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The Kingdom of Hungary

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. The age of the Renaissance and the Reformation brought significant changes in the history of the Kingdom of Hungary. The country had been a great power during the reign of Matthias I and under the Jagiellon dynasty, but the Ottoman campaign of 1526 destroyed the medieval central administration. After the Battle of Mohács (29 August 1526), the kingdom split into two parts. The western part was ruled by Ferdinand I of Habsburg, while its eastern territories came under the rule of János Szapolyai (Zápolya). The latter part developed into Transylvania. As the capital city, Buda, was occupied by the Ottomans in 1541, the central part of the Kingdom of Hungary became a border province of the Ottoman Empire. Thus, the territory of the medieval Kingdom of Hungary split into three parts, and it became the buffer zone of two world powers. However, the Kingdom of Hungary’s influence did not wear off, and the Hungarian systems of political institutions kept on working under the control of the Habsburg dynasty. Belonging to the sphere of influence of the Ottoman Empire, Transylvania could also be regarded as heir of the medieval Hungarian state; nevertheless, it had to operate in harsher conditions. Apart from political events, Hungarian economy, society, and culture remained unified, where the impacts of all the European intellectual trends (Renaissance, humanism, Reformation, and Catholic renewal) could be felt. Several ethnic groups lived within the medieval Kingdom of Hungary, where different religions (Catholic, Orthodox, and Judaism) could also be found. Some parts of the state (Transylvania, Slavonia, the Croatian Kingdom, Dalmatia) experienced a certain autonomy, and thus the administration of the Kingdom of Hungary was of the nature of a composite state. The Kingdom of Hungary in the 15th and 16th centuries developed close diplomatic relations with the Italian states, the Habsburg hereditary provinces, and the Kingdom of Poland, whereas the weakened kingdoms of the Balkan became its vassals in the late Middle Ages. The Hungarian state engaged in flourishing trade with Venice, the southern German territories, and Poland. These connections survived well after the partition of the country.
  4.  
  5. General Overviews
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  7. Hungarian historical writing generally deals with the history of the Kingdom of Hungary in the 15th and 16th centuries separately: the Battle of Mohács 1526 is considered an important dividing line. The first scholarly monographs were written in the second half of the 19th century. The interpretation of social and intellectual changes started in the first half of the 20th century. In this period, single- or dual-authored works characterized history writing. Marxist historical writing concentrated on economic history and the history of the peasantry, while several collections of studies were published as well. Since the Hungarian change of regime (1990), historians have attempted to integrate the age of the Hungarian Renaissance and that of the Reformation into a wider context: into both the history of the Habsburg Empire and that of the Ottoman Empire.
  8.  
  9. Single- or Dual-Authored Works
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  11. The first excellent overview of the Hungarian political history was a Protestant national work, Szalay 1853–1854. However, Hóman and Szekfű 1935, which deals with Hungarian history from a Catholic point of view in a form of Geistgeschichte, is more popular. Szakály 1990 abandons the traditional dividing line and offers a broad European context. Engel 2001 gives an overall picture of medieval Hungary, while Kontler 2002 reveals the thousand years of Hungarian history. Eckhart 2000 treats the history of Hungarian law. Fichtner 2003 shows Hungarian changes from the perspective of the Habsburg Empire, whereas Pálffy 2009 investigates these changes from a Hungarian point of view, integrating the 16th-century events into the history of the monarchy.
  12.  
  13. Eckhart, Ferenc. Magyar alkotmány- és jogtörténet. 2d. ed. Edited by Barna Mezey. Budapest: Osiris Kiadó, 2000.
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  15. (History of the Hungarian constitution and law). Eckhart was a legal historian who wrote about the development of the Hungarian administration and the change in the relationship between central and local public administration. The work is still current and good for researchers.
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  17. Engel, Pál. The Realm of St. Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 895–1526. London and New York: I. B. Tauris, 2001.
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  19. Deals with the history of the Kingdom of Hungary from the establishment of the Hungarian state. It stresses the spread of the European intellectual trends in Hungary, and it also touches upon Hungarian peculiarities. Rich in information.
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  21. Fichtner, Paula Sutter. The Habsburg Monarchy 1490–1848: Attributes of Empire. Basingstoke, UK, and New York: Palgrave-Macmillan, 2003.
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  23. A useful manual for both researchers and university students on the history of the Habsburg monarchy. The author investigates the monarchy developing into a world power in this period as compared to England, Spain, and France, but he also mentions the relations established with the different parts of the empire. As Royal Hungary was the strongest part of the central European Habsburg monarchy, it is justified to analyze early modern Hungarian history from this perspective.
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  25. Hóman, Bálint, and Gyula Szekfű. Magyar történet. Vols. 2–3. Budapest: Magyar Királyi Egyetemi Nyomda, 1935.
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  27. (Hungarian history). A detailed study in which the authors use international works and sources. The period between 1458 and 1606 is written by Szekfű. It is indispensable for researchers and university lecturers and shows the spread and impact of the Renaissance and Reformation, with the help of detailed social, economic, and cultural-historical analyses. The author’s Catholicism can be clearly perceived, and he judges the Habsburg rule positively. The work was published several times before the end of World War II.
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  29. Kontler, László. A History of Hungary: Millennium in Central Europe. London: Palgrave-Macemillan, 2002.
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  31. A general and impartial history of Hungary using international scholarly works. Reveals political, cultural, social, and intellectual changes within a European context. It is a basic work for approaching Hungarian history and has been published in the United States, the Czech Republic, and Russia.
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  33. Pálffy, Géza. The Kingdom of Hungary and the Habsburg Monarchy in the Sixteenth Century. CHSP Hungarian Studies Series 18. Boulder, CO: Social Science Monographs, 2009.
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  35. The most recent synthesis of early modern Hungarian history. It was published before the Hungarian edition. After covering late medieval conditions, the book focuses on the survival of Hungarian institutions. It also underlines the fact that the Hungarian state had an important role within the Habsburg monarchy, as there was a mutual interdependence between the two parties. Although there are not any church or intellectual historical analyses in the book, the author offers detailed bibliographies on these topics.
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  37. Szakály, Ferenc. Virágkor és hanyatlás 1440–1711. Budapest: Háttér Lap- és Könyvkiadó, 1990.
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  39. (Heyday and decline, 1440–1711). A short, informative work written mainly for university students and teachers. It shows international events as they relate to Hungarian events, which is something of a novelty. The author sums up the research results, but he does not touch upon any problems.
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  41. Szalay, László. Magyarország története. Vols. 1–4. Leipzig: Geibel, 1852–1854.
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  43. (History of Hungary). The work is an overall introduction to Hungarian history that uses plenty of original sources. For the Renaissance and the Reformation era: Volume 3 deals with the reign of Matthias I and that of the Jagiellon dynasty, while Volume 4 concentrates on the period between 1526 and 1645. The work focuses on political history, and it is written from a national point of view. Its facts are reliable, but the majority of its conclusions are out of date. It has been reprinted several times.
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  45. Collections of Studies
  46.  
  47. The first collections of studies on Hungarian history were compiled in the 1960s. Formerly, single- or dual-authored works had been popular, except for Domanovszky 1940, which reveals Hungarian intellectual culture. Studies in compliance with the international trends are collected in Székely and Fügedi 1963, while Bak and Király 1982 contains studies devoid of Marxist ideology. The massive overview of the factual material of in Pach 1985 was compiled by a study group, and the English-speaking audience learned of its results from in Sugár, et al. 1990. Dávid and Fodor 1994 shows Hungarian history in the mirror of the Habsburg-Ottoman diplomatic and military relations. Zombori 2004 focuses on the 15th-and 16th-century history of central Europe. Kósa 2002 offers an overview on the whole of Hungarian intellectual culture. In international collections of studies, Hungarian affairs are usually covered in a superficial manner.
  48.  
  49. Bak, János M., and Béla K. Király, eds. From Hunyadi to Rákóczi: War and Society in Late Medieval and Early Modern Hungary. Boulder, CO: Social Sciences Monographs, 1982.
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  51. Contrary to the title, the book offers a general view of the history of the Kingdom of Hungary during the Renaissance and the Reformation. Several studies reveal the course of the wars fought against the Ottoman Empire and their impact on Hungarian economy and society. Many scholarly works cite this popular book.
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  53. Dávid, Géza, and Pál Fodor, eds. Hungarian-Ottoman Military and Diplomatic Relations in the Age of Süleyman the Magnificent. Budapest: Loránd Eötvös University, Department of Turkish Studies, 1994.
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  55. The book reveals the main events of the history of the Kingdom of Hungary becoming the borderland of the Habsburg and the Ottoman world powers. Many studies emphasize the military and foreign history of the Jagiellon era, the events following the Battle of Mohács (and those of the Ottoman sultans’ campaigns), and the interrelation between national defense and economy. A copublication with the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Institute of History.
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  57. Domanovszky, Sándor, ed. Magyar művelődéstörténet. 2 vols. Budapest: MTT, 1940.
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  59. (History of Hungarian culture). This outstanding work concentrates on the changes in church, intellectual, and social history. Several thorough studies deal with the history of different ethnic groups and the spread of European intellectual systems. It is easy to follow and full of data. Volume 2: Magyar Renaissance (Hungarian Renaissance); Volume 3: A kereszténység védőbástyája (Bulwark of Christianity).
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  61. Kósa, László, ed. A Cultural History of Hungary. Budapest: Corvina Kiadó, 2002.
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  63. The relevant chapters are written by Iván Bertényi and István György Tóth. A wider concept of intellectual culture is considered, and historical ecology and ethnic history also appear in the book. Its advantage lies in its diversity, but the chapters are not unified and thus the book is eclectic. This book is less detailed than its predecessor, Domanovszky 1940.
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  65. Pach, Zsigmond Pál, ed. Magyarország története 1526–1686. Vol. 3, Magyarország története tíz kötetben. Edited by Zsigmond Pál Pach and Ágnes R. Várkonyi, Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1985.
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  67. (The history of Hungary in ten volumes. Vol. 3, The history of Hungary, 1526–1686). The work presents a synthesis of Marxist historical writing and earlier results in two volumes, in a total of 1,800 pages. The volumes dealing with the period before 1526 are still missing, thus it cannot provide a complete picture. As a result of its length and approach, the book is difficult to use, but the chapters on economic history written by Vera Zimányi are still acceptable. A chronology and a bibliography are helpful here.
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  69. Sugár, Peter F., Péter Hanák, and Tibor Frank, eds. A History of Hungary. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990.
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  71. Studies written by Hungarian authors that sum up the results of Pach 1985. Its early modern chapters are really useful. Due to its readable style, it is very popular, and there are several editions. Good for researchers and university students.
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  73. Székely, György, and Erik Fügedi, eds. La Renaissance et la Réformation en Pologne et en Hongrie. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1963.
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  75. Delves into issues of intellectual culture, the relationship between urbanization and the Reformation, and economic and social history. The studies mostly neglect political events. Readers should ignore some Marxist terminologies appearing in the work. It does not offer a unified picture but introduces new research fields.
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  77. Zombori, István, ed. Fight against the Turk in Central-Europe in the First Half of the 16th Century. Budapest: Magyar Egyháztörténeti Enciklopédia Munkaközösség (METEM), 2004.
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  79. Based on modern results, with the cooperation of leading Polish and Hungarian historians, this book shows the preliminary actions, the course, and the impacts of the conflict with the Ottoman Empire in central Europe. Reveals the similarities and differences between Polish and Hungarian events. Unfortunately, it is difficult to obtain, but it is useful for researchers and university lecturers.
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  81. Reference Works
  82.  
  83. The territory and the names of the larger areas of the Kingdom of Hungary changed several times in history, and Bak 1997 sums these up. Different political regimes considered the Renaissance and the age of the Reformation in different ways, as evidenced in Vardy 1976. A precise chronology is the basis of most good research, and the first of these is Benda 1981. Following World War I, the new states forming in the territory of the medieval Kingdom of Hungary also investigated their medieval and early modern history, and Kosáry 2000–2008 deals with this particular history. For the chronology of the most important historical figures’ lives, see Fallenbüchl 1988, Oborni 2002, and Szvák 2003. Engel 2001 shows the computerized reconstruction of medieval Hungarian settlement structure, and that of the estate structure.
  84.  
