  472.  
  473. Corteguera, Luis R. For the Common Good: Popular Politics in Barcelona, 1580–1640. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2002.
  474. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  475. The first book in English to explore the political beliefs and actions of early modern artisans in Barcelona.
  476. Find this resource:
  477. Dambruyne, Johan. “De Middenstand in opstand: Corporatieve aspiraties en transformaties in het zestiende-eeuwse Gent.” Handelingen van der Maatschappij voor Geschiedenis en Oudheidkunde te Gent 67 (2003): 71–122.
  478. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  479. The author analyzes the important role played by the “corporate middle class” (the masters of the trade and artisan guilds) in political rebellions championing civic republicanism against centralizing Hapsburg rule in Ghent during the 16th century.
  480. Find this resource:
  481. Endres, Rudolf. “Zünfte und Unterschichten als Elemente der Instabilität in den Städten.” Historische Zeitschrift 221.4 (1975): 151–170.
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  483. The author explores the growing conflicts in German imperial cities in the 1520s stemming in part from the growing gulf between rich and poor, even within the guilds themselves. The propertied burghers, including many guild masters, increasingly exerted their influence in municipal governance. Available online by subscription.
  484. Find this resource:
  485. Farr, James R. Artisans in Europe, 1300–1914. New Approaches to European History. Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
  486. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  487. This book is an introduction to the history of work in general and of artisans in particular in Europe from 1300 to 1914. It focuses on many aspects of artisan culture, including the political roles artisans attained (or lost) in their relations with municipal and royal authority as well as their participation in rebellious activities.
  488. Find this resource:
  489. Naujoks, Eberhard. “Obrigkeit und Zunftverfassung in den süwestdeutschen Reichsstädten.” Zeitschrift für württembergische Landesgeschichte 33 (1974): 53–93.
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  491. The author analyzes the constitutional changes in many southwestern German towns resulting from conflicts between patricians and guilds, primarily during the 16th century, which reveal a decline of artisanal influence in municipal governance.
  492. Find this resource:
  493. Sanz, Víctor. “Trabajo y gremios en la España de Siglo de Oro.” Boletín histórico 43 (1977): 5–39.
  494. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  495. In this general overview of guilds in 16th-century Spain, the author focuses on power relations among the guilds, municipalities, and the crown. He finds that the power and influence of guilds ebbed over the century as municipalities and the crown struggled for jurisdiction over them. By the end of the century, the crown had triumphed, and the guilds had lost whatever power of independent action they once possessed.
  496. Find this resource:
  497. Sharp, Buchanan. In Contempt of All Authority: Rural Artisans and Riot in the West of England, 1586–1660. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980.
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  499. A social and economic analysis of causes and the status of the people (mostly rural artisans) who engaged in the forest and antienclosure riots known as the Western Rising of 1626–1632 and those that took place during the English Civil War.
  500. Find this resource:
  501. Trexler, Richard C. The Workers of Renaissance Florence. Power and Dependence in Renaissance Florence 3. Binghamton, NY: Center for Late Medieval and Renaissance Studies, 1993.
  502. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  503. This book is an excellent analysis of the famous Ciompi Revolt in Florence in the late 14th century.
  504. Find this resource:
  505. Intellectual Studies
  506.  
  507. Only rarely do histories of artisans appear in the literature on the history of thought, but the treatment of artisan autobiographers in Amelang 1998 is a luminous exception, and examinations of the connection between artisans and science in Clegg 1979 and Smith 2004 open promising vistas that one hopes will be explored more in the future.
  508.  
  509. Amelang, James S. The Flight of Icarus: Artisan Autobiography in Early Modern Europe. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1998.
  510. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  511. In a wide-ranging analysis of early modern artisan autobiographies, the author concludes that the act of writing by these men was an act of individual identity formation and a conscious transgression of established social hierarchies.
  512. Find this resource:
  513. Clegg, Arthur. “Craftsmen and the Origin of Science.” Science and Society 43.2 (1979): 186–201.
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  515. Anticipating current historiographical interest, the author connects the development of the scientific method to the work habits of artisans long rooted in observation and mathematical and experimental testing of both techniques and theories.
  516. Find this resource:
  517. Smith, Pamela H. The Body of the Artisan: Art and Experience in the Scientific Revolution. Chicago: Chicago University Press, 2004.
