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Machismo (Latino Studies)

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  1. Introduction
  2. Machismo, the Spanish term for masculinity, has become a pervasive term in the conversation of gender studies in the United States. Whether in scholarly discussions or in everyday conversation, machismo has become a widely used term. Given the vast Latino influence in the United States, the term has caught on with scholars and the general population. The origin of machismo can be traced to pre-Columbian times and has been influenced by both indigenous and European forms of masculinity. As early as the 1930s, scholars attempted to articulate the true meaning of machismo, which has often been misconstrued. In Spanish the word macho simply translates as “male.” In recent years, the term has been used in the United States to describe types that vary from the sexist and sexually driven Latino to the relentless boxer who ignores pain. With the change in times and the change of setting induced by the expansion of the Latino community throughout the United States, machismo has evolved. Professor of literature Omar Castañeda in his article “Guatemalan Macho Oratory” (Castañeda 1996, cited under Latin America and Spain) has put it best: “Machismo is complex and multifaceted and too often, in Anglo-American interpretations, reduced to self-aggrandizing male bravado that flirts with physical harm to be sexual, like some rutting for the rights to pass on genes” (pp. 37 and 58). Along with its association with sexual flare, machismo has come to represent male dominance. However, in many communities the term machismo, as Vicente T. Mendoza argues in Mendoza 1962 (cited under Mexico), has come to embrace responsible male traits such as presence of mind, stoicism, and bravery.
  3.  
  4. General Overviews, Edited Collections, Dissertations, and Theses
  5. Scholars have taken great strides to observe the impact made by machismo on gender roles in various cultures, communities, and countries. These studies have moved in many directions outside of the traditional setting in Mexico. Gutmann 2003 includes works on numerous South American countries while also including works on Mexico and the United States. Other works, such as Cleaver 2002, have focused beyond the Latino experience in considering masculinity in Hindu, Ugandan, and Vietnamese cultures. In the field of American history, gender studies has not only become popular in recent years, but also necessary as the field has expanded and grown more inclusive. Foster 2011 sheds light on diverse figures who have contributed to the growth and development of colonial North America. Young scholars have looked at gender in various thesis and dissertation topics that have led to further insights in the field of history. Coronado 2013 examines machismo as a motivating factor that convinced Mexican American young men to serve in Vietnam and to take high risks there, which enabled them to survive.
  6.  
  7. Amuchastegui, Ana, and Szasz Ivonne. Sucede que me canso de ser hombre: Relatos y reflexiones sobre hombres y masculinidades en México. Mexico City: Colegio de México, 2007.
  8.  
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  10.  
  11. An overview of social and cultural aspects of machismo and what it means to be male in Mexico. Key issues such as sexuality, violence, immigration, homosexuality, and family structure are explored in numerous articles.
  12.  
  13. Find this resource:
  14.  
  15. Cleaver, Frances. Masculinities Matter! Men, Gender, and Development. New York: Zed Books, 2002.
  16.  
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  18.  
  19. Is a collection of essays that focus on men and masculinities in different cultures and communities. Cleaver includes articles that range from masculinity in northern Uganda to Hindu patriarchy to the Cuban machista.
  20.  
  21. Find this resource:
  22.  
  23. Coronado, Juan David. “‘I’m Not Gonna Die in This Damn Place’: Manliness, Identity, and Survival of the Mexican American Vietnam Prisoners of War.” PhD diss., Texas Tech University, 2013.
  24.  
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  26.  
  27. Focuses on the role of machismo as a motivating factor that convinced Mexican Americans to join the military during the Vietnam War and also propelled their survival during captivity as prisoners of war.
  28.  
  29. Find this resource:
  30.  
  31. Foster, Thomas. Manliness in Early America. New York: New York University Press, 2011.
  32.  
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  34.  
  35. A collection of articles focusing on masculinity in 18th-century colonial North America. Foster explores masculinity ranging from native men to African American slaves to the virtuous John Adams.