  85. Bak, Borbála. Magyarország történeti topográfiája: A honfoglalástól 1950-ig. Budapest: MTA TTI, 1997.
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  87. (Historical topography of Hungary: From the conquest to 1950). Assists the work of university seminars dealing with the historical geography of the Carpathian Basin with maps and practical exercises. The maps indicate the changes of the church and lay public administration. It is an excellent educational aid and has several editions.
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  89. Benda, Kálmán, ed. Magyarország történeti kronológiája 4 vols. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1981.
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  91. (Historical chronology of Hungary). An in-depth manual listing the dates of the most important Hungarian events up to 1970. The first volume (Kezdetektől 1526-ig). contains the dates of the battles, peace treaties, and reigns up to the Battle of Mohács, while the second volume (1526–1848) covers up to the revolution in 1848. The significant works of art are also mentioned at the end of each year. Several dates are questionable, but it is usable in its entirety.
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  93. Engel, Pál. Magyarország a középkor végén: Digitális térkép és adatbázis. CD-ROM. Budapest: Térinformatika, 2001.
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  95. (Hungary at the end of the Middle Ages: Digital map and database). The names of the settlements found in medieval charters have been written on maps, and next to the settlements their privileges, owners, and church infrastructure have also been shown. Users can search for estates or noble families with the help of the easily usable program.
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  97. Fallenbüchl, Zoltán, ed. Magyarország főméltóságai, 1526–1848. Budapest: Maecenas Kiadó, 1988.
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  99. (Highest dignitaries of Hungary, 1526–1848). Collects the most important archontological data on the leading characters in Hungarian political life and the members of the Royal Council advising the king. It is useful for research on family history and administration.
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  101. Kosáry, Domokos. Bevezetés Magyarország történetének forrásaiba és irodalmába. Budapest: Osiris Kiadó, 2000–2008.
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  103. (Introduction into the sources and literature of the history of Hungary). A basic manual for any research. Attempts to show the places where researchers can find sources on the history of the different periods and areas. Good for an immersion in the field. Also contains a precise bibliography of historical works.
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  105. Oborni, Teréz. Erdély fejedelmei. Budapest: Pannonica Kiadó, 2002.
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  107. (Princes of Transylvania). After the Battle of Mohács, Transylvania was developed in the eastern part of the Kingdom of Hungary. It was controlled by the prince, who was elected from the area’s great landowners. This book contains their modern biographies. An essential manual for research on modern Transylvania.
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  109. Szvák, Gyula, ed. Magyarország uralkodói. Budapest: Pannonica Kiadó, 2003.
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  111. (Rulers of Hungary). Scholarly manual with many interesting facts. Recognized authorities of certain eras summarize the rulers of the Kingdom of Hungary from a Hungarian perspective. It cannot replace the detailed monographs on the rulers but provides readers with a modern overview.
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  113. Vardy, Steven Bela. Modern Hungarian Historiography. Boulder, CO: Eastern European Monographs, 1976.
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  115. Although it is not the most updated work, this book is better than some historiographies written recently in Hungarian. Provides an excellent basis for any research, as it rightly shows how ideas changed about the history of early modern Hungary.
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  117. Primary Sources
  118.  
  119. Using primary archival sources is indispensable for basic research. The documents written before 1526 have been organized into one large series. The majority of it is now on the database A középkori Magyarország levéltári forrásainak adatbázisa. Many of the documents published after 1526 are in MHHD 1857–1948, MHH IIIa 1874–1917, and MHH IIIb 1875–1898. Another important source group is the works of historians, including the two most significant ones: Bonfini 1568 and Isthvanfi 1622. The lesser works are published in MHHS 1857–1906. The acts of the Hungarian Parliament (CJH 1899) are also part of the most important documents of the era.
  120.  
  121. A középkori Magyarország levéltári forrásainak adatbázisa.
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  123. (Database of archival documents of medieval Hungary). The database on the website of the National Archives of Hungary is an important aid. Users can search among hundreds of thousands of charters on the basis of keywords. Several documents in the constantly enlarged system can now be read in full. Free to use, it is recommended for researchers with paleographic and Latin language skills.
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  125. Bonfini, Antonius. Rerum Hungaricarum Decades. Basel, Switzerland, 1568.
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  127. The work of a Humanist historian who wrote the history of Hungarian people from the beginning to 1496, at the request of the ruler. It is the most important narrative source of the age of King Matthias I. It has become a guideline in latter periods. Has a German translation, and several parts of it are published in Italian, too.
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  129. Corpus Juris Hungarici (CJH). With explanatory notes by Dezső Márkus. Budapest: Franklin, 1899.
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  131. Volume 1: Magyar törvénytár (Corpus Juris Hungarici) 1000–1526. Volume 2: Magyar törvénytár (Corpus Juris Hungarici) 1526–1608. Publishes the acts introduced by the Hungarian diets. An important source for researchers of political, administrative, and military history.
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  133. Isthvanfi, Nicolaus. Historiarum de rebus Ungaricis libri XXXIV. Coloniae Agrippinae: Sumptibus Antonii Hierati, 1622.
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  135. The continuation of Bonfini’s work. The author wrote the history of Hungary between 1490 and 1613 on the basis of his own research. It is very detailed and usually accurate. It has several editions and has also been translated into Hungarian.
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  137. Monumenta Historiae Hungarica I: Diplomataria (MHHD) I–XLII. Pest-Budapest, 1857–1948.
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  139. The series compiled on the basis of the German Monumenta Germaniae Historica publishes diplomatic documents relating to medieval and early modern Hungarian history in original transcription.
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  141. Monumenta Historiae Hungarica II: Scriptores (MHHS) I–XXXVIII. Pest-Budapest, 1857–1906.
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  143. A faithful and critical publication of the lesser sources of Hungarian history. It includes works of historians from the first sources to the end of the modern period. They are worth using together with charters and scholarly works.
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  145. Monumenta Historiae Hungarica IIIa: Monumenta comitialia regni Hungariae I–XII. 1526–1606. Edited by Vilmos Fraknói. Budapest, 1874–1917.
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  147. The collection of sources created during the operation of the Hungarian Estates Parliament. It is useful for those interested in public administration and governance history. Short regesta are attached to the mainly Latin sources, and the editor writes a note on each parliamentary session.
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  149. Monumenta Historiae Hungarica IIIb: Monumenta comitialia regni Transsylvaniae I–XXI. 1540–1699. Edited by Sándor Szilágyi. Budapest, 1875–1898.
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  151. The most important work on the state formed in the eastern part of the Kingdom of Hungary. Includes data in the field of governance, diplomacy, military, and social history. Recommended for researchers.
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  153. Journals and Series
  154.  
  155. There are no journals dealing with Hungarian history in the Renaissance or the Reformation. Of the many journals, Századok, Hadtörténelmi Közlemények, Történelmi Szemle, Aetas Történettudományi folyóirat and Fons Forráskutatás és Történeti Segédtudományok deserve attention. One can find studies on the Renaissance and Reformation periods in all of them. In addition, several lesser journals might contain significant writings. Of the periodicals, Humanizmus és Reformáció is the most important, as it publishes monographs on these periods.
  156.  
  157. Aetas: Történettudományi folyóirat. 1985–.
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  159. (Aetas: Journal of History and Related Disciplines). The journal published by the lecturers of the University of Szeged. Publishes four issues a year. Often focuses on the 15th–16th centuries. It is recommended for those interested in the history of Ottoman Hungary.
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  161. Fons Forráskutatás és Történeti Segédtudományok. 1994–.
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  163. A journal created by young archivalists, where plenty of various source publications and case studies are published concerning the particular periods. It is extremely useful for understanding certain issues. It is mainly recommended for researchers.
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  165. Hadtörténelmi Közlemények. 1888–1897, 1910–1943, 1954–.
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  167. The scholarly journal of the Military History Institute and Museum. Publishes four issues a year. It has played an important role in the development of Hungarian military history writing. Volumes from 1997 to 2003 can be accessed online.
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  169. Humanizmus és Reformáció. 1973–.
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  171. (Humanism and reformation). Publication forum of the Renaissance Research Workshop formed within the Institute for Literary Studies of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. Publishes the monographs and treatises on Hungarian Renaissance, humanism, and Reformation. The volumes are very different thematically, but most of them concentrate on intellectual history and culture, with special attention on the trends of Reformation and the heresies following them.
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  173. Századok. 1867–.
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  175. The official journal of the Hungarian Historical Society and the most-cited Hungarian journal. Issued six times a year. Those who subscribe can read all the issues on the website with the help of a search engine. The second and fourth through fifth issues of each volume contain writings dealing with the age of the Renaissance and that of the Reformation.
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  177. Történelmi Szemle. 1958–
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  179. The main subject of the Institute of History of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences is Hungarian history, mainly in the medieval and early modern period. Publishes four issues a year. It mainly contains the works of the institute’s researchers. It is not widely available electronically, only some issues from the years of 1997–1999 can be read online.
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  181. The Hungarian State in the Renaissance
  182.  
  183. There are only a few works that give a broad overview of the period, as the historians regarded the age of King Matthias I (1458–1490) as different from the Jagiellon era (1490–1526). Thus, mostly the great syntheses, such as Hóman and Szekfű 1935, offer a unified overview of the Renaissance. From 1945 to 1990, there were not any monographs written in Hungary. Bak 1973 reveals the relationship between the Hungarian nobility and the royal power. Engel, et al. 1998 deals with a wider chronology, Engel 2001 focuses on the Middle Ages, while Tringli 2003 interprets the events of the era until 1541.
  184.  
  185. Bak, János M. Königtum und Stände in Ungarn im 14–16. Jahrhundert. Wiesbaden: Steiner, 1973.
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  187. Focuses mainly on the relationship between the Hungarian nobility and the king, and shows the estates’ attempts to increase their privileges. Also deals with the era following the death of King Matthias. The most important sources can be found in the appendix.
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  189. Engel, Pál. The Realm of St. Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 895–1526. London: I. B. Tauris, 2001.
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  191. The work is a result of decades-long research and useful for both lecturers and researchers. Focuses on political and economic history, and the chapters on intellectual culture are short. Offers a modern picture of the Hungarian Middle Ages, mainly of the changes in administration. The author compares Hungary to the other European states on the basis of this change. It also reveals the Western elements and the Eastern traditions of the realm.
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  193. Engel, Pál, Gyula Kristó, and András Kubinyi. Magyarország története 1301–1526. Budapest: Osiris Kiadó, 1998.
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  195. (History of Hungary, 1301–1526). A didactic university coursebook with a modern approach. The part focusing on the Jagiellon era is written by Kubinyi and mostly deals with political history. There is also a short chapter on intellectual culture. End-of-chapter bibliographies can help those who are interested.
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  197. Hóman, Bálint, and Gyula Szekfű. Magyar történet. Vol. 2. Budapest: Magyar Királyi Egyetemi Nyomda, 1935.
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  199. (Hungarian history). Szekfű authors the relevant chapters. Rich in information, but the author’s statements are often exaggerated. He overestimates the reign of King Matthias I but shows the Jagiellon era very negatively. Good information here but not totally trustworthy.
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  201. Tringli, István. Az újkor hajnala: Magyarország története 1440–1541. Budapest: Vince Kiadó, 2003.
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  203. (Dawn of the modern age: History of Hungary, 1440–1541). A scholarly educational work whose typography helps readers. Concentrates on the relationship between the nobility and the royal court. Several common public beliefs are refuted in a special chapter, as the author takes an objective approach to the era. He regards the Jagiellon era as a positive period and supports his view with much relevant data.
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  205. Politics and Governance
  206.  
  207. The first book aimed at showing all the aspects of the reign and administration of King Matthias I is Lukinich 1940. Kubinyi 1999 and Kovács 2008 alter the positive picture of his reign on the basis of recent research. Kubinyi 1991 deals with the fights for the throne following the death of Matthias. An example of the negative evaluation of the politics of the Jagiellon era is in Fraknói 1886, which is rebutted by Kubinyi 1992. The last years of the era (1521–1526) are treated completely differently by Réthelyi 2005, and the causes behind the behavior of the Hungarian nobility are revealed in Kubinyi 2006.
  208.  
  209. Fraknói, Vilmos. Ungarn vor der Schlacht von Mohács (1524–1526). Auf Grund der päpstlichen Nuntiaturberichten. Budapest: Wilhelm Lauffer, 1886.