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  519. The author demonstrates the contribution of artisans and artists to the emergence of empirical science. Scientists and craftspeople shared a sense that knowledge is based in an understanding of nature and the manipulation of natural materials.
  520. Find this resource:
  521. Journeymen
  522.  
  523. Journeymen, or artisans holding an inferior rank to masters of guilds, have attracted scholarly attention for nearly as long as their master counterparts. Many works focus on the brotherhoods they formed, sometimes as organizations to press the advantage of journeymen against masters in the labor market (Bräuer 1987, Davis 1966), sometimes more broadly as organizations that were historical preindustrial precursors to the labor movements of the 19th century (Coornaert 1976, Lis and Soly 1995). Journeymen, like masters, have drawn local studies of their social and economic activities, including wages earned (Keller 1990, Ostrolucká 1990, Reith 2003, Wesoly 1985), whereas other works take a cultural perspective to their experiences (Wiesner 1990–1991). See also Geremek 1968 (cited under France).
  524.  
  525. Bräuer, Helmut “Gesellenstreiks in Saschen im Zeitalter der Frühbürgerlichen Revolution.” Jahrbuch für Regionalgeschichte 14 (1987): 183–199.
  526. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  527. The author explains the wave of strikes by journeymen organizations in three early-16th-century German cities as conflicts between employers and employees were exacerbated by increased production and new demands for worker concessions that violated traditional relationships.
  528. Find this resource:
  529. Coornaert, Emile. Les compagnonnages en France du Moyen Ȃge à nos jours. 3d ed. Paris: Éditions Ouvrières, 1976.
  530. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  531. Originally published in 1966. This book is a pioneering and still-useful study on journeyman brotherhoods in France since the Middle Ages.
  532. Find this resource:
  533. Davis, Natalie Z. “A Trade Union in 16th-Century France.” Economic History Review 19 (1966): 48–70.
  534. DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-0289.1966.tb00960.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  535. The author, one of the great historians of the 20th century, presents a now-classic analysis of the journeyman brotherhood in the printing trade in Lyon that organized for work stoppage to protect and promote its members’ interests against the masters of the trade.
  536. Find this resource:
  537. Keller, Katrin. “Handwerkgesellen im 16. Jahrhundert: Zum Alltag von Gesellen in Leipziger Leder- und Textilhandwerken.” Jahrbuch fuer Regionalgeschichte 17.1 (1990): 116–124.
  538. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  539. A valuable close analysis of the daily lives and working conditions of journeymen, this article explores employment opportunities, interactions with masters and less skilled workers, wages and nonmonetary remuneration, and provisions for medical care.
  540. Find this resource:
  541. Lis, Catharina, and Hugo Soly. “‘An Irresistible Phalanx’: Journeymen Associations in Western Europe, 1300–1800.” In Before the Unions: Wage Earners and Collective Action in Europe, 1300–1850. Edited by Catharina Lis, Jan Lucassen, and Hugo Soly, 11–52. International Review of Social History Supplement 2. Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
  542. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  543. An important contribution to an important volume that examines organized labor movements in early modern Europe, this article focuses on the role of journeymen brotherhoods in this development.
  544. Find this resource:
  545. Ostrolucká, Milena. “Der Alltag der Handwerkgesellen in Kosice im 15. und 16. Jahrhundert.” Jahrbuch für Regionalgeschichte 17.2 (1990): 92–99.
  546. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  547. A rare look at the daily lives of journeymen in eastern Europe. The author reveals similar practices and conditions to their counterparts to the west.
  548. Find this resource:
  549. Reith, Reinhold. “Arbeit und Lohn im städtischen Handwerk des späten Mittelalters und der frühen Neuzeit: Überlegungen und Materialien zu einer Neubewertung.” Jahrbuch des Vereins fur Geschichte der Stadt Wien 59 (2003): 219–242.
  550. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  551. This quantitative study of various trades in medieval and early modern Vienna reveals the emergence of discretionary wage rates for journeymen based on skill, speed, and quality of product. It offers useful data for comparative purposes.
  552. Find this resource:
  553. Wesoly, Kurt. Lehrlinge und Handwerksgesellen am Mittelrhein: Ihre soziale Lage und Ihre Organisation vom 14. bis ins 17. Jahrhundert. Studien zur Frankfurter Geschichte. Frankfurt am Main: Kramer, 1985.
