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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. Berbers or Imazighen are the indigenous inhabitants of North Africa. While there is no consensus among scholars about their origins before they settled there over five thousand years ago, historians and anthropologists seem to agree that the still-existing Berber groups in various regions, mainly in North Africa and the Sahara, characterized by distinct dialects and cultural practices, belong to the same ancestry: Imazighen or “the free men.” Centuries of foreign invasions, Islamic conquests and expansion, and modern European colonialism had resulted in the mixing of Berbers with foreign populations and influencing and even suppressing their language and culture. During the postcolonial period, however, various Berber groups have been promoting the revival of their language and culture, at times resulting in conflicts and confrontations with the regimes in their countries.
  4.  
  5. General Overviews
  6.  
  7. While there is no single comprehensive resource on the whole of Berber history, society, and culture, there exist several relevant works that provide extensive and detailed (and now specialized) coverage of Berber history, language, events, and institutions. One authoritative work on the origins and history of Berbers remains that of a 14th-century North African historian and sociologist, Ibn Khaldun 1925. Ibn Khaldun identified the main Berber branches and analyzed their political and social histories. While not focusing specifically on Berbers, Hourani 1991 (cited under Bibliographies) analyzed in great detail the formation of Berber political entities from the Islamization period of the 7th century to the late 20th century. A more recent general overview of Berber history is provided by Brett and Fentress 1996 and Shafiq 1989. Historical studies also include Abun-Nasr 1987, which focused on the Islamic history of Berbers, and Bousquet 1957, which provided insight on Berber social organization and political institutions. Other relevant works include Camps 1996, which is a brief overview of Berber states and communities and how they evolved to constitute the current maghrib or North Africa; Lacoste and Lacoste 2004, which examined various aspects of ethnic identities of North African peoples; and Maddy-Weitzman 2011, which analyzed the historical development of Berber movements in North Africa.
  8.  
  9. Abun-Nasr, Jamil M., ed. A History of the Maghrib in the Islamic Period. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1987.
  10. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511608100Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  11. Excellent resource for students and scholars interested in the history of Berbers in particular and the history of the maghrib (North Africa) in general from the Islamic conquest in the 7th century to the late 20th century.
  12. Abun-Nasr, Jamil M., ed. A History of the Maghrib in the Islamic Period. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1987.
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  14. Bousquet, G. H. Les Berbères: Histoires et institutions. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1957.
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  16. A classic general historical and sociological study of Berber groups, languages, and institutions. Original publication in French.
  17. Bousquet, G. H. Les Berbères: Histoires et institutions. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1957.
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  19. Brett, Michael, and Elizabeth Fentress. The Berbers. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 1996.
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  21. This is a well-written and well-illustrated general history of Berbers by two experts on the subject. The book is a valuable resource for students and scholars, as it also provides a rich bibliography on all aspects of Berber history, culture, and institutions.
  22. Brett, Michael, and Elizabeth Fentress. The Berbers. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 1996.
  23. Find this resource:
  24. Camps, Gabriel. Des rives de la Mediterranèe aux marges meridionales du Sahara: Les Berbères. Paris: Edisud, 1996.
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  26. A brief history of Berber kingdoms and the transformation of Berber societies into what is now known as Arab maghrib, written by an authority on the subject of Berber history and culture. Original publication in French.
  27. Camps, Gabriel. Des rives de la Mediterranèe aux marges meridionales du Sahara: Les Berbères. Paris: Edisud, 1996.
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  29. Ibn Khaldun, Abd al-Rahman. Histoire des Berbères et des dynasties Musulmanes de l’Afrique septentrionale. 4 vols. Translated from Arabic by Le Baron de Slane. Paris: Librarie Orientaliste Paul Geuthner, 1925.
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  31. A seminal work on the origins of Berbers, their social structure, and their political systems produced by the 14th-century historian and sociologist Ibn Khaldun, who gained the title of “the historian of Berbers.” Original publication in French.
  32. Ibn Khaldun, Abd al-Rahman. Histoire des Berbères et des dynasties Musulmanes de l’Afrique septentrionale. 4 vols. Translated from Arabic by Le Baron de Slane. Paris: Librarie Orientaliste Paul Geuthner, 1925.
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  34. Lacoste, Camille, and Yves Lacoste, eds. Maghreb: Peuples et civilisations. Paris: La Decouverte, 2004.
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  36. A valuable and varied collection of articles about the peoples of North Africa and their religion, culture, language, and civilizations written by experts in various fields of knowledge and research and various backgrounds: sociologists, anthropologists, ethnologists, and historians. Original publication in French.
  37. Lacoste, Camille, and Yves Lacoste, eds. Maghreb: Peuples et civilisations. Paris: La Decouverte, 2004.
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  39. Maddy-Weitzman, Bruce. The Berber Identity Movement and the Challenge to North African States. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2011.
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  41. A rich historical analysis of the origins of Berber identity, the domination of Berbers by successive colonial rules, and the current struggles of Berber movements for recognition by North African states.
  42. Maddy-Weitzman, Bruce. The Berber Identity Movement and the Challenge to North African States. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2011.
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  44. Shafiq, Muhammad. Lamḥah an thalathah wa-thalathina qarnan min tarikh al-Amazighiyin. Rabat, Morocco: Dar al-Kalam, 1989.
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  46. This book is a brief history of Berbers that spans over thirty-three centuries. The author discusses the origins of Berbers and their linguistic and cultural characteristics over centuries of foreign domination and influence. Original publication in Arabic.
  47. Shafiq, Muhammad. Lamḥah an thalathah wa-thalathina qarnan min tarikh al-Amazighiyin. Rabat, Morocco: Dar al-Kalam, 1989.
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  49. Bibliographies
  50.  