  210. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  211. Reveals the state of the Kingdom of Hungary using the reports of papal envoy Antonio Burgio. However, Burgio was biased against the Jagiellon dynasty, especially against Mary of Austria. Moreover, it was a typical humanist attitude to criticize royal courts. Thus, Fraknói’s statements should be accepted only with skeptcism.
  212. Find this resource:
  213. Kovács, Péter E. Mátyás, a reneszánsz király. Budapest: Officina, 2008.
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  215. (Matthias, the Renaissance king). Shows the rise of the Hunyadis, the early youth of Matthias, his ascension to the throne, his reign, and the humanist statesman with European intellect. Because of its readability, it is a popular scholarly work intended for a wide audience.
  216. Find this resource:
  217. Kubinyi, András. “Két sorsdöntő esztendő (1490–1491).” Történelmi Szemle 33 (1991): 1–55.
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  219. (Two crucial years, 1490–1491). A summary of the problems of the succession to the throne following the death of King Matthias. Reveals the motivation and support of the different candidates. It points out that the Hungarian political elite properly refused the claim of Matthias’s son, János Corvinus, and chose the stronger Jagiellons instead of the Habsburgs. The book clears up many misunderstandings and helps evaluate the events.
  220. Find this resource:
  221. Kubinyi, András. “A Jagelló-kori Magyarország történetének vázlata.” Századok 126 (1992): 288–317.
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  223. (Draft of the history of Hungary in the Jagiellon era). Reveals the conditions of late medieval Hungary, using a broad context. It also shows the relationship between politics, economy, and society. Readers learn about the erosion of royal power and the limitations of the political activity of the nobility. Its shortness hinders in-depth explanations, but a rich bibliography helps further research.
  224. Find this resource:
  225. Kubinyi, András. Matthias Corvinus: Die Regierung eines Königreichs in Ostmitteleuropa 1458–1490. Herne, Germany: Verlag Tibor Schäfer, 1999.
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  227. Summarizes Kubinyi’s decade-long research. Deals with the rise of the Hunyadis and their internal and foreign policy. Outstanding in that it reveals the problems of succession and offers the most updated information. Also useful for researchers.
  228. Find this resource:
  229. Kubinyi, András. “Az 1505. évi rákosi országgyűlés és a szittya ideológia.” Századok 140 (2006): 361–375.
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  231. (The Diet of Rákos in 1505 and the “Szittya” ideology). This study shows the formation of the identity of the Hungarian nobility with the help of the events of the diet. The anti-German attitude started during the reign of King Matthias made the subordination to the Ottoman Empire easier. However, the author acquits the Hungarian political elite of the responsibility, and he does not blame them for the fall of the state. The work is indispensable for understanding the issue of noble mentality.
  232. Find this resource:
  233. Lukinich, Imre, ed. Mátyás király: Emlékkönyv születésének ötszázéves fordulójára. Vols. 1–2. Budapest: Franklin, 1940.
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  235. (King Matthias: A book in honor of the 500th anniversary of his birth). The collection of studies written with the most sources so far. Focuses on political history, but it deals with all the issues of the period. The depiction of the king is more positive than the one accepted nowadays.
  236. Find this resource:
  237. Réthelyi, Orsolya, et al., eds. Mary of Hungary: The Queen and Her Court, 1521–1531. Budapest History Museum, 30 September 2005–9 January 2006. Slovenská národná galéria, 2 February–30 April 2006. Budapest: Budapest History Museum, 2005.
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  239. Mary of Austria arrived at the Hungarian royal court in 1521, which changed the political situation in many respects. The author claims that 1521 was a sharp dividing line, as several reforms started with the arrival of the queen. The studies and the descriptions of the exhibits deal with the politics and representation of the last years of the Jagiellon court.
  240. Find this resource:
  241. Particularism
  242.  
  243. Transylvania, led by the voyvode, and Dalmatia, Croatia, and Slavonia, all controlled by the ban, had special legal status within the Kingdom of Hungary. These territories were also ruled by the king of Hungary and the Royal Council, but they enjoyed considerable jurisdictional and public administrative autonomy. For a summary, see Mályusz 1940. Transylvania is mainly dealt with by Hungarian researchers (Mályusz 1988, Kubinyi 1988), and Köpeczi 2001 is a useful mongraph. A recent work on Transylvanian history is Oborni 2004. The South Slav territories were mostly written about by Croatian historians, and such writings can be found in Klaić 1982 and Beuc 1985. These territories’ role within Hungary has been recently dealt with in Pálosfalvi 2009 and Varga 2008.
  244.  
  245. Beuc, Ivan. Povijest institucija državne vlasti Kraljevine Hrvatske, Slavonije i Dalmacije: pravno-povijesne studije. Zagreb, Croatia: Zrinski, 1985.
  246. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  247. (History of the state power organization of the Kingdom of Croatia, Slavonia, and Dalmatia). A summary written for legal historians. It helps reconstruct the middle level of Croatian public administration, but the description of their relationship with the central administrative units is superficial and in many places inaccurate.
  248. Find this resource:
  249. Klaić, Vjekoslav. Povijest Hrvata od nastarijih vremena do svršetka XIX stoljeća. Vols. 4–5. Edited by Trpimir Macan. Zagreb, Croatia: Nakladni zavod Matice hrvatske, 1982.
  250. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  251. (History of the Croats from the origins to the end of the nineteenth century). So far the most wide-ranging summary of the history of Croatian people. It uses plenty of sources, and its information is still reliable. It overemphasizes the independence of the Croatian state, thus its administrative historical conclusions are sometimes wrong.
  252. Find this resource:
  253. Köpeczi, Béla, et al., eds. History of Transylvania. 3 vols. Boulder, CO: Social Sciences Monographs, 2001.
  254. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  255. The part dealing with the Middle Ages is written by László Makkai. General summary of the history of Transylvania that uses a rich collection of scholarly works. A long chapter deals with church and intellectual culture. Romanian historians criticize the work for nationalist political reasons.
  256. Find this resource:
  257. Kubinyi, András. “Erdély a Mohács előtti évtizedekben.” In Tanulmányok Erdély történetéről: Szakmai konferencia, Debrecenben, 1987. Október 9–10. Edited by István Rácz, 65–77. Budapest: Csokonai Kiadó, 1988.
  258. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  259. (Transylvania in the decades before Mohács). A paper from the Studies on the History of Transylvania Professional Conference, Debrecen, 9–10 October 1987. Explains the status of Transylvania within the Kingdom of Hungary, particularly in comparison with Slavonia. The local political elite included Saxons, Székelys, and Hungarians, but the Romanians were not represented among the estates. A main characteristic of the Transylvanian public administration was the wide authority of the voyvode.
  260. Find this resource:
  261. Mályusz, Elemér. “A Magyarság és a nemzetiségek Mohács előtt.” In Magyar művelődéstörténet. Vol. 2, Magyar Renaissance. Edited by Sándor Domanovszky, 105–125. Budapest: MTT, 1940.
  262. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  263. (The Magyars and the nationalities before the Battle of Mohács). The Kingdom of Hungary had many ethnicities within its borders: apart from people of Turkish origin, Romanians, Saxons, Slovaks, Ruthens, Serbs, Croatians, and Slavonians also lived here. The book shows the history of these ethnic groups, and much of its information and conclusions are still reliable.
  264. Find this resource:
  265. Mályusz, Elemér. Az erdélyi magyar társadalom a középkorban. Budapest: MTA TTI, 1988.
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  267. (The Hungarian society in Transylvania in the Middle Ages). Completed in 1947, this is the unabridged and elaborate version of the Transylvanian sections of the original 1940 monograph. Compares Transylvania’s characteristics with those of the Hungarian estates institution. A precise summary of Transylvanian noble society.
  268. Find this resource:
  269. Oborni, Teréz. “From Province to Principality: Continuity and Change in Transylvania in the First Half of the Sixteenth Century.” In Fight against the Turk in Central-Europe in the First Half of the 16th Century. Edited by István Zombori, 165–181. Budapest: METEM, 2004.
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  271. A short description of the development of the Transylvanian state in the late Middle Ages. The territory controlled by the voyvode was part of the Kingdom of Hungary: at that time it was not an independent state. The partly independent Principality of Transylvania formed in the second half of the 16th century as a result of external causes.
  272. Find this resource:
  273. Pálosfalvi, Tamás. “Bajnai Both András és a szlavón bánság (Szlavónia, Európa és a törökök, 1504–1513).” In Honoris causa: Tanulmányok Engel Pál tiszteletére. Edited by Tibor Neumann and György Rácz, 251–301. Budapest: MTA TTI-Pázmány Péter Katolikus Egyetem Bölcsészettudományi Kara, 2009.
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  275. (András Both of Bajna and the Banate of Slavonia [Slavonia, Europe, and the Ottomans, 1504–1513]). The work shows the opportunity for Slavonia’s independent political activity in an international context. It is an analysis based on sources that also deals with public administration and military affairs. It also underscores the fact that independent Slavonian and Croatian kingdoms did not exist in the Middle Ages.
  276. Find this resource:
  277. Varga, Szabolcs. “Az 1527. évi horvát-szlavón kettős királyválasztás története.” Századok 142 (2008): 1075–1135.
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  279. (The history of the double royal election of 1527 in Croatia and Sclavonia). Analyzes the status of Slavonia and Croatia within the Kingdom of Hungary and the relationship between the two provinces. Also shows the developmental peculiarities of the two territories and the early nature of their relationship with the Habsburgs from a new perspective. According to the author, Ferdinand I of Habsburg became the ruler of Croatia as a result of his being the king of Hungary, and therefore an independent Croatian state did not exist.
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Foreign Policy and Military History
  282.  
  283. The relationships with the Ottoman Empire, Italy, and the other kingdoms of central Europe are the most important issues of foreign policy in the period. Fraknói 1902 deals with the relationship between the papal court and the Hungarian kings, Nehring 1989 shows the background of the Austrian campaigns of King Matthias, while Kosáry 1978 reveals the foreign policy of the Jagiellon kings. Rúzsás 1986 and Rázsó 1990 offer a complex picture of the relationship between national defense and diplomacy. Király 2002 provides readers with more modern analyses. Szabó 2009 is the newest military historical explanation of the fall of the medieval Kingdom of Hungary.
  284.  
  285. Fraknói, Vilmos. Magyarország egyházi és politikai összeköttetései a római Szent-Székkel. Vol. 2, 1418–1526. Budapest: SzIT Tudományos és Irodalmi Osztálya, 1902.
  286. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  287. (Hungary’s Ecclesiastical and political relations with the Holy See). The relationship with the papacy was an important factor in medieval diplomacy, and the Hungarian kings had particularly strong connections with the Holy See. The popes often interfered in Hungarian internal fights, and they also helped with the organization of the defense against the Turks. The book deals with these issues, but it is difficult to read, as the author often gets lost in the details.
  288. Find this resource:
  289. Király, Béla K., and László Veszprémy, eds. A Millennium of Hungarian Military History. Boulder, CO: Social Sciences Monographs, 2002.
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  291. Shows the logistic background of the campaigns and the difficulties of mobilizing the Hungarian Army. Also deals with the costs of national defense and emphasizes the fact that Hungarian resources were not enough to fight the rising Ottoman Empire.
  292. Find this resource:
  293. Kosáry, Domokos. Magyar külpolitika Mohács előtt. Budapest: Magvető Könyvkiadó, 1978.
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  295. (Hungarian foreign policy before the Battle of Mohács). One of the few works dealing with modern diplomatic history. It reveals the deterioration of the international conditions in the Jagiellon era, the change in the interest of the Ottoman politics, and the central European impact of the Habsburg-Valois conflict.
  296. Find this resource:
  297. Nehring, Karl. Matthias Corvinus, Kaiser Friedrich III, und das Reich: Zum hunyadisch-habsburgischen Gegensatz im Donauraum. 2d ed. Munich: Oldenbourg, 1989.
  298. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  299. One of the most important foreign political aims of King Matthias was to form a central European empire following the conquest of Austria and Bohemia and obtain the title of Holy Roman emperor. Thus, he wanted to establish peace with the Ottoman Empire, and he even cooperated with the empire on certain matters. Nehring effectively fleshes out this complicated situation.
  300. Find this resource:
  301. Rázsó, Gyula, and László V. Molnár, eds. Emlékkönyv Mátyás király halálának 500. Évfordulójára. Budapest: Zrínyi Kiadó, 1990.