  554. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  555. This book presents an analysis of the social and economic position as well as the organization of apprentices and journeymen in late medieval and early modern Germany.
  556. Find this resource:
  557. Wiesner, Merry E. “Wandervogels and Women: Journeymen’s Concepts of Masculinity in Early Modern Germany.” Journal of Social History 24.4 (1990–1991): 767–782.
  558. DOI: 10.1353/jsh/24.4.767Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  559. Journeymen organizations increasingly found working alongside women to be dishonorable and by threats of strike forced masters to restrict women’s work in the shops of early modern Germany. The resulting male monopolization of labor contributed to forging a masculine identity associated with work.
  560. Find this resource:
  561. Apprentices
  562.  
  563. Like journeymen, apprentices held a specific, inferior rank to masters in the guild. Historians of apprentices and apprenticeship generally base their analyses on the contracts with masters (and some consider the difficulties in using such sources), exploring a wide variety of the experiences of these young men and, as current research is demonstrating, women. As has been happening across artisan studies in general, noneconomic roles and functions of apprenticeship have garnered increasing attention. The contribution of apprenticeship to community and social cohesion, for example, is being considered to a greater extent. Perhaps a reflection of the nature of the sources and the youth of the field in general, Lane 1996 is the only synthesis on apprenticeship to have appeared, and that only on England.
  564.  
  565. Lane, Joan. Apprenticeship in England, 1600–1914. London: UCL, 1996.
  566. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  567. The author provides a useful overview that examines the social and economic forces (population growth, mass-produced goods, new consumption patterns) that changed the nature and ultimately defined the irrelevance of the institution of apprenticeship. She offers information on workshop conditions, earnings, social mobility, and leisure activities of apprentices.
  568. Find this resource:
  569. Labor Contracts
  570.  
  571. Studies of apprentices and apprenticeship generally base their analyses on the contracts with masters, and some, such as Pellegrin 1993, consider the difficulties in using such sources, exploring a wide variety of the experiences of these young men and, as current research is demonstrating, women (Bellavitis 2006a, Bellavitis 2006b, Ben-Amos 1991, Loats 1997). As prescriptive sources, some works ask how binding the contracts were in reality (Seaver 1989, Shedd 2004) and to what extent they reflect the actual relations within the workshop, including with masters (Smith 1981, Reith 2007).
  572.  
  573. Bellavitis, Anna. “Apprentissages masculins, apprentissages féminins à Venise au XVIe siècle.” Histoire urbaine 15 (2006a): 49–73.
  574. DOI: 10.3917/rhu.015.0049Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  575. This analysis of more than a thousand apprenticeship and domestic service contracts offers valuable information about age, social origin, choice of trade, and duration of service and importantly reveals the differences between males and females.
  576. Find this resource:
  577. Bellavitis, Anna. “Genres, métiers, apprentissages dans trois villes italiennes à l’époque moderne.” Histoire urbaine 15 (2006b): 5–12.
  578. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  579. In an analysis of female apprenticeship in Venice, Turin, and Catania from the 16th to the 18th centuries, the author charts a shift in the purpose of apprenticeship from skills acquisition to waged labor as women were increasingly excluded from participation in guild affairs but contributed nonetheless to the urban economy.
  580. Find this resource:
  581. Ben-Amos, Ilana Krausman. “Women Apprentices in the Trades and Crafts of Early Modern Bristol.” Continuity and Change 6.2 (1991): 227–252.
  582. DOI: 10.1017/S026841600000134XSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  583. The author argues that formal apprenticeships for women in Bristol diminished in the 16th century, whereas informal training in home-based industries continued throughout the period.
  584. Find this resource:
  585. Loats, Carol L. “Gender, Guilds, and Work Identity: Perspectives from Sixteenth-Century Paris.” French Historical Studies 20.1 (1997): 15–30.
  586. DOI: 10.2307/286796Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  587. This study of apprenticeship contracts reveals that wives of artisans in 16th-century Paris were practicing trades different from their husbands and, although not members of guilds, were contracting female apprentices in those trades and developing independent work identities.
  588. Find this resource:
  589. Pellegrin, Nicole. “L’apprentissage ou l’écriture de l’oralité: Quelques remarques introductives.” Revue d’histoire moderne et contemporaine 40.3 (1993): 356–386.