  51. While comprehensive bibliographical resources on Berbers are still rare, some scholars and research centers have, in recent decades, produced a few extensive bibliographies on various aspects of Berber history. Students, researchers, academics, and those interested in learning about Berbers will certainly find these bibliographies extremely beneficial. One such bibliography is Bibliographie Berbère, which was compiled by the Centre de Recherche Berbère in Paris and can be accessed online. Another recent bibliography can be found in Ilahiane 2009, which is arranged by subject. Two other good but limited bibliographies are found in Hourani 1991 and Sellami 1992.
  52.  
  53. Bibliographie Berbère. Paris: Centre de Recherche Berbère.
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  55. In French. An extensive database on Berber language and literature created in 1984 by Salem Chaker. This bibliography includes 3,250 books, articles, and journals from 1980 to 2008.
  56. Bibliographie Berbère. Paris: Centre de Recherche Berbère.
  57. Find this resource:
  58. Hourani, Albert. A History of the Arab Peoples. Cambridge, MA: Belknap, 1991.
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  60. While not specifically written about Berbers, Hourani’s book is a detailed and illustrated account of the history of the peoples, including Berbers, in North Africa and the Middle East from the rise of Islam to the late 20th century.
  61. Hourani, Albert. A History of the Arab Peoples. Cambridge, MA: Belknap, 1991.
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  63. Ilahiane, Hsain. The A to Z of the Berbers (Imazighen). Lanham, MD: Scarecrow, 2009.
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  65. First published in 2006 as the Historical Dictionary of the Berbers, this book is a general introduction to the subject of Berbers historically and in current times. Excellent bibliography and a dictionary of important Berber names, places, and events. Well-written basic source of information on Berbers for any researcher at any level. One drawback of this reference is the lack of subject and author indexes.
  66. Ilahiane, Hsain. The A to Z of the Berbers (Imazighen). Lanham, MD: Scarecrow, 2009.
  67. Find this resource:
  68. Sellami, Louisa. Bibliographical References on Amazigh Culture. 1992.
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  70. A good collection of references on Berber history and culture.
  71. Sellami, Louisa. Bibliographical References on Amazigh Culture. 1992.
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  73. Encyclopedias and Dictionaries
  74.  
  75. There are at least two specialized encyclopedias and dictionaries on Berbers. The French-language Encyclopedie Berbère is perhaps the most thorough of all resources on Berbers. Chaker 2001 is also a great resource that includes biographical references on important Berber names. Haddadou 2000, on the other hand, lists meaningful Berber language symbols and historical events. Other useful encyclopedias, such as the Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East and Esposito 2009, while not specific to Berbers alone, also provide entries on Berbers and Berber-related topics. Other resources focused on specific aspects or issues of Berber history: Fleet 2007– contains a valuable entry on Berber history and institutions, and the Encyclopedia of Women and Islamic Cultures discusses the gender issues faced by Muslim women, while Naylor 2006 identifies some important names and events in North African history.
  76.  
  77. Chaker, Salem, dir. Hommes et femmes de Kabylie: Dictionnaire biographique, historique et culturel. Vol. 1. Edited by Salem Chaker. Aix-en-Provence, France: Ina-Yas/Edisud Editions, 2001.
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  79. A general dictionary on Berber history and culture as well as important names of men and women in Berber history. From the Institut National des Langues et Civilisations Orientales, Centre de Recherches Berbère.
  80. Chaker, Salem, dir. Hommes et femmes de Kabylie: Dictionnaire biographique, historique et culturel. Vol. 1. Edited by Salem Chaker. Aix-en-Provence, France: Ina-Yas/Edisud Editions, 2001.
  81. Find this resource:
  82. Encyclopédie Berbère. 37 vols. Aix-en-Provence, France: Edisud Editions, 1984–.
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  84. Launched in 1984 by Gabriel Camps, Encyclopédie Berbère is a multidisciplinary publication that deals with the history of Berber languages, cultures, institutions, and current events. One or two volumes are published each year. After the death of Camps in 2002, Salem Chaker, an expert on Berbers, became its editor. Volumes 1–34 are available online.
  85. Encyclopédie Berbère. 37 vols. Aix-en-Provence, France: Edisud Editions, 1984–.
  86. Find this resource:
  87. Esposito, John, ed. The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. London: Oxford University Press, 2009.
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  89. A relevant resource that includes entries on Berbers and the history of Islam, which is an integral part of Berber history in North Africa.
  90. Esposito, John, ed. The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. London: Oxford University Press, 2009.
  91. Find this resource:
  92. Fleet, Kate, Gudrun Krämer, Denis Matringe, John Nawas, and Everett Rowson, eds.The Encyclopaedia of Islam. 3d ed. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 2007–.
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  94. Contains a concise entry on Berber history and institutions before and after Islam and includes a wide range of bibliographical references. Also available in a continually updated online database edition.
  95. Fleet, Kate, Gudrun Krämer, Denis Matringe, John Nawas, and Everett Rowson, eds.The Encyclopaedia of Islam. 3d ed. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 2007–.
  96. Find this resource:
  97. Haddadou, Mohand Akli. Guide de la culture berbère. Paris: Editions Paris-Méditerranée, 2000.
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  99. Written by an expert on Berber language and culture, this book provides an index of important names and places of Berbers as well as maps and relevant Berber symbols.
  100. Haddadou, Mohand Akli. Guide de la culture berbère. Paris: Editions Paris-Méditerranée, 2000.
  101. Find this resource:
  102. Joseph, Suad, ed. Encyclopedia of Women and Islamic Cultures. 6 vols. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill Academic, 2003–2007.
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  104. An interdisciplinary resource covering issues of women in Muslim and non-Muslim countries. This resource is available in both print and online formats.