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  303. (A book in honor of the 500th anniversary of King Matthias’s death). Of these nine studies, three deal with foreign policy. Gyula Rázsó reveals the Turkish connections and Matthias’s defensive efforts along the southern border. Josef Macek shows the stages of the struggle for the Czech royal title, while Zsuzsa Teke analyzes the relationship between Matthias and the Italian city-states. Will help readers to understand Matthias’s diplomatic aims.
  304. Find this resource:
  305. Rúzsás, Lajos, and Ferenc Szakály, eds. Mohács: Tanulmányok a mohácsi csata 450. évfordulója alkalmából. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1986.
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  307. (Mohács: Studies commemorating the 450th anniversary of the Battle of Mohács). The eleven studies in this volume deal with the foreign policy and military history. They reveal the late medieval phases of the Turkish-Hungarian wars, the strengthening of the Ottoman Army, and the role of the Habsburgs in the defense of the area before 1526. Readers learn about the interrelation between the Persian and the European theaters of war and the course of the Battle of Mohács. The conclusions of the articles form the basis of modern syntheses.
  308. Find this resource:
  309. Szabó, János B., and Ferenc Tóth Mohács 1526. Soliman le Magnifique prend pied en Europe centrale. Paris: Economica, 2009.
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  311. A detailed analysis of the campaign of 1526 and a presentation of all the most updated related scholarly works. It acquits the Hungarian military leadership of the responsibility for the defeat. It almost neglects the relationship between national defense and economy but reveals the military characteristics of the period.
  312. Find this resource:
  313. Economy and Society
  314.  
  315. Relatively few works deal with the history of late medieval economy and society apart from the history of the elite. The lower social layers started to draw the historians’ attention only in the 1930s. The results of the research started at that time are shown in Szabó 1975 and Fügedi 1986. For the literate Hungarian intellectuals, see Bónis 1971. Kubinyi 1998 offers an in-depth analysis of some important issues and a summary of the research results. Rady 2000 deals with the structure of the Hungarian noble society, while Neumann 2003 attempts to find answers for the crisis phenomena of the Hungarian economy. One of these answers is the stagnation of the population, clearly seen in tax lists, as Kubinyi 2001 claims. Draskóczy 2000 places the issue within an international context.
  316.  
  317. Bónis, György. A jogtudó értelmiség a Mohács előtti Magyarországon Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1971.
  318. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  319. (Intellectuals trained in law in Hungary before Mohács). There are few sources on Hungarian literacy; thus, it is difficult to reconstruct the groups of learned intellectuals. Bónis identifies the church and lay intellectuals trained in law who worked in public administration. Many of them did not attend universities but rather studied in Hungarian schools.
  320. Find this resource:
  321. Draskóczy, István. A tizenötödik század története. Budapest: Pannonica Kiadó, 2000.
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  323. A university textbook dealing with the entire 15th century. Its chapters on economy and society are rather informative. Due to the research field of the author, the book also covers Hungarian salt and precious metals mining and trade.
  324. Find this resource:
  325. Fügedi, Erik. Kings, Bishops, Nobles and Burghers in Medieval Hungary. Edited by J. M. Bak. London: Variorum Reprints, 1986.
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  327. Contains writings dealing with the history of the Hungarian elite, the middle nobility, and the burghers. The aristocrats were also involved in the leading of the country, and thus the careers of certain families can be useful in analyzing social mobility. The book makes obvious that there is a correlation between urbanization and the appearance of mendicant orders in Hungary, and that the burghers had a strong relationship with noble society.
  328. Find this resource:
  329. Kubinyi, András. König und Volk im spätmittelalterlichen Ungarn: Städteentwicklung, Alltagsleben und Regierung im mittelalterlichen Königreich Ungarn. Herne, Germany: Verlag Tibor Schäfer, 1998.
  330. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  331. Helps readers to acquaint themselves with the participants of the central administration as well as the significant members of the ecclesiastical society. The chapters on Hungarian urbanization are particularly important. The author considers market towns with village status as the major driving force of Hungarian social and economic development. The work also reveals that the Hungarian political crisis arising at the end of the Middle Ages intensified the already existing economic and social crisis.
  332. Find this resource:
  333. Kubinyi, András. “A késő középkori Magyarország történeti demográfiai problémái.” In Történeti Demográfiai Évkönyv. Edited by Tamás Faragó and Péter Őri, 105–119. Budapest: KSH, 2001.
  334. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  335. (Historical demographic problems of late medieval Hungary). A fundamental issue of medieval Hungarian social history is the exact population. As there are not any exact sources, the estimates vary between 2.3 and 4 million. Kubinyi thinks the number of the population was 3.3 million, and this study supports his view.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. Neumann, Tibor. “Telekpusztásodás a késő középkori Magyarországon” Századok 137 (2003/4): 849–884.
  338. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  339. (Heathing in late medieval Hungary). Heathing in Hungary started in the second half of the 15th century. As a result of the increasing tax burdens, families often shared a single household, and the lands of the deserted villages were used for animal tending. This change led to the decrease of tax bases and royal revenue, and the expansion of the Hungarian peasants also stopped. This led to social and economic crisis.
  340. Find this resource:
  341. Rady, Martyn. Nobility, Land and Service in Medieval Hungary. Basingstoke, UK, and New York: Palgrave, 2000.
  342. DOI: 10.1057/9780333985342Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  343. This book analyzes the composition, financial status, and the retainer relationship of the county nobility participating in the diets. As they formed the body of the estates institution, they constituted one of the most important social groups threatened by the economic crisis at the end of the period. Published in association with SSEES, University College London.
  344. Find this resource:
  345. Szabó, István. A magyar mezőgazdaság története a XIV. Századtól az 1530-as évekig. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1975.
  346. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  347. (History of Hungarian agriculture from the 14th century to the 1530s). The majority of the population of the Kingdom of Hungary was villein and worked in agriculture. The monograph deals with the space structure and operation of Hungarian villages, such as the relationship of the communities with the land. One of the most important activities is wine making, which leads to capital production and the formation of a rich civic-peasant layer that adopted different intellectual trends.
  348. Find this resource:
  349. The Church and Intellectual Culture
  350.  
  351. Pásztor 1940 was the first Hungarian church historian to show the existence of zealous social religiousness in the Kingdom of Hungary at the end of the Middle Ages. Szűcs 1974 also supports this idea when showing the spiritual influence of Observantist Franciscans on peasant movements. Andrić 2000 shows folk religiousness with the help of the cult of John of Capistrano. Using abundant sources, Mályusz 1971 reveals the socialization, self-image, and tasks of the ecclesiastical society. His work was further complemented by Köblös 1994, which investigates the clergy of four chapters. Kubinyi 1999 gives some examples of aristocratic religiousness, analyzes the careers of high priests, and broadens our knowledge on everyday religiousness. Kovács and Szovák 2009 investigates the careers of late medieval humanists from the aspect of intellectual culture. Török 2006 is an excellent overview on church organization, liturgy, and the history of religiousness. Good for university students.
  352.  
  353. Andrić, Stanko. The Miracles of St. John Capistran. Budapest: Central European University Press, 2000.
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  355. John of Capistrano was one of the most popular Franciscans of his age. He participated in the defense of Belgrade in 1456, and following his death he was buried in Ilok on the bank of the Danube. Several miraculous healings happened at his grave, which were listed during the process of his canonization. The author analyzes these reports from a social and social-psychological perspective, and from the point of view of the history of religious orders.
  356. Find this resource:
  357. Köblös, József. Az egyházi középréteg Mátyás és a Jagellók korában: A budai, fehérvári, győri és pozsonyi káptalan adattárával. Budapest: MTA TTI, 1994.
  358. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  359. (The middle layers of ecclesiastical society during the time of King Mathias Corvinus and the Jagiellos: With the database of the chapters of Buda, Székesfehérvár, Győr, and Pozsony). The members of the chapters formed the spiritual elite of the medieval society. Köblös investigates the members of the four most important chapters, compiles an archontology, analyzes their careers, and shows their most important stages.
  360. Find this resource:
  361. Kovács, E. Péter, and Kornél Szovák, eds. Infima Aetas Pannonica: Studies in Late Medieval Hungarian History. Budapest: Corvina, 2009.
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  363. A collection of thirteen studies dealing with late medieval Hungarian intellectual culture. It includes works on Franciscan and Pauline writers, the famous library (Corvina) of King Matthias, and the libraries of certain dioceses. The book does not provide the readers with a comprehensive picture of Hungarian intellectual culture but offers several case studies.
  364. Find this resource:
  365. Kubinyi, András. Főpapok, egyházi intézmények és vallásosság a középkori Magyarországon. Budapest: METEM, 1999.
  366. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  367. (High priests, church institutions and religiosity in medieval Hungary). Twenty-two studies deal with the relationship between the church and the state, the significant members of the clergy, church institutions, and late medieval religiosity. The bishops’ residences and other church institutions influenced urban development. Relating to the appointment of the priests, Kubinyi proves that the principle of cuius region eius religio was not applied in Hungary, as the patrons let the communities choose their priests.
  368. Find this resource:
  369. Mályusz, Elemér. Egyházi társadalom a középkori Magyarországon Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1971.
  370. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  371. (Ecclesiastical society in medieval Hungary). The author identifies the different groups of Hungarian clergy and those of intellectuals. The work also charts the changes in intellectual life, careers, and self-image in the 14th–16th centuries. It proves convincingly that one cannot speak about the secularization of the clergy, but that personal religiousness became the basis of the Reformation.
  372. Find this resource:
  373. Pásztor, Lajos. A magyarság vallásos élete a Jagellók korában. Budapest: Királyi Magyar Egyetemi Nyomda, 1940.
  374. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  375. (Hungarian religious life in the Jagiellon era). Late medieval religious life is shown in the mirror of shrines, pilgrimages, religious foundations, and fraternities. In compliance with European trends, personal religiousness spread in Hungary, which was controlled by the Observantist Franciscans. The results of the work can hardly be found in any scholarly works, as the book was banned in the Communist era.
  376. Find this resource:
  377. Szűcs, Jenő. “Ferences ellenzéki áramlat a magyar parasztháború és a reformáció hátterében.” Irodalomtörténeti Közlemények 78 (1974): 409–435.
  378. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  379. (The Franciscan oppositonist current in the background of Peasant War and the Reformation). The Peasant War in 1514 was not a movement of the poor. Szűcs proves that the richest civic-peasants formed the spine of the peasant army, and their spiritual leaders were Observantist Franciscans preaching strong social criticism.
  380. Find this resource:
  381. Török, József. A tizenötödik század magyar egyháztörténete. Budapest: Mikes Kiadó és Tanácsadó KFT, 2006.
  382. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  383. (Ecclesiastical history of Hungary in the fifteenth century). An important work that fills a gap in scholarship, mainly for university students studying church history. It offers an overall picture of the 15th century, the religious orders, and their role in education. It is not really thorough, but it analyzes the late medieval Christian Church comprehensively, from a Catholic perspective.
  384. Find this resource:
  385. Primary Sources
  386.  
  387. The most significant source publications were issued in the 19th century. Among these one can find charters (Kukuljević 1862), diaries (Sanudo 1879–1903), and envoy reports (Fraknói 1884). In the 20th century, scholars aimed at better text publication regarding charters (Döry, et al. 1898) and literary works (Olahus 1938). Bak, et al. 2005 enables an international audience to learn about the most important Hungarian legal historical source.
  388.  
  389. Bak, János M., Péter Banyó, and Martyn Rady, eds. The Customary Law of the Renowned Kingdom of Hungary: A Work in Three Parts Rendered by Stephen Werbőczy (The “Tripartitum”). Idyllwild, CA: Charles Schacks Jr., 2005.
  390. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  391. The work, originally published in 1517, is a collection of the formerly existing customary laws. Offers insight into the legal background of public administration and the legal privileges of the society. The collection was valid until 1848. The book has gone through many editions, and it has a Hungarian edition as well. It is the basis of all legal historical works.
  392. Find this resource:
  393. Döry, Franciscus, György Bónis, Géza Érszegi, and Zsuzsa Teke, eds. Decreta regni Hungariae: Gesetze und Verordnungen Ungarns 1458–1490. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1989.
  394. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  395. A critical publication of the acts and regulations introduced under the reign of King Matthias I. It is useful for the researchers of Hungarian administration, state structure, and estates institutions.