  590. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  591. The author considers the difficulties of studying the institution of apprenticeship when a paucity of written evidence exists about it. Although apprenticeship was often governed by oral agreements, she suggests ways to grasp its history and offers guarded observations about it.
  592. Find this resource:
  593. Reith, Reinhold. “Apprentices in the German and Austrian Crafts in Early Modern Times: Apprentices as Wage Earners?” In Learning on the Shop Floor: Historical Perspectives on Apprenticeship. Edited by Bert De Munck, Steven L. Kaplan, and Hugo Soly, 179–202. International Studies in Social History 12. New York: Berghahn, 2007.
  594. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  595. The author contends that apprenticeship was more than a power relationship between master and apprentice and that, judging from labor contracts and wage payments, the institution should be understood in the shifting context of the relative demand for labor.
  596. Find this resource:
  597. Seaver, Paul. “A Social Contract? Master against Servant in the Court of Requests.” History Today 39.9 (1989): 50–56.
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  599. Findings from the records of the Court of Requests that half of Tudor-Stuart apprenticeships ended in hostility before the completion of the contract prompts the author to conclude that master-apprentice relationships were often inimical.
  600. Find this resource:
  601. Shedd, John A. “The State versus the Trades Guilds: Parliament’s Soldier-Apprentices in the English Civil War Period, 1642–1655.” International Labor and Working-Class History 65 (2004): 105–116.
  602. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  603. The author explores the fate of the soldier-apprentices of the English Civil War who had been released by Parliament from their labor contracts to fight in Oliver Cromwell’s army. Masters tried to enforce the contracts after the war, but many apprentices entered trades on their own, a move supported by Parliament and a blow to the authority of the guild system. Available online through purchase.
  604. Find this resource:
  605. Smith, Steven R. “The Ideal and Reality: Apprentice-Master Relationships in Seventeenth Century London.” History of Education Quarterly 21.4 (1981): 449–459.
  606. DOI: 10.2307/367925Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  607. The author contrasts the ideal of master-apprentice relations as paternal and educational with the reality of labor exploitation, abuse, inadequate training, or neglect.
  608. Find this resource:
  609. Skills, Occupational Training, and Technological Dissemination
  610.  
  611. Well represented in the literature on apprentices are studies that explore the important history of skills and occupational training in apprenticeship (Davids 2007, Davis 1991, De Munck 2007, Trivellato 2010) and the related dissemination of technical knowledge through it (Ben-Amos 1991, Epstein 2010, Wallis 2008).
  612.  
  613. Ben-Amos, Ilana Krausman. “Failure to Become Freemen: Urban Apprentices in Early Modern England.” Social History 16.2 (1991): 155–172.
  614. DOI: 10.1080/03071029108567797Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  615. The author suggests that the scale of out-migration of apprentices who failed to complete their training in Bristol was so great that it significantly contributed to the dissemination of technical knowledge and skilled labor to neighboring towns and spurred economic growth.
  616. Find this resource:
  617. Davids, Karel. “Apprenticeship and Guild Control in the Netherlands, c. 1450–1800.” In Learning on the Shop Floor: Historical Perspectives on Apprenticeship. Edited by Bert De Munck, Steven L. Kaplan, and Hugo Soly, 65–84. International Studies in Social History 12. New York: Berghahn, 2007.
  618. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  619. The author shows that occupational training in the early modern Netherlands increasingly took place in schools or with private mathematics instructors who operated independently of the guilds and thus transferred a knowledge to workers that was more adaptive to the rampant specialization that was taking hold in the craft economy than shop-floor apprenticeship training.
  620. Find this resource:
  621. Davis, Robert C. Shipbuilders of the Venetian Arsenal: Workers and Workplace in the Preindustrial City. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991.
  622. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  623. A deeply researched analysis of what was perhaps the greatest manufacturing complex in early modern Europe, this book contains useful information on apprentices and apprenticeship within the system.
  624. Find this resource:
  625. De Munck, Bert. “Construction and Reproduction: The Training and Skills of Antwerp Cabinetmakers in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries.” In Learning on the Shop Floor: Historical Perspectives on Apprenticeship. Edited by Bert De Munck, Steven L. Kaplan, and Hugo Soly, 85–110. International Studies in Social History 12. New York: Berghahn, 2007.