  36.  
  37. Find this resource:
  38.  
  39. French, William E., and Katherine Elaine Bliss. Gender, Sexuality, and Power in Latin America since Independence. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2007.
  40.  
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  42.  
  43. In a series of articles, the authors examine nuances of gender and the ever-evolving gender roles throughout Latin America.
  44.  
  45. Find this resource:
  46.  
  47. Gutmann, Matthew C. Changing Men and Masculinities in Latin America. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003.
  48.  
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  50.  
  51. A collection of essays that focus on machismo in countries that include Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Argentina, Peru, Ecuador, Venezuela, Mexico, Spain, and the United States.
  52.  
  53. Find this resource:
  54.  
  55. Ruiz, Juliette. “Clarification of the Concepts of Machismo and Hembrismo: Significance for Social Work Practice with Chicanos.” PhD diss., Denver University, 1975.
  56.  
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  58.  
  59. Provides a further understanding of the concepts of machismo and hembrismo (feminine roles) while determining how these roles are perceived by Chicano social workers.
  60.  
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  62.  
  63. Swartzbaugh, Richard Grey. “Machismo: A Value System of Mexican Peasant Class.” PhD diss., Ohio State University, 1969.
  64.  
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  66.  
  67. Looks at the positive view of machismo held by Mexican peasants in rural Guanajuato, Mexico, while Mexican wealthy elite frown upon the term.
  68.  
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  70.  
  71. Machismo by Region
  72. Works on machismo in Mexico have dominated the literature as the Mexican male has become synonymous with the term macho. Yet, Mexicanos are not the only individuals who embrace machismo. Various other cultures also uphold strong masculine ideals in their societies.
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  74. Mexico
  75. Scholars such as Samuel Ramos and Octavio Paz published several of the early works on machismo in Mexico and colonial New Spain. Ramos and Paz argue that machismo emerged from inferiority complexes held by Mexican males who found themselves unable to deal with the changing society set in motion by European elites (Ramos 1952 and Páz 1950). Mexican folklorist Vicente Mendoza introduced a complexity to the discussion of machismo in identifying two types of machismo: true machismo, which is “characterized by true courage, presence of mind, generosity, stoicism, heroism, bravery” (Mendoza 1962, pp. 75–86); and the “other,” which Mendoza views as, “nothing but a front, false at the bottom, hiding cowardice and fear covered up by exclamations, shouts, presumptuous boasts, bravado . . . Supermanliness that conceals an inferiority complex” (Mendoza 1962, pp. 75–86). The real macho in Mendoza’s eyes was the courageous hard-working figure who experienced racial, cultural, and personal strife. Mendoza looks at the rural Mexican male figures described in the historical Mexican décimas and corridos (poems and folksongs) who championed the “real” machismo. Mendoza’s assessment of “real” machismo is similar to Américo Paredes’s views. Both agree that masculinity is tied to responsibility and dependability (Mendoza 1962). Despite the strong arguments by Mendoza, more often than not machismo has become associated with the false associations that he referenced, namely power, dominance, sexual prowess, and violence. In addition to examining the traditional patriarchal identity of the Mexican male, Díaz-Guerrero 1976 also focuses on the impact made by matriarchs on the formation of machismo.
  76.  
  77. Díaz-Guerrero, Rogelio. Psychology of the Mexican: Culture and Personality. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1976.
  78.  
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  80.  
  81. Reinforces the traditional patriarchal structure that has placed much emphasis on the macho and less on the motherly figure, who is central in the Mexican family.
  82.  
  83. Find this resource:
  84.  
  85. Mendoza, Vicente T. La décima en México: Glosas y valonas. Vol. 3. Buenos Aires: Establecimientos Gráficos, 1947.
  86.  
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  88.  
  89. Focuses on the concepts of machismo as interpreted through music, poetry, and the Mexican corrido (traditional folk ballad).
  90.  
  91. Find this resource:
  92.  