  396. Find this resource:
  397. Fraknói, Vilmos, ed. Monumenta Vaticana historiam regni Hungariae illustrantia. Ser. 2, Vol. 1, Relationes oratorum pontificorum 1524–1526. Budapest: Franklin, 1884.
  398. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  399. The reports of the papal envoy staying in Buda on the Hungarian conditions. The court intricacies are detailed, but there are plenty of claims that cannot be justified. As a result of his criticism of the royal court, the Hungarian royal power is weaker in the description than in reality.
  400. Find this resource:
  401. Kukuljević, Joannes, ed. Jura regni Croatiae, Dalmatiae et Slavoniae. 2 vols. Zagreb, Croatia: Typis dris. Ludovici Gaj, 1862.
  402. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  403. A collection of the privileges of medieval Dalmatia, Croatia, and Slavonia. Serves as an informational foundation that forms the basis of the works of later generations. The text is reliable, but the selection is not complete. Useful when used with other sources.
  404. Find this resource:
  405. Olahus, Nicolaus. Hungaria: Athila. Edited by Colomannus Eperjessy, and Ladislaus Juhász. Budapest: K. M. Egyetemi Nyomda, 1938.
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  407. The work of the humanist high priest is the description of Hungary in the Jagiellon era. Olahus wrote it in the Low Countries. It is primarily a literary work, but the author, as an eyewitness, offers precise characterizations. Contains important information concerning the characterization of certain towns and regions as well as agricultural production.
  408. Find this resource:
  409. Sanudo, Marino. I diarii di Marino Sanuto. Edited by Rinaldo Fulin, Federico Stefani, Nicolo Barozzi, Guglielmo Berchet, and Marco Allegri. 58 vols. Venice: F. Visentini, for the Deputazione veneta di storia patria, 1879–1903.
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  411. Due to the vivid diplomatic connections between Venice and Buda, there is plenty of information relating to Hungary in this diary that was also published in Hungarian professional journals. The diary offers an insight into the history of central Europe and that of the Mediterranean at the beginning of the 16th century.
  412. Find this resource:
  413. The Age of the Ottoman Domination (1526–1606)
  414.  
  415. The era of the Reformation boasts a wide body of scholarly literature, and the majority of the works focus on the events of the war against the Ottomans. Of the early works, Salamon 1887 was ahead of its time, as it characterized the Ottoman system rather precisely. Acsády 1897 investigates the era from the aspect of national independence and disapproves of Habsburg measures. The two long syntheses written in the 20th century (Hóman and Szekfű 1935, cited under Single- or Dual-Authored Works, and Pach 1985, under Collections of Studies) pay much attention to the era, but the former is biased against the Habsburgs, and the latter is difficult to use due to its faulty structure. The most reliable book at the time is Bárdossy 1943. Several monographs have been published since 1990. Ágoston 1992 is the shortest, and Pálffy 2000 is a didactic work with a logical structure. Szentpétery 1999 is a collection of more extensive studies, and Fazekas 2001 covers Hungarian history within the empire. Winkelbauer 2003 also deals with the relationship between the Hungarian estates and the court within the history of the Habsburg monarchy.
  416.  
  417. Acsády, Ignácz. Magyarország három részre oszlásának története, 1526–1608. Budapest: Athenaeum Irodalmi és Nyomdai Részvénytársulat, 1897.
  418. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  419. The author regards the 16th century as the age of the loss of Hungarian independence. He considers the Habsburg system to be harmful, and because of the author’s anti-German sentiment, the book focuses on royal Hungary. Offers plenty of good information, but its opinions are old fashioned.
  420. Find this resource:
  421. Ágoston, Gábor. A hódolt Magyarország. Budapest: ADAMS Kiadó, 1992.
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  423. (Hungary under Ottoman rule). This short political historical overview concentrates on the course of the Ottoman conquest. It summarizes briefly the changes in the life of the civil population and touches upon the presence of the Muslim culture in Hungary.
  424. Find this resource:
  425. Bárdossy, László. Magyar politika a mohácsi vész után. Budapest: Királyi Magyar Egyetemi Nyomda, 1943.
  426. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  427. (Hungarian politics after the disaster at Mohács). This is a study of the period between 1526 and 1551, written mainly on the basis of diplomatic documents. It reveals the Hungarian impacts of the French, Spanish, Ottoman, and Venetian foreign political aims and proves that the region moved on a forced path, between the politics of the two world powers.
  428. Find this resource:
  429. Fazekas, István, and Gábor Ujváry, eds. Kaiser und König. Eine historische Reise: Österreich und Ungarn 1526–1918. Ausstellung im Prunksaal der Österreichischen Nationalbibliothek. 08. März – 01. Mai 2001. Budapest: Collegium Hungaricum, 2001.
  430. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  431. This catalog explains the role of the Kingdom of Hungary within the Habsburg monarchy. Treats the Habsburgs’ Hungarian politics in a wider context and emphasizes the international nature of the royal court.
  432. Find this resource:
  433. Pálffy, Géza. A tizenhatodik század története. Budapest: Pannonica Kiadó, 2000.
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  435. (History of sixteenth-century Hungary). Written for university students, this book covers the rise of the Habsburg and Ottoman administrations, as well as the secession of Transylvania. Also mentions the spread of the Reformation and the attendant ethnic changes.
  436. Find this resource:
  437. Salamon, Franz. Ungarn im Zeitalter der Türkenherrschaft. Leipzig: H. Haessel, 1887.
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  439. The work looks at the era as it was affected by the changes in public administration. It deals with the Ottoman system thoroughly, but Transylvania and royal Hungary slip into the background. Its conclusions are still accepted as relevant.
  440. Find this resource:
  441. Szentpétery, József, ed. Cross and Crescent: The Turkish Age in Hungary (1526–1699). Budapest: Enciklopédia Humana Egyesület, 1999.
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  443. These studies cover the most important issues of 16th- and 17th-century Hungarian history. The work deals with all the three parts of the country in detail and mostly concentrates on social history and intellectual culture. Available on CD-ROM.
  444. Find this resource:
  445. Winkelbauer, Thomas. Ständefreiheit und Fürstenmacht: Länder und Untertanen des Hauses Habsburg im konfessionellen Zeitalter. 2 vols. Vienna: Ueberreuter, 2003.
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  447. The intertwining of the power of the estates and that of the king took place similarly in all the provinces of the Habsburg Empire. The Hungarian political elite also had a word in imperial decision making, and the Hungarian nobility also took part in the control of royal Hungary.
  448. Find this resource:
  449. The Course of the Conquest
  450.  
  451. Contrary to the ample body of scholarly literature, there does not exist a monograph on the course of the conquest. Szántó 1980 collects data, while Kruhek 1995 shows the military events of the territories south of the River Drava. Pálffy 1999 reveals the history of one of the administrative units of the Habsburg defense system, but summaries of the other units have not been written yet. Perjés 1989 offers a peculiar theory on the causes of the Ottoman conquest, while Korpás 2008 shows the international context through the Hungarian politics of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. Finkel 1988 reveals the events of the Long War closing this period. Nagy 1961 offers an insight into the rising led by Transylvanian prince István Bocskai. Dávid and Fodor 2000 is a modern collection of studies on the operation of border defense and the connection between war and society.
  452.  
  453. Dávid, Géza, and Pál Fodor, eds. Ottomans, Hungarians, and Habsburgs in Central Europe: The Military Confines in the Era of the Ottoman Conquest. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 2000.
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  455. Reveals the construction and operation of the Christian and Ottoman border fortress system. Touches upon the financial background of the war and its impact on society. It offers a complete picture of the events of the 16th century.
  456. Find this resource:
  457. Finkel, Caroline. The Administration of Warfare: The Ottoman Military Campaigns in Hungary, 1593–1606. Vienna: Verband der wissenschaftlichen Gesellschaften Österreichs, 1988.
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  459. The Long War was the first modern war in the Carpathian Basin where logistics and supply were important issues. It influenced the development of military and central administration. Unfortunately, the work does not deal with the years before 1593, although the campaigns started earlier.
  460. Find this resource:
  461. Korpás, Zoltán. V. Károly és Magyarország (1526–1538). Budapest: Századvég Kiadó, 2008.
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  463. (Emperor Charles V and Hungary, 1526–1538). For Charles V, the Carpathian Basin was a secondary theater of war, and apart from the campaign in 1532, he hardly helped his brother, Ferdinand I. As Charles V did not help his brother, the Ottoman Empire could conquer more land in the region.
  464. Find this resource:
  465. Kruhek, Milan. Krajiške utvdre i obrana Hrvatskog kraljevstva tijekom 16. stoljeća. Zagreb, Croatia: Institut za suvremenu povijest, 1995.
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  467. (Border fortresses and defense of the Croatian Kingdom in the 16th century). A precise monograph on the military operations of the border area south of the Drava. Touches upon the issues of the supply of the castles and the control and the development of military technology.
  468. Find this resource:
  469. Nagy, László. A Bocskai szabadságharc katonai története. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1961.
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  471. (The military history of the war of independence of István Bocskai). The Habsburg treasury was empty by the end of the Long War, and thus the government asked further favors of the Hungarian nobility. Transylvanian prince István Bocskai managed to get the support of those discontented with the situation and invaded royal Hungary when the military operations had been launched against the Ottomans. The uprising brought a quick end to the Long War. This book contains the history of the war of independence.
  472. Find this resource:
  473. Pálffy, Géza. A császárváros védelmében: A győri főkapitányság története 1526–1598. Győr, Hungary: Győr-Moson-Sopron Megye Győri Levéltára, 1999.
  474. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  475. (In the defense of the Imperial City: History of the border defense system around Győr against the Ottomans, 1526–1598). Shows the construction and the operation of the most important Hungarian border defense system, the one defending Vienna, using archival sources. Though Germans dominated its control, the Hungarian estates also had an important role in its maintenance. The conquest of Transdanubia can be reconstructed precisely on the basis of the work.
  476. Find this resource:
  477. Perjés, Géza. The Fall of the Medieval Kingdom of Hungary: Mohács 1526–Buda 1541. Boulder, CO: Social Sciences Monographs, 1989.
  478. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  479. In this veteran writer’s opinion, Süleyman I did not want to occupy Hungary, as he realized he could not pacify it because of its distance from Istanbul. However, it is now obvious that the Ottoman political decisions were brought about for different reasons (see Fodor 2000, under Ottoman Hungary). However, Perjés reconstructs the events of the first fifteen years accurately.
  480. Find this resource:
  481. Szántó, Imre. A végvári rendszer kiépítése és fénykora Magyarországon 1541–1593. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1980.
  482. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  483. (The development and zenith of the border fortress system in Hungary, 1541–1593). The author writes the history of the castle wars on the basis of the most important scholarly literature. The events are not interpreted thoroughly, and sometimes there are errors of fact. However, the work fills a gap. Should be used with caution, however.
  484. Find this resource:
  485. The Habsburg Administration in the Kingdom of Hungary
  486.  
  487. There were two important novelties in the 16th-century history of the Kingdom of Hungary. While two-thirds of the territory of the country was lost, in the remaining part the royal court sitting abroad began modernizing with the participation of the Hungarian nobility. It was not a rapid change; rather, the medieval structure changed slowly. Ember 1946 charts the slow development of public administration. Fuchs, et al. 2005 focuses on the system created by Ferdinand I. For the changes in military leadership, see Pálffy 2001; and for the reorganization of financial administration, read Edelmayer, et al. 2003 and Rauscher 2004. Gecsényi 2003 explores the Hungarian official elite. Habsburg rulers preserved Hungarian traditions even in the field of representation, as Pálffy 2007 explains while considering the coronations. At the end of the 16th century, Rudolph II wanted to change his relationship with the Hungarian nobles, as Vocelka 1985 describes.
  488.  
  489. Edelmayer, Friedrich, Maximilian Lanzinner, and Peter Rauscher, eds. Finanzen und Herrschaft: Materielle Grundlagen fürstlicher Politik in den habsburgischen Ländern und im Heiligen Römischen Reich im 16. Jahrhundert. Munich and Vienna: Oldenbourg, 2003.
  490. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  491. Investigates the tax income of the provinces of the 16th-century Habsburg Empire and reveals the composition of the expenditure. It is obvious that royal Hungary provided the treasury with significant income, and the labor of the people living here was inevitable in acquiring this income. The book is very useful for its broad perspective.