  105. Joseph, Suad, ed. Encyclopedia of Women and Islamic Cultures. 6 vols. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill Academic, 2003–2007.
  106. Find this resource:
  107. Naylor, Phillip. Historical Dictionary of Algeria. 3d ed. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow, 2006.
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  109. A very useful resource, as it provides brief entries on influential people and important events relevant to the history of Algeria from ancient times to the present. Similarly, other historical dictionaries on Morocco, Mauritania, Tunisia, Libya, and other North African countries were also published by Scarecrow since the 1980s.
  110. Naylor, Phillip. Historical Dictionary of Algeria. 3d ed. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow, 2006.
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  112. Simon, Reeva S., Philip Mattar, and Richard W. Bulliet, eds. Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East. 4 vols. New York: Macmillan Reference, 1996.
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  114. Includes a good entry on Berbers and provides relevant information and data on Berber regions and countries.
  115. Simon, Reeva S., Philip Mattar, and Richard W. Bulliet, eds. Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East. 4 vols. New York: Macmillan Reference, 1996.
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  117. Journals
  118.  
  119. One specialized journal on Berber language, history, and culture is Awal (The word), published in Paris, which contains tens of volumes of studies by experts on Berbers. Another excellent resource is International Journal of the Sociology of Language, a bimonthly interdisciplinary periodical that frequently publishes articles and book reviews on Berber languages, identity, and culture. Middle Eastern Studies is also a valuable resource on Berbers covering the modern history and current political and sociocultural developments in the Arab world and the rest of the Middle East. Other relevant journals, such as the Journal of North African Studies and the Maghreb Review, tend to be multidisciplinary but do publish reports and news on Berber-related issues in the Middle East.
  120.  
  121. Awal: Cahiers d’Etudes Berbères. 1985–.
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  123. Biannual review founded by the Algerian linguists and anthropologists Mouloud Maameri and Tassadit Yacine-Titouh in 1985 in Paris, France. The review documents and researches Berber culture, language, history, and literature. Forty One volumes (1985 to 2010).
  124. Awal: Cahiers d’Etudes Berbères. 1985–.
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  126. International Journal of the Sociology of Language. 1974–.
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  128. Features articles and book reviews on Berber languages, identity, and culture.
  129. International Journal of the Sociology of Language. 1974–.
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  131. Journal of North African Studies. 1996–.
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  133. A valuable academic resource which publishes studies written mostly by scholars of the region about a wide range of issues past and present.
  134. Journal of North African Studies. 1996–.
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  136. Maghreb Review. 1976–.
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  138. Publishes a wealth of articles about North African and Middle Eastern history, culture, and religion in English and French.
  139. Maghreb Review. 1976–.
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  141. Middle Eastern Studies. 1964–.
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  143. An academic journal that frequently publishes reports and studies on Berbers and the modern history and politics of the Middle East and North Africa.
  144. Middle Eastern Studies. 1964–.
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  146. Databases
  147.  
  148. Several websites, such as Amazigh, Amazigh World Congress, and Kabyle.com provide a wealth of information on Berbers in North Africa and in diaspora (in Europe—especially France—and North America). Interested readers and scholars will find in these online resources current events concerning Berbers, new published studies, scheduled conferences, videos, and other relevant information. Institut Royal de la Culture Amazighe covers a range of events and publications that aim to promote Berber culture. Librairie Berbère also lists current works and events on the life of Berbers in North Africa and Europe.
  149.  
  150. Amazigh (Libya).
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  152. Publishes online reports concerning the issues of Berbers in Libya.
  153. Amazigh (Libya).
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  155. Amazigh World Congress.
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  157. International Berber organization that publishes news and articles about current events concerning Berbers.
  158. Amazigh World Congress.
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  160. Institut Royal de la Culture Amazighe (Moroccan Royal Institute for Amazigh Culture).
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  162. Publishes reports and academic studies on Berber language and culture.
  163. Institut Royal de la Culture Amazighe (Moroccan Royal Institute for Amazigh Culture).
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  165. Kabyle.com.
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  167. A website established in France and publishes articles and reports on current issues of Berbers with emphasis on Kabyles in Algeria.
  168. Kabyle.com.
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  170. Librairie ACEB
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  172. Offers various publications, music, and videos on Berbers online.
  173. Librairie ACEB
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  175. Histories
  176.  
  177. Several interesting historical studies cover a range of issues and events and the development of Berber history from ancient times to the contemporary period, but it’s no surprise to find that most research was conducted on the Islamization of Berbers and their subsequent role in spreading Islam to Europe and Africa. Ath Malluya 2007 examines how Berbers were able to preserve their customary law despite successive foreign rulers. Bel Ochi 1981 examines the factors that led to the conversion of Berbers to Islam, while Norris 1982 provides good insight on how Berbers contributed to the spread of Islam to sub-Saharan Africa. Haqqi 2001 discusses the life of Berber Muslims in Islamic Spain (Andalus), and Scales 1994 explains the political divisions and upheavals in Andalus and how they affected the Berbers there. Other relevant histories of Berbers include the accounts in Hannoum 2001 of the Berber queen al-Kahina; the political history of Berbers in Morocco in the precolonial period in Saadi 1998; and Shatzmiller 2000, dealing with the challenges Berbers face in the contemporary period.
  178.  
  179. Ath Malluya, Lahusayn bin Shaykh. Al-Taʻrif bi-al-Amazigh wa-uṣulihim. Algiers, Algeria: Dar al-Khalduniyah, 2007.
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  181. An interesting study of Berber customary law from antiquity to the contemporary era. Author argues that Berber Urf is unique in that it survived thousands of years of foreign domination. Original publication in Arabic.