  93. Mendoza, Vicente T. Corridos mexicanos. Mexico City: Secretaria de Educación Pública Cultura, 1954.
  94.  
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  96.  
  97. This entry is similar to Mendoza 1947, but here Mendoza focuses on the popular historical corridos (traditional folk ballads).
  98.  
  99. Find this resource:
  100.  
  101. Mendoza, Vicente T. “El machismo en México al través de canciones, corridos, y cantares.” In Cuadernos del Instituto Nacional de Antropología. Vol. 3. Buenos Aires: Ministerio de Educación y Justicia, 1962.
  102.  
  103. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  104.  
  105. Points out that there are two types of machismo: One that encompasses positive, courageous, and responsible traits, and another that while the other looks at negative associations connected with male dominance.
  106.  
  107. Find this resource:
  108.  
  109. Páz, Octavio. The Labyrinth of Solitude: Life and Thought in Mexico. New York: Grove, 1950.
  110.  
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  112.  
  113. Focuses on how Mexicans have embraced violent aspects of machismo to deal with a changing environment that has often left them behind.
  114.  
  115. Find this resource:
  116.  
  117. Ramos, Samuel. Profile of Man and Culture in México. New York: McGraw Hill, 1952.
  118.  
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  120.  
  121. He argues that the Mexican pelado (urban working-class male) clings to notions of ruggedness and seeks power and dominance to overcompensate for his lack of refinement, which has created an inferiority complex stemming from a history of conquest.
  122.  
  123. Find this resource:
  124.  
  125. Stern, Steve J. Women, Men, and Power in Late Colonial Mexico. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995.
  126.  
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  128.  
  129. This study looks at the conflicts between men and women over gender roles and rights in the closing years of colonial Mexico.
  130.  
  131. Find this resource:
  132.  
  133. Stevens, Evelyn P. “Mexican Machismo: Politics and Value Orientations.” Western Political Quarterly 18.4 (December 1965): 848–857.
  134.  
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  136.  
  137. Stevens aims to provide a “a full-scale treatment” of the interpretations of machismo in Mexican culture as the term has embraced a variety of meanings throughout the years.
  138.  
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  140.  
  141. Contemporary Mexico
  142. In recent years scholars have examined current conditions in Mexico and how the concept of machismo has evolved. Broughton 2008 and Carrillo 1999 consider issues of immigration and homosexuality in modern Mexico. Gutmann 1996 presents the results of years dedicated to researching working-class neighborhoods and working-class issues in the Mexican capital.
  143.  
  144. Broughton, Chad. “Migration as Engendered Practice: Mexican Men, Masculinity, and Northward Migration.” Gender & Society 22.5 (October 2008): 568–589.
  145.  
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  147.  
  148. Argues that Mexican men in their migration to the North embrace a number of masculine roles in response to the pressures experienced in neoliberal Mexico.
  149.  
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  151.  
  152. Carrillo, Hector. “Cultural Change, Hybridity, and Male Homosexuality in Mexico.” Culture, Health, & Sexuality 1.3 (July–September 1999): 223–238.
  153.  
  154. DOI: 10.1080/136910599300996Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  155.  
  156. Analyzes the changing contemporary atmosphere that has impacted gender in Mexico and the transformation of traditional forms of machismo.
  157.  
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  159.  
  160. Gutmann, Matthew C. The Meanings of Macho: Being a Man in Mexico City. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996.
  161.  
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  163.  
  164. Provides a new analysis of machismo and modernity among working-class Mexican men. Gutmann explores male roles as brothers, fathers, husbands, lovers, and friends.
  165.  
  166. Find this resource:
  167.  
  168. Gutmann, Matthew C. “The Ethnographic (G)ambit: Women and the Negotiation of Masculinity in Mexico City.” American Ethnologist 24.4 (November 1997): 833–855.
  169.  
  170. DOI: 10.1525/ae.1997.24.4.833Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  171.  
  172. Traces the ongoing changes in notions of masculinity and gender roles that have affected social life in working-class neighborhoods in Mexico City.