  492. Find this resource:
  493. Ember, Győző. Az újkori magyar közigazgatás története Mohácstól a török kiűzéséig. Budapest: MOL, 1946.
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  495. (History of the Hungarian administration in the modern period, from the Battle of Mohács until the expulsion of the Turks from Hungary). A basic work on Hungarian public administration. Discusses the fields of administration from the central governmental institutions to the county level. It also touches upon the privileged communities and areas. However, its main value is its demonstration of the joint control of the estates and the ruler.
  496. Find this resource:
  497. Fuchs, Martina, Teréz Oborni, and Gábor Ujváry, eds. Kaiser Ferdinand I: Ein mitteleuropäischer Herrscher. Münster, Germany: Aschendorff, 2005.
  498. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  499. A collection of studies offering works on Ferdinand I’s central reforms, the integration of the Hungarian nobility in Vienna, and the conceptions of Transylvania. Invites comparison with the Czech and Austrian examples.
  500. Find this resource:
  501. Gecsényi, Lajos. “A döntést előkészítő hivatalnoki elit összetételéről: A Magyar Kamara vezetői és magyar tanácsosai a 16. században.” In Magyar évszázadok: Tanulmányok Kosáry Domokos 90. születésnapjára. Edited by Mária Ormos, 100–113. Budapest: Osiris Kiadó, 2003.
  502. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  503. (The composition of the decision making administrative elite: The leaders and counselors of the Hungarian Chamber in the 16th century). The Hungarian Chamber sitting in Bratislava was the center of the Hungarian financial administration. It maintained its role as the representative of Hungarian interests all through the period, while it operated as executive of royal power. People working here became members of the Hungarian administrative elite and played an important role in preparing the country for modernization.
  504. Find this resource:
  505. Pálffy, Géza, ed. Gemeinsam gegen die Osmanen: Ausbau und Funktion der Grenzfestungen in Ungarn im 16. und 17. Jahrhundert: Katalog der Ausstellung im Österreichischen Staatsarchiv 14. März–31. Mai 2001. Budapest: Collegium Hungaricum Wien, 2001.
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  507. The most important task of the 16th-century Habsburg administration was the building up of an effective border defense system against the Ottoman Empire. The leadership successfully overcame this problem and created a system thousands of kilometers long in Hungary. Pálffy presents its formation and structure and proves that the Hungarian estates could have a say in how things were operated.
  508. Find this resource:
  509. Pálffy, Géza. “Krönungsmähler in Ungarn im Spätmittelalter und in der Frühen Neuzeit: Weiterleben des Tafelzeremoniells des selbständigen ungarischen Königshofes und Machtrepräsentation der ungarischen politischen Elite. Teil 1.” Mitteilungen des Instituts für Österreichische Geschichtsforschung 115 (2007): 85–111.
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  511. Covers the survival of the medieval Hungarian royal ceremonies in the early modern age. Proves that the Habsburg rulers attempted to preserve Hungarian traditions and that the Hungarian royal title had a favored place in their titulature. The second part of the article is published in MIÖG 116 (2008): 60–91.
  512. Find this resource:
  513. Rauscher, Peter. Zwischen Ständen und Gläubigern: Die kaiserlichen Finanzen unter Ferdinand I. und Maximilian II. (1556–1576). Munich and Vienna: Oldenbourg, 2004.
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  515. After they had been challenged militarily, the Habsburg rulers attempted to make their institutions, like their financial administration, more effective. This was the basis of a successful defense policy and the modernization of public administration. The reform was successful in the Austrian provinces, where the nobility continuously lost its influence against the strengthening royal power. Due to the vicinity of the front, the Hungarian estates preserved their positions.
  516. Find this resource:
  517. Vocelka, Karl. Rudolf II: Und seine Zeit. Vienna: Böhlau, 1985.
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  519. A monographic work on the ambivalent reign of Rudolpf II of Habsburg. Analyzes the deeds of the deeply Catholic ruler from an Austrian and Czech point of view. Rudolph II lived for the expulsion of the Ottomans from the Carpathian Basin. However, his instruments were inadequate, and his fall was inevitable. The Hungarian estates also had an important role, but the book largely neglects this fact.
  520. Find this resource:
  521. Croatia, Slavonia, and Transylvania
  522.  
  523. The provinces (Slavonia and Transylvania) and the partner state (Croatia) of the Kingdom of Hungary developed differently in the era of the Reformation. The territories of Croatia and Slavonia almost collapsed, and they had a common internal public administration; for more on this, see Guldescu 1970. Their military defense and military administration were controlled from Vienna; for more on this topic see Rothenberg 1960. Pálffy 2002 studies their relationship with the Kingdom of Hungary. For society, economy, and intellectual culture, see Budak 2008. Transylvania eventually became an independent state, and Barta 1979 reveals the stages of its formation, while Feneşan 1997 looks at it from a Romanian perspective. However, its territory changed constantly (see Lukinich 1918). Arens 2001 looks at the relationship between Transylvania and the Habsburg dynasty.
  524.  
  525. Arens, Meinolf. Habsburg und Siebenbürgen 1600–1605: Gewaltsame Eingliederungsversuche eines ostmitteleuropäischen Fürstentums in einen frühabsolutistischen Reichsverband. Cologne: Böhlau, 2001.
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  527. Following a short overview, the book analyzes the causes of the Habsburg-Transylvanian conflict arising at the end of the Long War. Uses archival sources and international scholarly literature. Publishes the most important sources at the end of the book. Unfortunately, the book’s maps are inaccurate.
  528. Find this resource:
  529. Barta, Gábor. Az erdélyi fejedelemség születése Budapest: Gondolat Kiadó, 1979.
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  531. (The making of the principality of Transylvania). Follows the formation of the principality of Transylvania, born as a result of political chance. As an example of popular literature, it does not contain accurate citations, but there is a short bibliography. A well-balanced work.
  532. Find this resource:
  533. Budak, Neven. Hrvatska i Slavonija u ranom novom vijeku. Zagreb, Croatia: Leykam International, 2008.
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  535. (Croatia and Slavonia in the early modern age). A monograph showing the administration and everyday life of the South Slav provinces in the 16th century. Although the part on public administration is sometimes inaccurate, the chapters on economic and social history are very useful.
  536. Find this resource:
  537. Feneşan, Cristina. Constituirea principatului autonom al Transilvaniei. Bucharest, Romania: Editura Enciclopedică, 1997.
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  539. (The making of the independent principality of Transylvania). Treats the 16th-century history of Transylvania on the basis of archival sources. Mostly reliable but overemphasizes the similarities with the neighboring Romanian principalities.
  540. Find this resource:
  541. Guldescu, Stanko. The Croatian-Slavonian Kingdom, 1526–1792. The Hague: Mouton, 1970.
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  543. Offers a general picture of the history of the two provinces. Information is reliable, but the book is a bit superficial. It does not chart the course of state development and considers the province as a unified nation-state.
  544. Find this resource:
  545. Lukinich, Imre. Erdély területi változásai a török hódítás korában 1541–1711. Budapest: MTA, 1918.
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  547. (Territorial changes of Transylvania in the age of Turkish expansion, 1541–1711). The territory of the Principality of Transylvania extended over a part of eastern Hungary called Pertium. As a result of the Ottoman invasion, some of its southern areas, such as Timişoara and its environs, were lost in the 16th century, but it could enlarge its territory in the northwest at the cost of royal Hungary. The book offers reliable maps and data that clearly show the territorial changes.
  548. Find this resource:
  549. Pálffy, Géza. “Horvátország és Szlavónia a XVI-XVII. századi magyar királyságban.” Fons (Forráskutatás és Történeti Segédtudományok) 9 (2002): 107–121.
  550. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  551. (Croatia and Slavonia within the 16th–17th-century Kingdom of Hungary). This study explains the role of Croatia and Slavonia within the Kingdom of Hungary, the forms of relations, and the mechanism of central administration on the basis of new sources. Despite their wide autonomy, the two provinces were part of the Kingdom of Hungary in the era of the Reformation, and they had a special relationship with the central Hungarian institutions and the Hungarian Parliament.
  552. Find this resource:
  553. Rothenberg, Gunther Erich. The Austrian Military Border in Croatia, 1522–1747. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1960.
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  555. Ferdinand I of Habsburg offered constant military aid for Croatia and Slavonia from 1522. Many local nobles served as his troops, who had stronger and stronger connections with the Austrian provinces. The author shows the numbers and salaries of soldiers serving in this territory, using central sources. However, the book neglects the use of local resources.
  556. Find this resource:
  557. Primary Sources
  558.  
  559. Of the sources of the period, Gévay 1840–1842 is the earliest diplomatic document. Its continuation is Nehring 1995. Takáts, et al. 1915 and Bayerle 1972 publish the correspondences of the Pashas of Buda, who were considered the military leaders of Ottoman Hungary. These are great sources relating to the everyday military connections and the course of the conquest. Thury 1893–1896 is a collection of the Ottoman narrative sources. Pálffy 1995 is a study on the maintenance costs of the border defense system. The most useful sources on the relationship between the Habsburgs and the princes of Transylvania are the contracts between the two parties (see Gooss 1911). Šišić 1912–1918 is indispensable for the South Slav changes, as it contains the documents of the Croatian and Slavonian provincial assemblies.
  560.  
  561. Bayerle, Gustav. Ottoman Diplomacy in Hungary: Letters from the Pashas of Buda (1590–1593). Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1972.
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  563. The continuation of Takáts’s work (Takáts, et al. 1915), which reveals the local preliminaries of the Long War. The Christian military successes triggered the attack of the Ottoman Empire trying to overcome internal problems, which caused intense suffering for the civil population.
  564. Find this resource:
  565. Gévay, Anton von. Urkunden und Actenstücke zur Geschichte der Verhältnisse zwischen Österreich, Ungern und der Pforte im XVI. und XVII. Jahrhunderte: Aus Archiven und Bibliotheken: Gesandtschaften König Ferdinands I. an Sultan Suleiman I. 3 vols. Vienna: Schaumberg, 1840–1842.
  566. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  567. Contains the diplomatic documents written from 1526 to 1541. Offers information on all the important issues of the period, and is also useful for the relationship between the Habsburg brothers and an understanding of Venetian and French foreign policy.
  568. Find this resource:
  569. Gooss, Roderich. Österreichische Staatsverträge: Fürstentum Siebenbürgen (1526–1690). Vienna: Adolf Holzhausan, 1911.
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  571. A collection of agreements between the principality of Transylvania and the Habsburg monarchy. It is extremely useful for those interested in central European foreign policy. The smaller shifts in the Habsburg-Ottoman connections can also be learned from this book.
  572. Find this resource:
  573. Nehring, Karl, et al., eds. Austro-Turcica 1541–1552: Diplomatische Akten des habsburgischen Gesandtschaftsverkehrs mit der Hohen Pforte im Zeitalter Süleymans des Prächtigen. Munich: Oldenbourg, 1995.
  574. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  575. The continuation of Gévay 1840–1842. Contains the reports of the diplomatic missions between Vienna and the Porte. Offers important information on diplomatic and military history and explains the motivation of certain decision-making lobbies.
  576. Find this resource:
  577. Pálffy, Géza. “A magyarországi és délvidéki végvárrendszer 1576. és 1582. évi jegyzékei.” Hadtörténelmi Közlemények 108 (1995): 114–185.
  578. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  579. (The registers of the Hungarian and Croatian-Slavonian border fortresses of 1576 and 1582). Relates that there was a strong relationship between military and financial administration, and a successful defense depended on the amount of resources available. The Court Council of War managed to survey the necessities and costs of the maintenance of the Hungarian border fortress system successfully, and tried to plan an effective defense.
  580. Find this resource:
  581. Šišić, Ferdo. Hrvatski saborski spisi/Acta comitialia regni Croatiae, Dalmatiae et Slavoniae. 5 vols. Zagreb, Croatia: Dionička tiskara, 1912–1918.
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  583. A collection of the documents of the assemblies held by the fusion of Croatian and Slavonian estates, 1526–1630. It is useful for issues of public administration, the stratification of the noble society, and the change in the relationship with the Habsburg rulers and the Hungarian Parliament. Also useful for those interested in military history.
  584. Find this resource:
  585. Takáts, Sándor, and Ferencz Eckhart and Gyula Szekfű, eds. A budai basák magyar nyelvű levelezése, I: 1553–1589. Budapest: Franklin, 1915.