  182. Ath Malluya, Lahusayn bin Shaykh. Al-Taʻrif bi-al-Amazigh wa-uṣulihim. Algiers, Algeria: Dar al-Khalduniyah, 2007.
  183. Find this resource:
  184. Bel Ochi, Mohamed Sadok. La conversion des Berbères à l’Islam. Tunis, Tunisia: Maison Tunisienne de l’Edition, 1981.
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  186. A concise history of Berbers with an emphasis on how Christianity and then Islam shaped the life of Berbers. Author argues that the conversion of Berbers to Islam was due to the relative failure of Christianization in North Africa, the “simplicity” of Islam as a religion, and the attitudes of Berbers themselves. Original publication in French.
  187. Bel Ochi, Mohamed Sadok. La conversion des Berbères à l’Islam. Tunis, Tunisia: Maison Tunisienne de l’Edition, 1981.
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  189. Hannoum, Abdelmajid. Colonial Histories, Post-Colonial Memories: The Legend of the Kahina, A North African Heroine. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 2001.
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  191. This book is an excellent examination of extensive literature that provided different and conflicting accounts and narratives of the legendary Berber queen and heroine, al-Kahina.
  192. Hannoum, Abdelmajid. Colonial Histories, Post-Colonial Memories: The Legend of the Kahina, A North African Heroine. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 2001.
  193. Find this resource:
  194. Haqqi, Muhammad. Al-Barbar fi al-Andalus: dirasah li-tarikh majmuʻah ithniyah min al-fatḥ ila suquṭ al-khilafah al-Umawiyah, 92 H/711 M-422 H/1031 M. Casablanca, Morocco: Sharikat al-Nashr wa-al-Tawzia, al-Madaris, 2001.
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  196. This is a study about the role and life of Berbers in Andalusia from the Muslim conquest to the end of the Amawi rule in 750 CE. Author discusses the linguistic and demographic characteristics of the Berbers, the nature of their relationships with Arabs and other Muslims in Andalusia, and their contribution to the Islamic state there. Original publication in Arabic.
  197. Haqqi, Muhammad. Al-Barbar fi al-Andalus: dirasah li-tarikh majmuʻah ithniyah min al-fatḥ ila suquṭ al-khilafah al-Umawiyah, 92 H/711 M-422 H/1031 M. Casablanca, Morocco: Sharikat al-Nashr wa-al-Tawzia, al-Madaris, 2001.
  198. Find this resource:
  199. Norris, H. T. The Berbers in Arabic Literature. London and New York: Longman, 1982.
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  201. Norris reviews Arabic literature (some sources were written by the Berbers themselves) that discuss the origins of Berbers, their role in the history of North Africa, and their links to sub-Saharan African populations. This resource is unique in the sense that Norris gathered an enormous amount of data and information in the Arabic language written by and about Berbers.
  202. Norris, H. T. The Berbers in Arabic Literature. London and New York: Longman, 1982.
  203. Find this resource:
  204. Saadi, Uthman. Al-Barbar al-Amazigh ʻArab ʻaribah: Wa-ʻurubat al-shamal al-Ifriqī ʻabra al-tarikh. Algiers, Algeria: Dar al-Multaqa lil-Tibaʻah wa-al-Nashr, 1998.
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  206. Saadi forcefully argues that Berberism is a colonial conspiracy to undermine the Arab and Muslim identity of Algeria. Original publication in Arabic.
  207. Saadi, Uthman. Al-Barbar al-Amazigh ʻArab ʻaribah: Wa-ʻurubat al-shamal al-Ifriqī ʻabra al-tarikh. Algiers, Algeria: Dar al-Multaqa lil-Tibaʻah wa-al-Nashr, 1998.
  208. Find this resource:
  209. Scales, Peter C. The Fall of the Caliphate of Cordoba: Berbers and Andalusis in Conflict. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1994.
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  211. Author discusses the role of Berbers in the political upheavals and divisions between Muslim factions and kingdoms in the Iberian Peninsula (Andalus). The author contends that Arab and Muslim historians of Andalus had wrongly characterized the Berbers as the cause of “fitna” (divisions) among Muslims in Andalus, while his research shows that there were other motives for those divisions.
  212. Scales, Peter C. The Fall of the Caliphate of Cordoba: Berbers and Andalusis in Conflict. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1994.
  213. Find this resource:
  214. Shatzmiller, Maya. The Berbers and the Islamic State: The Marinid Experience in Pre-Protectorate Morocco. Princeton, NJ: Markus Wiener, 2000.
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  216. Shatzmiller documents evidence of the double-edged relationship between Berbers and other Muslims in Morocco from the 13th to the 15th century. While the Berbers contributed to the foundation of the Islamic Marinid state, they also resisted the acculturation policies of the state.
  217. Shatzmiller, Maya. The Berbers and the Islamic State: The Marinid Experience in Pre-Protectorate Morocco. Princeton, NJ: Markus Wiener, 2000.
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  219. Languages and Cultures
  220.  
  221. The decades since 1980 have witnessed a steady increase of studies by prominent scholars on different yet related Berber languages and cultures (and the challenges they faced). A series of studies were conducted by the Moroccan Berber linguist Ahmed Boukous. In one of his studies, Boukous 1997, this author discussed the state of Berber language in contemporary Morocco. Ennaji 1997, Sadiqi 1997, and Kich 2003 discuss the current situation and future prospects of Berber language in Morocco. Goodman 2005 and Hoffman 2010 examine how Berber language and culture are expressed in the world by various means as art and media. Films, such as Bouguermouh 1995 and Merniche 2008, also play an important role in expressing Berber culture.
  222.  
  223. Bouguermouh, Abderrahmane, dir. La colline oubliée. Algiers, Algeria: APW, 1995.
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  225. This film is based on Mouloud Maameri’s novel La colline oubliée and depicts the difficult life of youth in a Kabyle village in the 1940s. (Title translation: The forgotten hill.)