  173.  
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  175.  
  176. Latin America and Spain
  177. Similar to the conversation in Mexico, machismo has been central to discussion of gender roles in the rest of Latin America and in Spain. Many studies have focused on the negative aspects of machismo in playing a role in communal violence (Asencio 1999). In various Latin American countries machismo often has been connected with virility, and males have demonstrated their dominance by fathering an excess number of children as a means of showcasing their machismo (Kinzer 1973). Since the 1990s, Latin American scholars have moved beyond the stereotypical associations of machismo to shed light on the many other roles Latino men embrace (Castañeda 1996). Melhuus and Stolen 2007 discusses masculinity in various Latin American countries and its impact on femininity. Bolton 1979 examines a specific case in observing Peruvian truck drivers and their sexual motivations as part of masculine behaviors on the road. Chant 2003 considers the complexities of masculinity in focusing not only on Latino men, but also on women and how they impact gender. Adding a different perspective to the discussion of machismo is Frigole 1997, which looks at the masculine outlook of a single rural male in Spain in the first half of the 20th century.
  178.  
  179. Asencio, Marysol W. “Machos and Sluts: Gender, Sexuality, and Violence among a Cohort of Puerto Rican Adolescents.” Medical Anthropology Quarterly 13.1 (March 1999): 107–126.
  180.  
  181. DOI: 10.1525/maq.1999.13.1.107Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  182.  
  183. Focuses on low-income Puerto Rican families in linking beliefs to oppressive gender roles that often lead to justified violence.
  184.  
  185. Find this resource:
  186.  
  187. Bolton, Ralph. “Machismo in Motion: The Ethos of Peruvian Truckers.” Ethos 7.4 (Winter 1979): 312–342.
  188.  
  189. DOI: 10.1525/eth.1979.7.4.02a00020Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  190.  
  191. Argues that in Peru the job of driving trucks provides opportunities for men to embrace macho behaviors as it allows males to take on domineering tasks.
  192.  
  193. Find this resource:
  194.  
  195. Castañeda, Omar. “Guatemalan Macho Oratory.” In Muy Macho: Latino Men Confront Their Manhood. Edited by Ray González. New York: Anchor, 1996.
  196.  
  197. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  198.  
  199. Argues that Anglo-American interpretations of machismo have merely connected the meaning to self-aggrandizing male bravado.
  200.  
  201. Find this resource:
  202.  
  203. Chant, Sylvia. Gender in Latin America. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2003.
  204.  
  205. DOI: 10.3362/9781909013209Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  206.  
  207. This is a “state-of-the-art” review of gender in Latin America at the beginning of the 21st century.
  208.  
  209. Find this resource:
  210.  
  211. Frigole, Joan. Un hombre: Género, clase y cultura en el relato de un trabajador. Barcelona: Muchnik Editores, 1997.
  212.  
  213. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  214.  
  215. By means of oral histories of a single individual this study looks at masculinity in rural Spain from the early 1900s to the 1960s.
  216.  
  217. Find this resource:
  218.  
  219. Kinzer, Nora Scott. “Priests, Machos, and Babies: Or, Latin American Women and the Manichaean Heresy.” Journal of Marriage and Family 35.2 (May 1973): 300–312.
  220.  
  221. DOI: 10.2307/350660Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  222.  
  223. Argues that machismo and its impact on “exaggerated femininity” has become almost doctrine in Latin America and has led to very high birth rates as one of the machos main obsessions is sexual prowess. In special section: “Moving and the Wife, Women in Latin America.”
  224.  
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  226.  
  227. Melhuus, Marit, and Kristi Anne Stolen. Machos, putas, santas: El poder del imaginario de género en America Latina. Buenos Aires: Editorial Antropofagia, 2007.
  228.  
  229. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  230.  
  231. Provides an overview of the virtues of masculinity in Latin American countries ranging from Mexico to Argentina.
  232.  