  626. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  627. The author emphasizes that apprenticeship remained important for symbolic reasons as a representation of high quality even after its economic usefulness proved limited in the face of surging demand, labor specialization, and product innovation.
  628. Find this resource:
  629. Epstein, S. R. “Craft Guilds, Apprenticeship, and Technological Change in Pre-Industrial Europe.” In Guilds, Innovation, and the European Economy, 1400–1800. Edited by S. R. Epstein and Maarten Prak, 52–80. Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
  630. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  631. The author argues that formal guild-based apprenticeship invested in skill acquisition and thereby contributed, if unwittingly, to technological change and innovation. This article launched a sweeping debate about the role of apprenticeship in the growth of the early modern craft economy.
  632. Find this resource:
  633. Trivellato, Francesca. “Guilds, Technology, and Economic Change in Early Modern Venice.” In Guilds, Innovation, and the European Economy, 1400–1800. Edited by S. R. Epstein and Maarten Prak, 199–231. Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
  634. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  635. The author demonstrates that, in response to growing export demand, technological innovation and skills training occurred in the silk and glass industries in Venice without mechanization within a relatively open guild-based apprenticeship system.
  636. Find this resource:
  637. Wallis, Patrick. “Apprenticeship and Training in Premodern England.” Journal of Economic History 68.3 (2008): 832–861.
  638. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  639. The author demonstrates that the acquisition of skills and the transfer of technical knowledge was achieved within the apprenticeship system, even though a high proportion of apprenticeships in 17th-century London ended before the term of service was completed. Available online through purchase.
  640. Find this resource:
  641. Wages and Geographic Mobility
  642.  
  643. Wages earned by apprentices have attracted scholarly study (Reith 2003, Trivellato and Borghetti 1999), as has exploitation of apprentices by masters in the labor market (Geremek 1968). These concerns are in turn related to studies of migration patterns of apprentices (Field 2010, Wareing 1980).
  644.  
  645. Field, Jacob F. “Apprenticeship Migration to London from the North-East of England in the Seventeenth Century.” London Journal 35.1 (2010): 1–21.
  646. DOI: 10.1179/174963210X12598738033332Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  647. The author examines apprentices as one of the most important migrant groups from the Northeast of England to London. He offers useful information on the social and family backgrounds of these apprentices, the local conditions that pushed the out-migration, the initial relations with their masters in London, and the most important factors to an apprentice completing a term of service.
  648. Find this resource:
  649. Geremek, Bronislaw. Le salariat dans l’artisanat parisien aux XIIIe–XVe siècles: Étude sur la marché de la main-d’oeuvre au Moyen Ȃge. Translated by Anna Posner and Christiane Klapisch-Zuber. Industrie et artisanat. The Hague: Mouton, 1968.
  650. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  651. In this pioneering, systematic study of Parisian artisanal wage earners, the author explores the use of apprentices as cheap labor.
  652. Find this resource:
  653. Reith, Reinhold. “Arbeit und Lohn im städtischen Handwerk des späten Mittelalters und der frühen Neuzeit: Überlegungen und Materialien zu einer Neubewertung.” Jahrbuch des Vereins für Geschichte der Stadt Wien 59 (2003): 219–242.
  654. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  655. This quantitative study of various trades in medieval and early modern Vienna reveals the emergence of discretionary wage rates for apprentices based on skill, speed, and quality of product. It offers useful data for comparative purposes.
  656. Find this resource:
  657. Trivellato, Francesca, and Maria Novella Borghetti. “Salaires et justice dans les corporations venitiennes au 17e siècle: Le cas des manufactures de verre.” Annales: Histoire, sciences sociales 54.1 (1999): 245–273.
  658. DOI: 10.3406/ahess.1999.279743Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  659. The authors quantitatively analyze the wages of apprentice glassblowers in Venice following the plague of 1630–1631. The authors find that individual skill and productivity determined wage levels more than status.
  660. Find this resource:
  661. Wareing, John. “Changes in the Geographical Distribution of the Recruitment of Apprentices to the London Companies, 1486–1750.” Journal of Historical Geography 6.3 (1980): 241–249.
  662. DOI: 10.1016/0305-7488(80)90080-8Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  663. The author concludes that the migration of apprentices to London declined over the early modern centuries as employment opportunities beyond London increased and suggests a reduction in London’s general migration field. Guild recruitment patterns consequently increased from London itself and the home counties.