  226. Bouguermouh, Abderrahmane, dir. La colline oubliée. Algiers, Algeria: APW, 1995.
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  228. Boukous, Ahmed. “Situation sociolinguistique de l′Amazighe.” International Journal of the Sociology of Language 123 (1997): 41–60.
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  230. Boukous, a linguist and expert on Berber language, has written extensively on North African languages and cultures. In this article, he discusses the current sociolinguistic state of Berber language in Morocco and explains the reasons why Berber language has been marginalized in Moroccan society.
  231. Boukous, Ahmed. “Situation sociolinguistique de l′Amazighe.” International Journal of the Sociology of Language 123 (1997): 41–60.
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  233. Ennaji, Moha. “The Sociology of Berber: Change and Continuity.” International Journal of the Sociology of Language 123 (1997): 23–40.
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  235. In this article, Ennaji shows how Berber language survived and even thrived in Morocco despite the political and social measures and changes that undermined its place and role in society.
  236. Ennaji, Moha. “The Sociology of Berber: Change and Continuity.” International Journal of the Sociology of Language 123 (1997): 23–40.
  237. Find this resource:
  238. Goodman, Jane E. Berber Culture on the World Stage: From Village to Video. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2005.
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  240. This is an interesting anthropological study of how Berber identity and culture were promoted through the media. Specifically, the author studied the ways Kabyle groups in Algeria and France expressed and promoted their Berber identity and culture mainly through music and poetry outside Kabyle villages and communities, reaching wider audiences around the world.
  241. Goodman, Jane E. Berber Culture on the World Stage: From Village to Video. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2005.
  242. Find this resource:
  243. Hoffman, Katherine E.. Berbers and Others: Beyond Tribe and Nation in the Maghrib. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2010.
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  245. A multidisciplinary work on Berbers in the modern maghrib, ranging from artistic production to literature to political organization to human rights issues.
  246. Hoffman, Katherine E.. Berbers and Others: Beyond Tribe and Nation in the Maghrib. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2010.
  247. Find this resource:
  248. Kich, Aziz, ed. L’Amazighité: Bilan et perpectives. Rabat, Morocco: Centre Tarik Ibn Zyad, 2003.
  249. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  250. A collection of articles about Amazigh language and literature and the prospect of teaching them in educational institutions in Morocco. Original publication in French.
  251. Kich, Aziz, ed. L’Amazighité: Bilan et perpectives. Rabat, Morocco: Centre Tarik Ibn Zyad, 2003.
  252. Find this resource:
  253. Merniche, Mohamed, dir. Tamazirt Oufella. Rabat, Morocco: Centre Cinématographique Marocain, 2008.
  254. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  255. In this film, the inhabitants of a remote Berber village on top of a mountain struggle to build a road to connect their village with the outside world. (Title translation: The upper Tamazirt.)
  256. Merniche, Mohamed, dir. Tamazirt Oufella. Rabat, Morocco: Centre Cinématographique Marocain, 2008.
  257. Find this resource:
  258. Sadiqi, Fatima. “The Place of Berber in Morocco.” International Journal of the Sociology of Language 123 (1997): 7–22.
  259. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  260. Author discusses the historical, linguistic, and cultural reasons for Berber language’s prominent role in today’s Moroccan society.
  261. Sadiqi, Fatima. “The Place of Berber in Morocco.” International Journal of the Sociology of Language 123 (1997): 7–22.
  262. Find this resource:
  263. Identity
  264.  
  265. It is difficult, if not impossible, to discuss the subject of Berber identity without addressing the historical events and processes as well as the political institutions that had profound influences on the life of Berber social groups throughout North Africa, including the Sahara regions. Several authors who analyzed the Berber question, particularly in Algeria and Morocco, have done just that. Layachi 2005 (cited under the Berber Question) analyzed the Berber identity question in connection with the Algerian Arab and Islamic identities. Similarly, Crawford 2005 addressed Moroccan Berber identity in terms of the initiatives towards Berbers taken by the king, who claims to be the descendent of Prophet Mohamed (Berbers, therefore, were expected to have allegiance to the king’s “legitimate” authority). While Schroeter 2007 examined the history of Jewish identity and culture in Muslim North Africa, other influential works, such as Camps 1980, Chaker 1990, and Gellner and Micaud 1972, considered how Berbers managed on the one hand to preserve their identity and on the other to continue to confront political challenges. Quandt 1970 and McDougall 2006 tackled the role of Berber political movements and the Berber political elite in the contemporary politics in North Africa.
  266.  
  267. Camps, Gabriel. Berbers: Aux marges de l’histoire. Toulouse, France: Editions des Hesperides, 1980.
  268. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  269. Camps turns the attention away from the usual study of North African history as a history of colonization and domination to the nature of Berbers, who were able to preserve their identity, language, and traditions against all odds.
  270. Camps, Gabriel. Berbers: Aux marges de l’histoire. Toulouse, France: Editions des Hesperides, 1980.
  271. Find this resource:
  272. Chaker, Salem. Imazighen Ass-a. Algiers, Algeria: Editions Bouchène, 1990.
  273. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  274. Written by an expert on Berbers, this book analyzes the language and culture of Berbers in Algeria historically and in contemporary times. Chaker argues that the “Berber question” has progressively become a key element in contemporary politics of Algeria and Morocco. Original publication in French. (Title translation: Berbers in the contemporary Maghreb.)
  275. Chaker, Salem. Imazighen Ass-a. Algiers, Algeria: Editions Bouchène, 1990.
  276. Find this resource:
  277. Crawford, David. “Royal Interest in Local Culture: Amazigh Identity and the Moroccan State.” In Nationalism and Minority Identities in Islamic Societies. Edited by Maya Shatzmiller, 164–194. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2005.