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  234.  
  235. United States and England
  236. Although the term machismo may be of foreign origin, to Americans and Europeans it is a familiar term associated with manliness and the demonstration of masculine force. Similarities between the aggression exercised by Europeans and Americans during colonial times and attributes associated with machismo are extremely close. Seminal works such as González 1996 (cited under Other Latina/o and Spanish American Communities within the United States) shed light not only on the complexities of machismo, but also on the misconceptions surrounding the term. Perhaps the “real” machismo that Vicente Mendoza and later Américo Paredes refer to may have been closer to Teddy Roosevelt’s views on masculinity. No other modern American president comes as close to embodying the traits of masculinity associated with the term as does Roosevelt. This parallel stems from the fact that Roosevelt, like Mendoza and Paredes, admired rural and frontier life. Life in the American West resembled life in Mexico’s rural communities and in the American-Mexican borderlands about which Paredes wrote. Roosevelt believed that as a man accepted, confronted, and overcame challenges, both physical and intellectual, he developed character traits concomitant with manliness. Roosevelt’s conception of masculinity occurred at a time when Americans feared their society was becoming feminized. Gail Bederman asserts: “Americans fearful about the dwindling potency of Victorian manhood found Roosevelt’s formulations of racially dominant manhood exhilarating. For many, Roosevelt himself came to embody the essence of powerful manhood” (Bederman 1995, p. 214). American Manhood and Manliness and Civilization (Rotundo 1993 and Bederman 1995) are two of the better works that pertain to the impact that notions of manliness and masculinity have had in the United States. Similar to works that document the changing landscape in Latin America with respect to evolving gender roles, works dealing with the United States have also made comparable observations. No Direction Home (Zaretsky 2007) looks at the changes in the family structure that impacted gender roles during the period of the Vietnam War in the United States. Skjei and Rabkin 1981 continues the discussion on the impact of femininity on masculinity. Gilmore 1990 addresses the great pressure men face in conforming to masculine roles. Looking at masculine identity in medieval England through the eyes of common men, Neal 2008 relates the lingering effects of the masculine ideals of the time.
  237.  
  238. Bederman, Gail. Manliness and Civilization: A Cultural History of Gender and Race in the United States, 1880–1917. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995.
  239.  
  240. DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226041490.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  241.  
  242. Argues that masculinity is the result of “historical ideological” processes that, although they are based on myths, remain highly influential. Teddy Roosevelt is used as a prime example of America’s obsession with manliness.
  243.  
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  245.  
  246. Gilmore, David D. Manhood in the Making: Cultural Concepts of Masculinity. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1990.
  247.  
  248. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  249.  
  250. Looks at concepts of masculinity, including machismo, not only as by-products of psychogenetic origin, but also as remaining culturally relevant notions to which males must conform.
  251.  
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  253.  
  254. Neal, Derek G. The Masculine Self in Late Medieval England. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008.
  255.  
  256. DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226569598.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  257.  
  258. Examines masculinity in the late medieval period in England and provides evidence of the lasting effects of this traditional form of masculinity.
  259.  
  260. Find this resource:
  261.  
  262. Rotundo, E. Anthony. American Manhood: Transformations in Masculinity from the Revolution to the Modern Era. New York: Basic Books, 1993.
  263.  
  264. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  265.  
  266. Traces the evolution of manhood in the United States and how males understand and embrace what it means to become a man.
  267.  
  268. Find this resource:
  269.  
  270. Skjei, Eric, and Richard Rabkin. The Male Ordeal: Role Crisis in a Changing World. New York: G. P. Putnam’s, 1981.
  271.  
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  273.  
  274. Looks at restoring an appreciation for the value of masculinity, while further evaluating femininity and looking at the relationship between the two.
  275.  
  276. Find this resource:
  277.  
  278. Zaretsky, Natasha. No Direction Home: The American Family and the Fear of National Decline, 1968–1980. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007.
  279.  