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  587. (The Hungarian correspondence of the Pashas of Buda, Volume 1: 1553–1589). A useful collection of sources for everyday life in the border castles, the trade in prisoners and weapons, and the taxation and the operation of communications networks. Looks at the careers of Christian and Ottoman soldiers and the survival strategy of those living in the conquered areas.
  588. Find this resource:
  589. Thury, József: Török történetírók. 2 vols. Budapest: MTA, 1893–1896.
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  591. (Turkish historians). A collection of Ottoman narratives considering Hungarian military events, historians’ works, and significant sources. Their value varies: there are detailed and authentic narratives and literary works, but several translations are dated or based on incomplete manuscripts.
  592. Find this resource:
  593. Ottoman Hungary
  594.  
  595. The area of the northwestern border province of the Ottoman Empire gradually grew in the 16th century, and eventually new administrative institutions appeared there. The first writing on the topic is Salamon 1887, cited under The Age of the Ottoman Domination. Szakály 1981 clears up the issue of the presence of the Hungarian government, and Hegyi 1995 explains the nature of the Ottoman institutions. Dávid 1997 dwells upon public administration and demographic changes in the province, and Fodor 2000 interprets the Ottoman ideology relating to the Hungarian areas. Ágoston 2000 reveals the costs of the maintenance of the Ottoman border fortresses, while Ágoston 2005 shows the Ottoman military force and their armament. The results of the recently popular archeological research can be seen in Gerelyes and Kovács 2002.
  596.  
  597. Ágoston, Gábor. “The Costs of the Ottoman Fortress-System in Hungary in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries.” In Ottomans, Hungarians, and Habsbugs in Central Europe: The Military Confines in the Era of Ottoman Conquest. Edited by Géza Dávid, and Pál Fodor, 195–228. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 2000.
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  599. The maintenance of the Ottoman border fortresses was rather unprofitable in the first decades, as the Ottoman Empire had to supplement the soldiers’ payment. The system could have been reorganized in the second half of the 16th century, but due to economic difficulties in the 1580s, inadequate resources were allocated for the border fortresses. The Hungarian province never provided enough income to meet the costs of the conquest.
  600. Find this resource:
  601. Ágoston, Gábor. Guns for the Sultan: Military Power and the Weapons Industry in the Ottoman Empire. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
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  603. This book is about the disciplined Ottoman Army, and especially about the development of the weapons industry, which enabled sultans to make their conquests. European experience contributed to the development of the artillery all through the age. However, the Ottomans could not keep up with the novelties of the European military revolution.
  604. Find this resource:
  605. Dávid, Géza. Studies in Demographic and Administrative History of Ottoman Hungary. Istanbul: Isis Press, 1997.
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  607. A collection of studies on the building up of the Ottoman military administration and the ethnic and demographic changes of the conquerors. The autobiographies of the beys suggest that the majority of the conquerors came from the Balkan Peninsula and that there were only a few leaders from Anatolia. The Hungarian population dwindled soomewhat in the 16th century, but the immigration of the South Slavs from the Balkans increased from the 1580s.
  608. Find this resource:
  609. Fodor, Pál. In Quest of the Golden Apple: Imperial Ideology, Politics, and Military Administration in the Ottoman Empire. Istanbul: Isis, 2000.
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  611. These twenty studies analyze the internal mechanism of the imperial elite, the financial system of the state, certain aspects of military organization, and some of the phases of the Ottoman-Hungarian relationships in a wider context. The studies are linked loosely and do not offer a comprehensive look but focus on concrete issues instead.
  612. Find this resource:
  613. Gerelyes, Ibolya, and Gyöngyi Kovács eds. A hódoltság régészeti kutatása. Budapest: Magyar Nemzeti Múzeum, 2002.
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  615. (Archeological research of Ottoman Hungary). Hungarian archeology has produced several impressive results recently, and this collection of studies attempts to show some of them. It mainly concentrates on the conquerors’ material culture, and their eating and building habits. The majority of the conquerors were superficially Islamized Orthodox people who were not successful in social mobility. For them, even Hungarian border territories were more attractive than the bleakness of their homeland.
  616. Find this resource:
  617. Hegyi, Klára. Török berendezkedés Magyarországon. Budapest: MTA TTI, 1995.
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  619. (Ottoman rule in Hungary). The Ottoman conquest resulted in the organization of military administration whose leader was the Pasha of Buda, and under him were the beys of the sancaks. The kadi held the judicial power, but in many places the Hungarian population attained independent judical power and kept living by Hungarian laws. Thus, the Balkanian system could not take root here, and the Christian institutions preserved their influence in Ottoman Hungary as well.
  620. Find this resource:
  621. Szakály, Ferenc. Magyar adóztatás a török hódoltságban. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1981.
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  623. (Hungarian taxation in Ottoman Hungary). Reveals that the Hungarian state was also present in Ottoman Hungary after the conquest. The nobility kept taxing their estates and the border soldiers controlled the civil population apart from Sriem. This process further strengthened in the 17th century.
  624. Find this resource:
  625. The Conquerors’ Society and Culture
  626.  
  627. Until the first half of the 20th century, Hungarian historical writing regarded the local representatives of the Ottoman Empire only as conquerors and was not interested in their society and culture. Fekete 1944 is the first work that deals with the coexistence of the original population and the newcomers regarding the history of Budapest. Káldy-Nagy 1970 offers a general picture of the everyday life of Ottoman Hungary on the basis of Ottoman tax lists. The new generation investigates the traces of Muslim culture in an increasingly detailed way. Gerő 1980 offers a catalogue of all the known Ottoman buildings, and Sudár 2004 publishes information on baths. Ágoston 1993 lists the mosques and schools operating in South Transdanubia, and Ágoston and Sudár 2002 looks at the Bektashi monasteries. The conquerors’ music and literature enriched Hungarian poetry as well (see Sudár 2005). However, Hegyi 2001 reminds us that the majority of Ottomans serving in Ottoman Hungary were of Orthodox and Catholic origins, and were thus not ideal representatives of Muslim culture.
  628.  
  629. Ágoston, Gábor. “Muszlim hitélet és művelődés a Dunántúlon a 16–17. században.” In Tanulmányok a török hódoltság és a felszabadító háborúk történetéből: A szigetvári történész konferencia előadásai a város és a vár felszabadításának 300. évfordulóján. Edited by Szita, László, 277–293. Pécs: Baranya Megyei Levéltár, 1993.
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  631. (Muslim religious life and intellectual culture in Transdanubia in the 16th–17th centuries). The spiritual demands of the Muslims serving in the border fortresses were satisfied by the mosques, and their children could study in different schools. Ágoston ranks the settlement on the basis of the number of these types of institutions, and it becomes clear that religious foundations were established in the safer areas. Although several poets lived in the territory, Ottoman Hungary was a borderland of Ottoman culture.
  632. Find this resource:
  633. Ágoston, Gábor, and Balázs Sudár. Gül baba és a magyarországi bektasi dervisek. Budapest: Terebess Kiadó, 2002.
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  635. (Gül Baba and the Bektashi dervishes). Covers the Hungarian history of the Besktashis, the popular dervishes of the Muslim faith. It reveals their role in the Islam and explains their popularity with the population. Its data can be used in an international comparison.
  636. Find this resource:
  637. Fekete, Lajos. Budapest a törökkorban. Budapest: Királyi Magyar Egyetemi Nyomda, 1944.
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  639. (Budapest in the Ottoman era). Uses plenty of sources to reveal the history of the Hungarian capital, where a significant Hungarian population lived together with the newly settled Bosnians, Jews, and Serbs. However, the different ethnic groups rarely mixed and had separate internal administrations. The city remained the economic center of the Carpathian Basin where important Muslim construction took place.
  640. Find this resource:
  641. Gerő, Győző. Az oszmán-török építészet Magyarországon (Dzsámik, türbék, fürdők). Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1980.
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  643. (Ottoman-Turkish architecture in Hungary [Mosques, tombs, and baths]). The author, an archeologist, shows the Turkish monuments of Hungarian cities and reveals the background of their construction and their characteristic traits. The mosques used for prayer, the tombs called “türbes,” and the baths necessary for ritual washing were the most important Muslim buildings. Several of the facts here are outdated.
  644. Find this resource:
  645. Hegyi, Klára. “Magyar és balkáni katonaparasztok a budai vilájet déli szandzsákjaiban.” Századok 135 (2001): 1255–1313.
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  647. (Hungarian and Balkan soldier-peasants in the Southern Sanjaks of the Vilayet of Buda). It is a surprising fact that the majority of the soldiers serving in the Ottoman border castles came from the north Balkan Peninsula, and several Hungarians also joined the Ottoman Army. Thus, the conflict was not a Muslim-Christian or a Hungarian-Ottoman one. It is correct to speak of the conquerors’ South Slav ethnicity.
  648. Find this resource:
  649. Káldy-Nagy, Gyula. Harácsszedők és ráják: Török világ a XVI. századi Magyarországon. Budapest: Akdémiai Kiadó, 1970.
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  651. (Tax collectors and rajahs: Ottoman world in 16th-century Hungary). Reveals the course of the change of control and proves that the conquering authorities were aware of the former legal system and administration and attempted to create a system like that. Offers some case studies illustrating the failure of the pacification of Ottoman Hungary, where the original population preserved its identity and regarded the Muslims as conquerors.
  652. Find this resource:
  653. Sudár, Balázs. “Bahts in Ottoman Hungary.” Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 57 (2004): 391–437.
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  655. This work looks at baths, which were indispensable elements of Muslim religious foundations. The presence of the many baths helps determine the volume of Muslim construction.
  656. Find this resource:
  657. Sudár, Balázs. A Palatics-kódex török versgyűjteményei: Török költészet és zene a XVI. századi hódoltságban. Budapest: Balassi Kiadó, 2005.
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  659. (Turkish anthologies of the Palatics Codex: Turkish poetry and music in 16th-century Ottoman Hungary). The analysis of the codex born around 1588 and containing songs written in Turkish, Persian, and Arabic languages proves that in Ottoman Hungary there existed literature and poetry of a high standard. Among this elite there were soldiers serving in this region. The Turkish itinerant poetry of Ottoman Hungary influenced Hungarian martial songs, which suggests an intense cultural relationship among the people living in this area.
  660. Find this resource:
  661. Primary Sources
  662.  
  663. The best sources of the social and economic history of Ottoman Hungary are defters, or tax registers, of which Velics and Kammerer 1886–1890 offers the first selection. However, their work was discontinued for a long time, and the newer text publications are from the 1960s. Some selected works: Káldy-Nagy 1960 publishes the lists of Baranya county in southern Hungary, while Káldy-Nagy 1985 contains the documents of Pest county. On the basis of the listed names, historians might learn about the size of the population, the ethnic groups, and the size of the migration. Fekete and Káldy-Nagy 1962 contains customs registers and ledgers of the Ottoman treasury, which are the most important indicators of the trade in Ottoman Hungary. Dávid and Fodor 2005 contains the orders of the Imperial Council relating to Hungary and offers an insight into the everyday life of the local administration. Publishing the payment lists, Hegyi 2007 promotes research on the social stratification throughout the ranks of Ottoman soldiers.
  664.  
  665. Dávid, Géza, and Pál Fodor, eds. “Affairs of State Are Supreme.” In The Orders of the Ottoman Imperial Council Pertaining to Hungary (1544–1545, 1552). Budapest: MTA TTI, 2005.
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  667. Contains the decisions concerning Hungary made by the most important decision-making body of the Ottoman Empire, the Imperial Council. Apart from the significant diplomatic and political decisions, the work shows data on some local affairs and appointments. Contains reliable information when used together with Christian sources. The titles of the published documents are translated into English.
  668. Find this resource:
  669. Fekete, Lajos, and Gyula Káldy-Nagy, eds. Budai török számadáskönyvek 1550–1580. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1962.
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  671. (Turkish ledges of Buda, 1550–1580). The customs registers contain the names of tradesmen and their goods in daily division. The ledgers list the incomes and expenditures day by day. This helps reconstruct the economic and everyday life of Buda and also offers useful data for researchers interested in industry, trade, and demography.
  672. Find this resource:
  673. Hegyi, Klára. A török hódoltság várai és várkatonasága. 3 vols. Budapest: MTA TTI, 2007.
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  675. (Fortresses and fortress soldiers of Ottoman Hungary). Contains the payment lists of the Ottoman castles in Hungary. As these often include the homeland of the soldiers, they also reveal their ethnicity. The changes in the number of defenders of certain fortresses suggest information on the political and military conditions. The work also contains a glossary and a rich bibliography.