  664. Find this resource:
  665. Social and Cultural Aspects of Apprenticeship
  666.  
  667. Social and cultural aspects of apprenticeship have attracted scholarly attention, notably consideration of apprenticeship as an important part of the life cycle of childhood, adolescence, and the male coming of age (Ben-Amos 1988, Nicholas 1995, Smith 1973, Yarbrough 1979). As has been happening across artisan studies in general, noneconomic roles and functions of apprenticeship have garnered increasing attention. The contribution of apprenticeship to community and social cohesion, for example, is increasingly being considered (De Munck 2010, Pelling 1994, Stabel 2007). See also Female Apprenticeship.
  668.  
  669. Ben-Amos, Ilana Krausman. “Service and the Coming of Age of Young Men in Seventeenth-Century England.” Continuity and Change 3.1 (1988): 41–64.
  670. DOI: 10.1017/S0268416000000801Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  671. Based on an analysis of autobiographies and apprenticeship records in Bristol, the author contends that service (including apprenticeship) was formative in young men becoming mature adults. Available online through purchase.
  672. Find this resource:
  673. De Munck, Bert. “From Brotherhood Community to Civil Society? Apprentices between Guild, Household, and the Freedom of Contract in Early Modern Antwerp.” Social History 35.1 (2010): 1–20.
  674. DOI: 10.1080/03071020903491724Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  675. The author shows that over the early modern centuries Antwerp craft guilds were transformed from “brotherhoods” and “substitute families,” in which apprentices became members of surrogate families under patriarchal masters, into work-based spheres in civil society separate from the familial household.
  676. Find this resource:
  677. Nicholas, David. “Child and Adolescent Labour in the Late Medieval City: A Flemish Model in Regional Perspective.” English Historical Review 110.439 (1995): 1103–1131.
  678. DOI: 10.1093/ehr/CX.439.1103Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  679. This article situates apprenticeship in the broader context of youth labor activities, a subset of the history of childhood and adolescence rather than the history of work.
  680. Find this resource:
  681. Pelling, Margaret. “Apprenticeship, Health, and Social Cohesion in Early Modern London.” History Workshop Journal 37 (1994): 33–56.
  682. DOI: 10.1093/hwj/37.1.33Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  683. The author explains the value of the institution of apprenticeship in mid-17th-century London in moral rather than economic terms, revealing attitudes toward child health, social welfare, and the extent and significance of customary obligations involving apprentices.
  684. Find this resource:
  685. Smith, Steven R. “The London Apprentices as Seventeenth-Century Adolescents.” Past and Present 61 (1973): 149–161.
  686. DOI: 10.1093/past/61.1.149Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  687. A pioneering study that challenges Philippe Ariès’s view that no distinction was made between childhood and adolescence in the early modern period. The author suggests instead that apprenticeship was an important institution in the formation of adolescence and the separation from childhood.
  688. Find this resource:
  689. Stabel, Peter. “Social Mobility and Apprenticeship in Late Medieval Flanders.” In Learning on the Shop Floor: Historical Perspectives on Apprenticeship. Edited by Bert De Munck, Steven L. Kaplan, and Hugo Soly, 158–178. International Studies in Social History 12. New York: Berghahn, 2007.
  690. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  691. The author contends through statistical analysis that apprenticeship was fundamental to social and economic organization in the preindustrial city and essential in transferring both technical knowledge and status, maintaining hierarchical authority, and reinforcing social boundaries. Apprenticeship (above all children of masters) rather than journeymanship (a dead end) was the route to mastership.
  692. Find this resource:
  693. Yarbrough, Anne. “Apprentices as Adolescents in Sixteenth Century Bristol.” Journal of Social History 13.1 (1979): 67–81.
  694. DOI: 10.1353/jsh/13.1.67Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  695. The author considers apprenticeship as the stage of adolescence in the early modern life cycle and concludes that upon completion of apprenticeship the young men were received as adults within society.
  696. Find this resource:
  697. Women and Gender
  698.  
  699. Reflecting the surge in women and gender studies in the discipline of history in general since the 1980s, artisan studies well represent this attention. The most significant findings unequivocably demonstrate that women participated broadly in the early modern economy, sometimes in their own guilds but more often in the massive and unregulated illicit economy beyond guild control and regulation.
  700.  
  701. Women and the Early Modern Craft Economy
  702.  