  278. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  279. In this article, Crawford discusses the consequences of the Moroccan state’s creation of the Royal Institute of the Amazigh Culture.
  280. Crawford, David. “Royal Interest in Local Culture: Amazigh Identity and the Moroccan State.” In Nationalism and Minority Identities in Islamic Societies. Edited by Maya Shatzmiller, 164–194. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2005.
  281. Find this resource:
  282. Gellner, Ernest, and Charles Micaud, eds. Arabs and Berbers: From Tribe to Nation in North Africa. Lexington, KY: Lexington Books, 1972.
  283. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  284. This book features multidisciplinary articles that discuss and analyze the old tribal systems of social organization in North Africa, the relationship between Arabs and Berbers as two distinct but integrated social groups, and finally, how these social groups had to come to terms with the modernization of North African societies in the late 20th century.
  285. Gellner, Ernest, and Charles Micaud, eds. Arabs and Berbers: From Tribe to Nation in North Africa. Lexington, KY: Lexington Books, 1972.
  286. Find this resource:
  287. McDougall, James. History and the Culture of Nationalism in Algeria. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
  288. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  289. Though not specifically written about Berbers, this book provides a concise account of the history of Berber movements within the contexts of nationalist and religious discourses in modern Algeria.
  290. McDougall, James. History and the Culture of Nationalism in Algeria. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
  291. Find this resource:
  292. Quandt, William B. Berbers in the Algerian Political Elite. Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 1970.
  293. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  294. Although Quandt’s paper was written a decade before the upheaval of the Berberist movement in Algeria in 1980, the analysis he provided on the integration of some Berbers into the political elite is still valid. As Quandt argued, it is common to see Berber politicians within the state apparatus minimize the importance of ethnic and regional divisions.
  295. Quandt, William B. Berbers in the Algerian Political Elite. Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 1970.
  296. Find this resource:
  297. Schroeter, Daniel. “On the Origins and Identity of Indigenous North African Jews.” In Nabil Boudraa and Joseph Krause, eds. North African Mosaic: A Cultural Reappraisal of Ethnic and Religious Minorities. Newcastle, UK: Cambridge Scholars, 2007.
  298. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  299. In this article, Schroeter traces and documents the history, culture, and identity of Jews in North Africa with a particular focus on Morocco.
  300. Schroeter, Daniel. “On the Origins and Identity of Indigenous North African Jews.” In Nabil Boudraa and Joseph Krause, eds. North African Mosaic: A Cultural Reappraisal of Ethnic and Religious Minorities. Newcastle, UK: Cambridge Scholars, 2007.
  301. Find this resource:
  302. Groups and Communities
  303.  
  304. Berbers consist of several groups and communities living in North Africa from Morocco to Egypt and in sub-Saharan Africa (Mali, Niger, and Senegal). Large numbers of various Berber groups have also migrated recently to Europe and North America. Various Berber groups speak related but distinct dialects called Tamazight. The main Berber groups are the Touareg in the deserts of Algeria, Libya, Mali, and Niger; the Kabyles, Shaouia, Chenoua, and M’Zab in Algeria; and the Shluh in Morocco. There are a growing number of studies (and films) documenting the lives of various Berber groups and communities. Bourdieu 1958 reported how the life of Berber groups in Algeria was affected by French colonialism. Chamla 1974 is an ethnographic study on Arabs and Berbers. The authors of Crawford 2008, Gellner 1969, and Miller 1984 conducted anthropological and sociological studies on remote Berber communities in Morocco. Other research, Claudot-Haward 1993 and Prasse 1995, focused on the life of Touareg groups in the Sahara, while Silverstein 2004 examined issues faced by Berber immigrants in France.
  305.  
  306. Bourdieu, Pierre. Sociologie de l’Algèrie. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1958.
  307. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  308. Bourdieu presents a short but concise analysis of the main Berber groups in Algeria, their relationship to Arab populations, and the impact French colonialism had on their life and culture. An essential reference for any researcher at any level. Original publication in French.
  309. Bourdieu, Pierre. Sociologie de l’Algèrie. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1958.
  310. Find this resource:
  311. Chamla, Marie-Claude. Les Algeriens et les populations Arabo-Berbères du Nord de l’Afrique. Paris: Memoires du Centre de Recherches Anthropologiques Prehistoriques et Ethnographiques, 1974.
  312. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  313. An anthropological and ethnographic study of Arabs and Berbers in the non-Saharan areas of North Africa based on the collection of statistical data collected mainly in the 1950s and 1960s. Original publication in French.
  314. Chamla, Marie-Claude. Les Algeriens et les populations Arabo-Berbères du Nord de l’Afrique. Paris: Memoires du Centre de Recherches Anthropologiques Prehistoriques et Ethnographiques, 1974.
  315. Find this resource:
  316. Claudot-Haward, Helene. Les Touaregs: Portraits en fragments. Aix-en-Provence, France: Edisud, 1993.
  317. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  318. This book is a descriptive study of the Touareg as people and society. It describes the various aspects that characterize the Tergui society past and present: from the meaning of the veil worn by Tergui men, to caravan trade, to the role of women in politics. Original publication in French.
  319. Claudot-Haward, Helene. Les Touaregs: Portraits en fragments. Aix-en-Provence, France: Edisud, 1993.
  320. Find this resource:
  321. Crawford, David. Moroccan Households in the World Economy: Labor and Inequality in a Berber Village. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2008.
  322. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  323. An insightful ethnographic study that examines the changing lives of traditional Berber farmers in the mountains of Morocco as they face the challenges of globalization and modernization.
  324. Crawford, David. Moroccan Households in the World Economy: Labor and Inequality in a Berber Village. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2008.