  280. DOI: 10.5149/9780807867808_zaretskySave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  281.  
  282. Looks at the changes in masculinity, femininity, and family structure during the Vietnam War era in the United States.
  283.  
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  285.  
  286. Chicana/o Communities within the United States
  287. The conversation on machismo has been extensive in the Chicano/a and Latina/o communities throughout the United States. In the rural borderlands of the American Southwest during the 1940s and 1950s, despite the image of the noble and chivalrous vaquero (cowboy) who fades away in the distance, notions of honor, stoicism, and courage remained the cornerstone of masculinity. Social changes during World War II deeply impacted traditional American society. The shifting gender roles that brought a great number of women into the workforce during the war transformed the nation. Despite the changing society, in the borderlands Mexican American males maintained domestic responsibilities as they continued their roles as providers. Scholars of early works, such as Américo Paredes, focused on gender roles in the borderlands while emphasizing traditional masculine personas (Paredes 1993). Anzaldúa 1987 continues the discussion on gender roles in southern Texas but adds the female perspective to a conversation that could no longer ignore femininity.
  288.  
  289. Anzaldúa, Gloria. Borderlands-La Frontera: The New Mestiza. San Francisco: Aunt Lute, 1987.
  290.  
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  292.  
  293. Looks at gender, including machismo, from a borderlands perspective in the border region of southern Texas; adds to the discussion the role females have played in a traditional male patriarchy.
  294.  
  295. Find this resource:
  296.  
  297. Cantú, Norma E. “Muy Macho: Traditional Practices in the Formation of Latino Masculinity in South Texas Border Culture.” In Manly Traditions: The Folk Roots of American Masculinities. Edited by Simon J. Bronner and Alan Dundes, 116–133. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2005.
  298.  
  299. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  300.  
  301. Focuses on the role of the Mexican American male as provider and breadwinner in rural South Texas.
  302.  
  303. Find this resource:
  304.  
  305. Mirandé, Alfredo. Hombres y machos: Masculinity and Latino Culture. Boulder, CO: Westview, 1998.
  306.  
  307. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  308.  
  309. Challenges the prevailing and often negative images of machismo among Latino males while attempting to demonstrate the nuances that exist within Mexican and Latino cultures.
  310.  
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  312.  
  313. Paredes, Américo. “The Problem of Identity in a Changing Culture: Popular Expressions of Culture Conflict along the Lower Río Grande Border.” In Folklore and Culture on the Texas-Mexican Border. Edited by Américo Paredes and Richard Bauman, 19–48. Austin: Center for Mexican-American Studies, 1993.
  314.  
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  316.  
  317. This work examines culture, identity, and folklore in the borderlands in the far south of Texas an area heavily influenced by the cultures of both countries. In shedding light on the region, Paredes examines the role machismo plays in society.
  318.  
  319. Find this resource:
  320.  
  321. Peña, Manuel. “Class, Gender, and Machismo: The ‘Treacherous-Woman’ Folklore of Mexican Male Workers.” Gender & Society 5.1 (March 1991): 30–46.
  322.  
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  324.  
  325. Argues that machismo is closely associated with working-class male culture, which has been influenced by the oppressive economic environment within which the working class has had to survive.
  326.  
  327. Find this resource:
  328.  
  329. Tafolla, Carmen. To Split a Human: Mitos, machos, y la mujer Chicana. San Antonio, TX: Mexican American Cultural Center, 1985.
  330.  
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  332.  
  333. Looks at the stereotypes associated with Latinos in the United States and how the term macho has different meanings in English and Spanish.
  334.  
  335. Find this resource:
  336.  
  337. Téllez, Michelle. “Community of Struggle: Gender, Violence, and Resistance on the US/Mexico Border.” Gendered Borderlands 22.5 (October 2008): 545–567.
  338.  
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  340.  
  341. While observing gender relations on the US-Mexico borderlands, the author notes that females living in the area obtain the agency necessary to negotiate improvements to oppressive machista behaviors.