  703. Findings since the 1980s indisputably demonstrate that women participated broadly in the early modern economy, sometimes in their own guilds (Wensky 1982, Willen 1984) but more often in the massive and unregulated illicit economy beyond guild control and regulation (Davis 1986, Jacobsen 1983, Montenach 2006, Schmidt 2009, Wiesner 1986). Echoing and developing Natalie Z. Davis’s pioneering study, Loats 1997 discovers that the widespread agency many wives of artisans had owing to their participation in the unregulated economy fostered a specific female work identity. These findings have provided powerful support to the revisionist position that contends that economic growth occurred largely in the unregulated economy beyond the regulatory reach of the guilds.
  704.  
  705. Davis, Natalie Z. “Women in the Crafts in Sixteenth-Century Lyon.” In Women and Work in Preindustrial Europe. Edited by Barbara A. Hanawalt, 167–197. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986.
  706. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  707. A pioneering study by a renowned author revealing for the first time the broad but largely unrecorded participation of women in the early modern craft economy.
  708. Find this resource:
  709. Jacobsen, Grethe. “Women’s Work and Women’s Role: Ideology and Reality in Danish Urban Society, 1300–1550.” Scandinavian Economic History Review 31.1 (1983): 3–20.
  710. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  711. Although male-dominated guilds imposed restrictions on female economic activity, in practice women’s participation in craft production was widespread if illicit, especially in sectors where guild authority was weak and demand surged.
  712. Find this resource:
  713. Loats, Carol L. “Gender, Guilds, and Work Identity: Perspectives from Sixteenth-Century Paris.” French Historical Studies 20.1 (1997): 15–30.
  714. DOI: 10.2307/286796Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  715. The author demonstrates that wives of artisans in 16th-century Paris, although not formally members of guilds, were contracting female apprentices who developed work identities independent of males.
  716. Find this resource:
  717. Montenach, Anne. “‘Schattenarbeiterinnen’: Frauen im Lebensmittelkleinhandel im Lyon des 17. Jahrhunderts: Ressourcen und Strategien.” L’Homme: Europäische Zeitschrift für Feministische Geschichtswissenschaft 17.2 (2006): 15–36.
  718. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  719. The author demonstrates that the widespread extralegal economic activity of women in the food trade of Lyon during the 17th century, outside the normative structure of the guilds, was an essential component of production and exchange as well as a crucial component of household strategy for survival.
  720. Find this resource:
  721. Schmidt, Ariadne. “Women and Guilds: Corporations and Female Labour Market Participation in Early Modern Holland.” Gender and History 21.1 (2009): 170–189.
  722. DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-0424.2009.01540.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  723. This study contends that female participation in the craft economy was widespread in the early modern period, and because they offered little resistance, the author concludes that guilds formed no obstacle for women in contributing to the flourishing economy of the Dutch Republic.
  724. Find this resource:
  725. Wensky, Margret. “Women’s Guilds in Cologne in the Later Middle Ages.” Journal of European Economic History 11.3 (1982): 631–650.
  726. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  727. The author discovers that the export trade of spun yarn, gold thread, and woven silk from Cologne from the 14th to the 16th centuries was organized by men, whereas the production was performed by women working in their own guilds.
  728. Find this resource:
  729. Wiesner, Merry E. Working Women in Renaissance Germany. Douglass Series on Women’s Lives and the Meaning of Gender. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1986.
  730. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  731. Analyzing work activities by women in six South German cities, the author finds that women were increasingly excluded from formal guilds between the 15th and 17th centuries and as a result saw a devaluation of their economic role and sharpened gender differentiations in the world of work, despite their broad participation in unregulated work activities that contributed significantly to the growing market economy.
  732. Find this resource:
  733. Willen, Diane. “Guildswomen in the City of York, 1560–1700.” Historian 46.2 (1984): 204–218.
  734. DOI: 10.1111/j.1540-6563.1984.tb01594.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  735. An early attempt to correct the traditional assumption that women played an insignificant role in the craft economy in Tudor-Stuart England. The author demonstrates that late marriage freed women from familial constraints and allowed their participation in a growing market economy.
  736. Find this resource:
  737. Women in Male-Dominated Guilds
  738.  