  325. Find this resource:
  326. Gellner, Ernest. Saints of the Atlas. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1969.
  327. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  328. A classic ethnographic study of how the “Saints” (holy men) in rural Morocco were able to use their religious capital to prevent or resolve conflicts between autonomous Berber tribes.
  329. Gellner, Ernest. Saints of the Atlas. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1969.
  330. Find this resource:
  331. Miller, James A. Imlil: A Moroccan Mountain Community in Change. Boulder, CO, and London: Westview, 1984.
  332. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  333. This book, largely based on data collected earlier for a dissertation, is a detailed account of how a small rural Berber community in the Atlas Mountains in central Morocco is striving to preserve its culture and identity while adapting to economic changes imposed by modernization and globalization.
  334. Miller, James A. Imlil: A Moroccan Mountain Community in Change. Boulder, CO, and London: Westview, 1984.
  335. Find this resource:
  336. Prasse, Karl G. The Tuaregs: The Blue People. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum, 1995.
  337. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  338. An overview of the history (especially the modern era), culture, and social organization of Tergui society.
  339. Prasse, Karl G. The Tuaregs: The Blue People. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum, 1995.
  340. Find this resource:
  341. Silverstein, Paul A. Algeria in France: Transpolitics, Race, and Nation. Bloomington: Indiana University press, 2004.
  342. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  343. For those who are interested in learning about the life of Berbers (and other North African immigrants) in France, this is an excellent overview of the issues of Berber cultural movements and institutions in France, immigration issues, and Beur (French-born persons of North African descent) identity and culture.
  344. Silverstein, Paul A. Algeria in France: Transpolitics, Race, and Nation. Bloomington: Indiana University press, 2004.
  345. Find this resource:
  346. The Berber Question
  347.  
  348. At the heart of the Berber question lies the preservation of Berber language and cultural heritage (through research and education). Thus, various Berber groups, particularly in Algeria, Morocco, Libya, Mali, and Niger, have established associations and political movements, organized protests, and sometimes engaged in armed rebellions (especially in Mali and Niger, and recently in Libya during the 2011 revolt that toppled Muammar Qadafi’s regime) against their respective states demanding the recognition of “Berber” as a national and official language and the promotion of Berber language and culture. Authors analyze the Berber question with different perspectives. Al-Manasirah 1999 and Lunisi 2002 argue that Berber movements are nothing but political movements that try to undermine the Arab and Muslim identity of North Africa. Other works, such as Guenoun 1999 (which provides a chronology of Berberist movement in Algeria) and Crawford 2001 (in addition to Chaker 1990, cited under Identity, and Boukous 1997, cited under Languages and Cultures), view Berber movements as a legitimate response to oppressive state policies regarding Berber identity. General overviews of Berberist movements in recent times are found in Aslam 2008, Carter 2001, Layachi 2005, and Maddy-Weitzman 2002.
  349.  
  350. Al-Manasirah, Izz al-Din. Al-Masʼalah al-Amazighiyah fī al-Jazair wa-al-Maghrib: ishkaliyat al-taʼaddudiyah al-lughawiyah. Amman, Jordan: Dar al-Shuruq, 1999.
  351. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  352. Argues that the Berbers originated from Kaanan (Palestine) and are therefore of Arab ancestry, and that Berber language sprang from Arabic. Therefore, Berberism is nothing but a political movement designed to undermine the Arabic language. Original publication in Arabic.
  353. Al-Manasirah, Izz al-Din. Al-Masʼalah al-Amazighiyah fī al-Jazair wa-al-Maghrib: ishkaliyat al-taʼaddudiyah al-lughawiyah. Amman, Jordan: Dar al-Shuruq, 1999.
  354. Find this resource:
  355. Aslam, Senam. “Governing Areas of Dissidence: Nation Building and Ethnic Movements in Turkey and Morocco.” PhD diss., University of Washington, 2008.
  356. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  357. The author examines the outcomes of state efforts to govern hard-to-access “areas of dissidence” of Berbers in Morocco and Kurds in Turkey. This dissertation offers relevant information and analysis as well as an extensive bibliography.
  358. Aslam, Senam. “Governing Areas of Dissidence: Nation Building and Ethnic Movements in Turkey and Morocco.” PhD diss., University of Washington, 2008.
  359. Find this resource:
  360. Carter, Sandra Gayle. “Moroccan Berberity, Representational Power and Identity in Video Films.” Gazette 63.2–3 (April 2001): 241–262.
  361. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  362. This is a compelling article about the role of “alternative” media, specifically videos produced in Berber language (Tachelhit) in Morocco, to counter the state’s and mainstream media’s repression of Berber identity.
  363. Carter, Sandra Gayle. “Moroccan Berberity, Representational Power and Identity in Video Films.” Gazette 63.2–3 (April 2001): 241–262.
  364. Find this resource:
  365. Crawford, David. “How ‘Berber’ Matters in the Middle of Nowhere.” Middle East Report 219 (Summer 2001): 20–25.
  366. DOI: 10.2307/1559251Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  367. Based on field research conducted on a Berber community in the Atlas Mountains of southwest Morocco, this work analyzes how this Berber community not only clings to its Berber language, Tachelhit, but also seeks its recognition by the state as part of its human rights.
  368. Crawford, David. “How ‘Berber’ Matters in the Middle of Nowhere.” Middle East Report 219 (Summer 2001): 20–25.
  369. Find this resource:
  370. Guenoun, Ali. Chronologie du movement berbère 1945–1990: Un combat et des hommes. Algiers, Algeria: Casbah Editions, 1999.
  371. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  372. This book lists and briefly discusses the chronology of events related to the Berber movement, or Berberism, in Algeria from 1945 to 1990. The author also provides testimonials of activists in the movement and some key figures of the Algerian nationalist movement.