  342.  
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  344.  
  345. Valdez, Facundo. “Verguenza.” Colorado College Studies 15 (Spring 1979): 99–106.
  346.  
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  348.  
  349. Focuses on how vergüenza, or shame, impacts machismo and perpetuates traditional Chicano culture in the United States.
  350.  
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  352.  
  353. Other Latina/o and Spanish American Communities within the United States
  354. Individuals of Mexican origin have dominated the history of Spanish-speaking peoples in the United States. However, recent years have seen a great increase in the number of Latinos from other parts of Latin America. The same is true for studies of machismo that treat various Latino groups. Ramón Gutiérrez examines the role played by Spanish conquistadores in shaping masculine identities in present-day New Mexico (Gutiérrez 1991). More recently, David Abalos endeavors to bring the study up to date as the Latino community in the United States deals with contemporary gender issues (Abalos 2002). Felix-Ortiz, et al. 2012 provides a multifaceted analysis of machismo comparable to the fascinating study of race. A study on Latinas in labor unions, Cranford 2007 centers on the decline of traditional machismo. Diaz Barriga 2003 and González 1996 look at positive elements of machismo in perceptions of masculinity among Latinos living in the United States.
  355.  
  356. Abalos, David T. The Latino Male: A Radical Redefinition. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2002.
  357.  
  358. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  359.  
  360. Moves beyond traditional and stereotypical interpretations of machismo while attempting to provide answers to the multiple issues Latinos males face.
  361.  
  362. Find this resource:
  363.  
  364. Cranford, Cynthia J. “‘It’s Time to Leave Machismo Behind!’ Challenging Gender Inequality in an Immigrant Union.” Gender & Society 21.3 (June 2007): 409–438.
  365.  
  366. DOI: 10.1177/0891243207301501Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  367.  
  368. This study attributes the growth of unions in the Latina/o immigrant community to the spread of feminist values, which has led to females taking on leadership roles that have resulted in breaking away from the traditional machista mentality.
  369.  
  370. Find this resource:
  371.  
  372. Diaz Barriga, Miguel. “Verguenza and Changing Chicano/a Narratives.” In Changing Men and Masculinities in Latin America. Edited by Matthew C. Gutmann, 256–280. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003.
  373.  
  374. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  375.  
  376. Connects vergüenza, or shame, to masculine political identity in the United States.
  377.  
  378. Find this resource:
  379.  
  380. Felix-Ortiz, Maria, Ian Ankney, Brodie Megan, and Harold Rodinsky. “Anchoring the Measurement of Machismo and Latino Male Identity in Contemporary Definition and Theory.” In Invisible No More: Understanding the Disenfranchisement of Latino Men and Boys. Edited by Pedro Noguera, Aida Hurtado, and Edward Fergus, 136–152. New York: Routledge, 2012.
  381.  
  382. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  383.  
  384. Reevaluates the various definitions of machismo and concludes that machismo, perhaps like race, “is a reality only in the mind of the believer.”
  385.  
  386. Find this resource:
  387.  
  388. González, Ray. Muy Macho: Latino Men Confront Their Manhood. New York: Anchor, 1996.
  389.  
  390. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  391.  
  392. Latino scholars contextualize what it means to be macho from their perspective. They move away from the traditional, almost entirely negative, stereotypical image of machismo and shed light on more contemporary roles associated with the concept.
  393.  
  394. Find this resource:
  395.  
  396. Gutiérrez, Ramón A. When Jesus Came the Corn Mothers Went Away: Marriage, Sexuality, and Power in New Mexico, 1500–1846. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1991.
  397.  
  398. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  399.  
  400. Traces the changes in notions of machismo/masculinity brought by Spanish explorers in the Western Hemisphere. Perceptions of manliness and of the male role in sexual relations changed as attributes became synonymous with dominance. Males thus turned to power to exhibit manly virtues.
  401.  
  402. Find this resource:
  403.  