  739. An active area of research concerning artisanal women pertains to their relative status in male-dominated guilds (Crowston 2009, Howell 1986, Ogilvie 2004) and conflict with males within them (see Honeyman and Goodman 1991, Wiesner 1989). Reflecting the cultural approach so common in artisan studies, Boes 2003 explores the issues of female sexuality and dishonor in relation to exclusionary guild practices.
  740.  
  741. Boes, Maria R. “‘Dishonourable’ Youth, Guilds, and the Changed World View of Sex, Illegitimacy, and Women in Late-Sixteenth-Century Germany.” Continuity and Change 18.3 (2003): 345–372.
  742. DOI: 10.1017/S0268416003004697Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  743. The author examines exclusionary guild policies implemented in late-16th-century Germany toward illegitimate children and unwed mothers, affecting broader cultural attitudes of labeling such individuals as dishonorable.
  744. Find this resource:
  745. Crowston, Clare. “Women, Gender, and Guilds in Early Modern Europe: An Overview of Recent Research.” In The Return of the Guilds. Edited by Jan Lucassen, Tine De Moor, and Jan Luiten van Zanden, 19–44. International Review of Social History Supplements 16. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2009.
  746. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  747. The author provides an informative and valuable historiographical overview of the status of women in guilds and the broader economy.
  748. Find this resource:
  749. Honeyman, Katrina, and Jordan Goodman. “Women’s Work, Gender Conflict, and Labour Markets in Europe, 1500–1900.” Economic History Review 44.4 (1991): 608–628.
  750. DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-0289.1991.tb01283.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  751. The authors survey research on women’s work in Europe between 1500 and 1900, addressing specifically the gendered division of labor and gender conflict driven by male artisans’ need to assert patriarchal authority for social and political status.
  752. Find this resource:
  753. Howell, Martha C. Women, Production, and Patriarchy in Late Medieval Cities. Women in Culture and Society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986.
  754. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  755. A groundbreaking and now classic study of women’s changing labor status in the cities of northern Europe during the late Middle Ages. The author shows that the changes were the product of both cultural and economic factors.
  756. Find this resource:
  757. Ogilvie, Sheilagh. “How Does Social Capital Affect Women? Guilds and Communities in Early Modern Germany.” American Historical Review 109.2 (2004): 325–359.
  758. DOI: 10.1086/530335Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  759. The author examines how guilds and communities in early modern Germany affected females in their deployment of “social capital” and concludes that guild practices were inimical to females’ as well as society’s general welfare.
  760. Find this resource:
  761. Wiesner, Merry E. “Guilds, Male Bonding, and Women’s Work in Early Modern Germany.” Gender and History 1.2 (1989): 125–137.
  762. DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-0424.1989.tb00244.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  763. As women were increasingly prohibited from working within trade guilds in Germany from the mid-15th century onward, female labor became dishonored, as guilds and the idea of skilled work became a male monopoly and markers of masculine honor, leaving a lasting legacy of hostility toward female work that continued into the industrialized era.
  764. Find this resource:
  765. Female Apprenticeship
  766.  
  767. Studies such as Bellavitis 2006a, Bellavitis 2006b, and Ben-Amos 1991 have revealed a surprisingly high incidence of female apprenticeship within guilds and exposed the conflicts with males this might have caused.
  768.  
  769. Bellavitis, Anna. “Apprentissages masculins, apprentissages féminins à Venise au XVIe siècle.” Histoire urbaine 15 (2006a): 49–73.
  770. DOI: 10.3917/rhu.015.0049Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  771. This author, an important contributor to recent studies of female apprenticeship, explores the differences between males and females in Venice concerning age, social origin, choice of trade, and duration of service.
  772. Find this resource:
  773. Bellavitis, Anna. “Genres, métiers, apprentissages dans trois villes italiennes à l’époque moderne.” Histoire urbaine 15 (2006b): 5–12.
  774. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  775. Reflecting increased scholarly interest in female apprenticeship, the author demonstrates a shift in the purpose of apprenticeship from skills training to waged labor in Venice, Turin, and Catania from the 16th to the 18th centuries.
  776. Find this resource:
  777. Ben-Amos, Ilana Krausman. “Women Apprentices in the Trades and Crafts of Early Modern Bristol.” Continuity and Change 6.2 (1991): 227–252.
  778. DOI: 10.1017/S026841600000134XSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  779. The author demonstrates that in 16th-century Bristol, female participation in formal apprenticeships declined but women continued to contribute to the larger economy through home-based industries.
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