  373. Guenoun, Ali. Chronologie du movement berbère 1945–1990: Un combat et des hommes. Algiers, Algeria: Casbah Editions, 1999.
  374. Find this resource:
  375. Layachi, Azzedine. “The Berbers in Algeria: Politicized Ethnicity and Ethnicized Politics.” In Nationalism and Minority Identities in Islamic Societies. Edited by Maya Shatzmiller, 195–228. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2005.
  376. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  377. The author analyzes the nature of Berber identity (in its relationship to Arab and Muslim identities) and its role in the political discourse of the Algerian state.
  378. Layachi, Azzedine. “The Berbers in Algeria: Politicized Ethnicity and Ethnicized Politics.” In Nationalism and Minority Identities in Islamic Societies. Edited by Maya Shatzmiller, 195–228. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2005.
  379. Find this resource:
  380. Lunisi, Rabeh. Duat al-barbariyah fi muajahat al-sultah. Algiers, Algeria: El Maarifa, 2002.
  381. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  382. In this book, the author traces the origins of the Berberist movement to the French colonial era, showing how some revolutionary leaders used the Berberist movement in Algeria to advance their political agenda. Original publication in Arabic.
  383. Lunisi, Rabeh. Duat al-barbariyah fi muajahat al-sultah. Algiers, Algeria: El Maarifa, 2002.
  384. Find this resource:
  385. Maddy-Weitzman, Bruce. “Contested Identities: Berbers, ‘Berberism,’ and the State in North Africa.” In Middle Eastern Minorities and Diasporas. Edited by Moshe Ma’oz and Gabriel Sheffer, 153–178. Brighton and Portland, UK: Sussex Academic, 2002.
  386. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  387. An overview of the process of formation of the Berberist movements in Algeria and Morocco since political independence, the role of local and diasporic activists, and the issues involved in relation to the two countries’ national politics.
  388. Maddy-Weitzman, Bruce. “Contested Identities: Berbers, ‘Berberism,’ and the State in North Africa.” In Middle Eastern Minorities and Diasporas. Edited by Moshe Ma’oz and Gabriel Sheffer, 153–178. Brighton and Portland, UK: Sussex Academic, 2002.
  389. Find this resource:
  390. Gender and Class Issues
  391.  
  392. Recently, feminist and nonfeminist researchers on Berbers have been covering gender-related issues as an important component of Berber society and culture. Agnaou 2004 reported on the various ways that women in Morocco are empowered. Becker 2006 discusses the art of Moroccan Berber women. Bourqia, et al. 2000 includes a wide range of articles on gender issues in North Africa. Hoffman 2008 reported on gender roles among the Shluh of rural Morocco, while Oxby 1987 tackled the class structure of women among the Touareg of Niger. Finally, Djebar 2007, the film La Nouba des femmes du Mont-Chenoua, reveals the personal lives of some women among the Chenoua of Algeria.
  393.  
  394. Agnaou, Fatima. Gender, Literacy and Empowerment in Morocco. New York: Routledge, 2004.
  395. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  396. Provocative feminist research that seeks to study ways of integrating and empowering nonliterate women in Morocco into development programs and social change.
  397. Agnaou, Fatima. Gender, Literacy and Empowerment in Morocco. New York: Routledge, 2004.
  398. Find this resource:
  399. Becker, Cynthia. Amazigh Arts in Morocco: Women Shaping Berber Identity. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2006.
  400. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  401. Discusses the artistic works of Moroccan Berber women and how they symbolize Berber identity, culture, and traditions.
  402. Becker, Cynthia. Amazigh Arts in Morocco: Women Shaping Berber Identity. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2006.
  403. Find this resource:
  404. Bourqia, Rahma, Mounira Charad, and Nancy Gallagher, eds. Femmes, culture et sociéte au Maghreb. 2 vols. Casablanca, Morocco: Afrique Orient, 2000.
  405. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  406. These two edited volumes contain a rich collection of articles in sociology, anthropology, and gender studies that cover a wide range of issues about the status and role of women in North African societies past and present.
  407. Bourqia, Rahma, Mounira Charad, and Nancy Gallagher, eds. Femmes, culture et sociéte au Maghreb. 2 vols. Casablanca, Morocco: Afrique Orient, 2000.
  408. Find this resource:
  409. Djebar, Assia. dir. La Nouba des femmes du Mont-Chenoua, 1977. DVD. New York: Women Make Movies, 2007.
  410. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  411. Directed by novelist and film maker Assia Djebar. This film documents the postwar personal lives of six women in the Berber Chenoua region (east of Algiers).
  412. Djebar, Assia. dir. La Nouba des femmes du Mont-Chenoua, 1977. DVD. New York: Women Make Movies, 2007.
  413. Find this resource:
  414. Hoffman, Katherine E. We Share Walls: Language, Land, and Gender in Berber Morocco. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2008.
  415. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  416. An ethnographic study of language, identity, and gender roles among Shluh Berbers in southwestern Morocco. A thorough and well-documented study that cleverly analyzes how rural and remote Berber communities maintain their cultural heritage and sense of identity while adhering to the demands of hegemonic mainstream culture and politics.
  417. Hoffman, Katherine E. We Share Walls: Language, Land, and Gender in Berber Morocco. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2008.
  418. Find this resource:
  419. Oxby, C. “Women Unveiled: Class and Gender among Kel Ferwan Twareg (Niger).” Ethnos 52.1–2 (1987): 119–136.
  420. DOI: 10.1080/00141844.1987.9981338Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  421. An interesting class analysis of how gender inequality among the Touareg of Kel Ferwan in Niger affects women of high status and women of low status (servants) differently.
  422. Oxby, C. “Women Unveiled: Class and Gender among Kel Ferwan Twareg (Niger).” Ethnos 52.1–2 (1987): 119–136.
  423. Find this resource:
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