  404. Machismo in Cross-Culture Studies
  405. Early scholars identified machismo as a uniquely Mexican trait. Through comparative studies scholars have debunked that myth and have found comparable attributes associated with machismo throughout different cultures across the globe. Américo Paredes challenged the idea that machismo was solely a Mexican phenomenon, born from a Mexican inferiority complex. He asserts that machismo can be found in various cultures throughout history and globally. In explaining Mexican/Mexican American machismo, Paredes universalizes the term and finds notable similarities among numerous masculine behaviors globally. Paredes uses various examples, such as the frontiersman and backwoodsman during the age of Andrew Jackson in the United States, figures who challenged East Coast aristocrats. He goes back to the early inhabitants of today’s Nordic nations in Europe in noting that strength and dominance were prevalent in a bloody duel (Paredes 1971). Recent studies have found resemblances to outlooks associated with machismo among Chicanos and African Americans in parallel ideals in rap lyrics (Baker-Kimmons and McFarland 2011). Flores 1992 and Lazur and Majors 1995 look at how the cultural values of Latinos compare to those of other groups living in the United States. Nolan 1976 examines the specific case of machismo among American and Argentine bankers. Basham 1976 looks at the decline of machismo as men rise in social status.
  406.  
  407. Baker-Kimmons, Leslie, and Pancho McFarland. “The Rap on Chicano and Black Masculinity: A Content Analysis of Gender Images in Rap Lyrics.” Race, Gender & Class 18.1–2 (2011): 331–344.
  408.  
  409. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  410.  
  411. Through rap lyrics this work looks at the similar outlook concerning the ideal conceptions of manhood among African American and Chicano working-class males living in the United States.
  412.  
  413. Find this resource:
  414.  
  415. Basham, Richard. “Machismo.” A Journal of Women Studies (Spring 1976): 126–143.
  416.  
  417. DOI: 10.2307/3346074Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  418.  
  419. Focuses on machismo through various cultures and attributes a decline in machismo as people climb the social ladder into the middle and upper classes.
  420.  
  421. Find this resource:
  422.  
  423. Flores, Arthur. “Machismo and Alcohol Use: Ethnic Differences among Mexican American, Black, and Anglo Adolescents.” PhD diss., Texas A & M University, 1992.
  424.  
  425. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  426.  
  427. Examines the relation between machismo and alcohol consumption among Mexican American, African American, and Anglo American youth. The study concluded that machismo is more prevalent among Mexican Americans and African American adolescents than Anglos. Alcohol consumption was also higher among Mexican Americans.
  428.  
  429. Find this resource:
  430.  
  431. Lazur, Richard, and Richard Majors. “Men of Color: Ethnocultural Variations of Male Gender Role Strain.” In A New Psychology of Men. Edited by Ronald F. Levant and William S. Pollack, 338–358. New York: Basic Books, 1995.
  432.  
  433. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  434.  
  435. Addresses how Latino, African American, American Indian, and Asian American men accommodate their traditional masculine cultural values to the changing Anglo American landscape in which they live.
  436.  
  437. Find this resource:
  438.  
  439. Nolan, James Michael. “The Affect of the Machismo Personality on Modes of Conflict Resolution: A Comparative Study of Bank Line/ Staff Personnel in Two Cultures.” MBA, University of Nevada–Reno, 1976.
  440.  
  441. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  442.  
  443. Compares the degree of machismo exhibited by bankers in the United States and bankers in Argentina.
  444.  
  445. Find this resource:
  446.  
  447. Paredes, Américo. “The United States, Mexico, and Machismo.” Journal of the Folklore Institute 8.1 (June 1971): 17–37.
  448.  
  449. DOI: 10.2307/3814061Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  450.  
  451. Paredes challenges the idea that machismo is solely a Mexican phenomenon, born from a Mexican inferiority complex; rather, machismo can be found in various cultures throughout history and globally.
  452.  
  453. Find this resource:
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