  676. Find this resource:
  677. Káldy-Nagy, Gyula. Baranya megye XVI. századi adóösszeírásai. Budapest: Magyar Nyelvtudományi Társaság, 1960.
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  679. (16th-century tax lists of Baranya County). Hungarian publication of the defters containing the jizya tax levied on the non-Muslim citizens of Baranya County. Includes the name of the settlement and the taxpayers, which allows for the analysis of the continuity of population. There are some problems in transcription; therefore one should use it with caution when determining the ratio of craftsmen.
  680. Find this resource:
  681. Káldy-Nagy, Gyula. A budai szandzsák 1546–1590. évi összeírásai: Demográfiai és gazdaságtörténeti adatok. Budapest: Pest Megyei Levéltár, 1985.
  682. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  683. (The defters of the Sancak of Buda, 1546–1590: Demographic and economic data). The book contains five defters about the 665 settlements of the Sancak of Buda. At each settlement, the record includes the number of the listed population, their names, marital status, and the amount of the tax. From this, historians can learn about demographic change, major agricultural activity, and land usage of the community.
  684. Find this resource:
  685. Velics, Antal, and Ernő Kammerer. Magyarországi török kincstári defterek. 2 vols. Budapest: MTA Történeti Bizottság, 1886–1890.
  686. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  687. (Ottoman defters in Hungary). An often-cited work of scholarly literature that is also a selection of several defters. Defters are tax lists. Unfortunately, the basis of the selection is not mentioned, and thus much original information has been lost. There are several problems in transcription as well, so it is worth using the later editions, such as Káldy-Nagy 1985.
  688. Find this resource:
  689. Economy
  690.  
  691. The economy and the society of the Kingdom of Hungary remained unified even after the division of the country into three parts. Its analysis in an international context started in the 1960s, when the discipline of economic history flourished. Hungary remained important to Western trade, mainly in the cattle business (see Westermann 1979). The Ottoman conquest had a minor role in the transformation of the Hungarian economy, and its crisis was caused by international changes at the end of the period (see Zimányi 1987). There was an active Western foreign trade in the middle of the 16th century, but Gecsényi 2007 draws attention to the volume of southern trade, which has not been investigated thoroughly due to the lack of sources. Pach 1994 can be regarded as a summary. Another important product of the Kingdom of Hungary was wine, but nobody has written a monograph on it yet. Benyák and Benyák 2002 deals with smaller issues. Precious metals mining had already passed its prime, but it still produced significant income (see Paulinyi 2005). However, since research on settlement history is even more difficult because of a lack of source material, the economic conditions of only a few settlements are known. Németh 2004 deals with the cities of upper Hungary.
  692.  
  693. Benyák, Zoltán, and Ferenc Benyák, eds. Borok és korok: Bepillantás a bor kultúrtörténetébe. Budapest: Hermész Kör, 2002.
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  695. (Wines and eras: A glance into the cultural history of wine). Five essays deal with the wine production and wine trade of the age. In the late medieval period, Sriem produced the best wines, which were mainly sold by tradesmen from Pest and Buda. The importance of Tolna, Baranya, Pest, and Hegyalja increased after the Ottoman devastation. The economic crisis did not hit the industry because it concentrated on national markets. Unfortunately, not all the essays have a bibliography.
  696. Find this resource:
  697. Gecsényi, Lajos. “Turkish Goods and Greek Merchants in the Kingdom of Hungary in the 16th and 17th Centuries.” Acta Orientalia 60 (2007): 55–71.
  698. DOI: 10.1556/AOrient.60.2007.1.4Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  699. The importing of Turkish goods was already significant at the end of the Middle Ages, but its volume grew during the Ottoman domination. Greek merchants replaced German tradesmen, which deepened the Balkanian nature of the Hungarian economy.
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  701. Németh, István H. Várospolitika és gazdaságpolitika a 16–17. századi Magyarországon (A felső-magyarországi városszövetség). Budapest: Gondolat Könyvkiadó, 2004.
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  703. (Urban and economic policies in 16th- and 17th-century Hungary [the city alliance of upper Hungary]). Although little is known about early modern Hungarian urban development, the central administration and military administration strongly influenced the life of the important settlements. In Košice the presence of the chamber and that of the high captain gave an impetus for industrial development but significantly hindered urban autonomy. The book is difficult to read and often inconclusive.
  704. Find this resource:
  705. Pach, Zsigmond Pál. Hungary and the European Economy in Early Modern Times. Aldershot, UK: Variorum, 1994.
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  707. A synthesis of his earlier works, the author uses plenty of scholarly literature and sources, but the Marxist concept here is questionable. The author misguidedly thinks the ever-increasing power of the landlords caused the deterioration of the villeins’ lives and the economic crisis. However, the facts presented here are mostly reliable.
  708. Find this resource:
  709. Paulinyi, Oszkár. Gazdag föld—szegény ország: Tanulmányok a magyarországi bányaművelés múltjából. Edited by János Búza and István Draskóczy. Budapest: Budpesti Corvinus Egyetem, 2005.
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  711. (Rich land—poor country: Studies on the past of Hungarian mining). Fifteen studies deal with the 15th–16th-century history of Hungarian salt, iron, and precious metals mining. Some of them are based on important registers, but the focus is on the social impacts of mining. It is useful for its history of technology.
  712. Find this resource:
  713. Westermann, Ekkehard, ed. Internationaler Ochsenhandel (1350–1750): Akten des 7th International Economic History Congress, Edinburgh 1978. Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1979.
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  715. In-depth study dealing with cattle trade to the West, based on customs registers. The development of western Europe beginning in the 15th century increased the demand for Hungarian cattle. The two destinations of cattle trade were Italy and Germany. The 17th-century European wars ended this boom. However, the authors overemphasize the role of the export in the Hungarian economy as a whole.
  716. Find this resource:
  717. Zimányi, Vera. Economy and Society in Sixteenth and Seventeenth Century Hungary (1526–1650). Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1987.
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  719. An economic historian’s overall analysis of economic history reveals that the profit from the export did not flow into industry, and the Hungarian economy had little capital. This was the reason for the failure of modernization. The investigated changes start in the middle of the 15th century, but the author does not deal with this period. Foreign trade is overemphasized here.
  720. Find this resource:
  721. Society
  722.  
  723. The first scholarly summary of Hungarian society in the Reformation era is Hóman and Szekfű 1935, cited under Single- or Dual-Authored Works, but it mainly focuses on the aristocracy. The attention turned toward the peasantry after 1948. The chapters on social history in Pach 1985, under Collections of Studies), General Overviews also concentrate on this class. More and more research has dealt with the issue of development of the middle classes, of which Szakály 1995 is the most mature. Accordingly, the subject of intellectuals has also attracted more attention (see Zombori 1988). Derived from source publications also favored in the Communist era, Maksay 1990 is a precise overview of the noble society. Research on nobility has had a resurgence since 1990, and Pálffy 2002 looks at several groups within the aristocracy. An important issue of social history is the investigation of the demographic and ethnic changes of the population (see Kovacsics 1997). Varga 1981 deals with half-nobility serving in the army, and Kaser 1997 focuses on soldier peasants; both are about social groups on the periphery. Despite these results, a summary of Hungarian social history in the Reformation era has yet to be written.
  724.  
  725. Kaser, Karl. Freier Bauer und Soldat: Die Militarisierung der agrarischen Gesellschaft an der kroatisch-slawonischen Militärgrenze (1535–1881). Vienna: Böhlau, 1997.
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  727. As a result of constant military service, plenty of peasants got privileges in return for their service. The author shows the formation and the fall of this group, using research from original sources. This social layer was also present north of the Drava, but they are not mentioned in the work. This book also has a Croatian edition.
  728. Find this resource:
  729. Kovacsics, József, ed. Magyarország történeti demográfiája (896–1995). Budapest: KSH–MTA Demográfiai Bizottsága és Történeti Demográfiai Albizottsága, 1997.
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  731. (Historical demography of Hungary, 896–1995). Reveals changes in the population of the Kingdom of Hungary, the settlement of different ethnic groups, the proportion of the urban population, and the demographic usability of different sources. Sheds light on the early-modern loss of population and the process behind changes in the ethnic ratios. Very useful for comparing with similar data from other countries.
  732. Find this resource:
  733. Maksay, Ferenc. Magyarország birtokviszonyai a 16. század közepén. 2 vols. Budapest: MTA, 1990.
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  735. (Land possession in Hungary in the middle of the 16th century). Lists tax censuses conducted in each county in 1549, which helps investigate the proportion of big estates, the changes in ownership, and the composition of the noble society.
  736. Find this resource:
  737. Pálffy, Géza. “Medien der Integration des ungarischen Adels in Wien im 16. und 17. Jahrhundert.” Collegium Hungaricum-Studien Wien 1 (2002): 61–98.
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  739. The leaders of Hungarian nobility were employed by the Habsburg administration, which relied on them. They married into Austrian and Czech families and became members of the imperial elite. The advantage of the book is that it does not consider the Habsburg administration oppressive.
  740. Find this resource:
  741. Szakály, Ferenc. Mezőváros és reformáció: Tanulmányok a korai magyar polgárosodás kérdéséhez. Budapest: Balassi Kiadó, 1995.
  742. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  743. (Market town and Reformation: Studies in the early Hungarian embourgeoisement). The key to the development of the Hungarian middle classes is the peasantry living in market towns who combined goods production and trade. Uses linked case studies to reveal the rise of this class and its connections with political power. Inventive, but sometimes too loquacious.
  744. Find this resource:
  745. Varga, J. János. Szervitorok katonai szolgálata a XVI–XVII. századi dunántúli nagybirtokon. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1981.
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  747. (The military service of servitors on the large Transdanubian estates in the 16th and 17th centuries). Because of constant warfare, a new Hungarian social class emerged in Hungary from the lesser nobles who lost their lands and villeins doing military service. They enjoyed broad autonomy but could not form a political entity, as they were in the service of the great landowners. This book covers their history, concentrating on Transdanubian examples.
  748. Find this resource:
  749. Zombori, István, ed. Az értelmiség Magyarországon a 16.–17. században. Szeged, Hungary: Csongrád Megyei Múzeumok Igazgatósága, 1988.
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  751. (The intelligentsia in Hungary in the 16th and 17th centuries). This collection of studies presents case studies from the late Middle Ages to the end of the 17th century. Although it does not offer a comprehensive picture, it proves that the members of the intelligentsia were mainly of noble origin and were strongly influenced by humanism.
  752. Find this resource:
  753. Lifestyle, Mentality, Family
  754.  
  755. Hungarian researchers of the 19th century regarded political history of primary interest, and they could not work with sources concerning everyday life and thought. Radvánszky 1879–1896 is the first to systematically collect data on family, dresses, etc. Sándor Takáts’s highly readable books made this genre of history familiar: Takáts 1915–1917 and Takács 1929 contain varied issues, while Takáts 1914 is the first to broach topics pertaining to the women of the Hungarian aristocracy. These kinds of works were not welcomed in the following decades, and Hungarian historical writing lagged behind European historical writing for the most part. Tárkány Szücs 1981 is a unique work offering a summary of the everyday life of the peasantry. European research on lifestyle has advanced since the 1990s, as seen in Péter 2000 and Deáky and Krász 2005.
  756.  
  757. Deáky, Zita, and Lilla Krász. Minden dolgok kezdete: A születés kultúrtörténte Magyarországon (XVI–XX. század) Budapest: Századvég Könyvkiadó, 2005.
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  759. (Beginning of all things: Cultural history of childbirth in Hungary [16th–20th century]). Reveals views on childbirth, the state of expectancy, and the role of midwives. Emphasizes the communal role of childbirth, but the examples are mainly from the later periods. Covers the era of Reformation only partially.
  760. Find this resource:
  761. Péter, Katalin, ed. Beloved Children: Aristocratic Childhood in Early Modern Hungary. Budapest: Central European University Press, 2000.
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  763. Offers insight mostly into the lives of aristocratic children and deals with expectant mothers, childbirth, schooling, and mourning. Based on original sources.
  764. Find this resource:
  765. Radvánszky, Béla. Magyar családélet és háztartás a XVI. és XVII. században. 3 vols. Budapest: Hornyánszky, 1879–1896.
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  767. (Hungarian family life and household in the 16th–17th centuries). Contains information about eating habits, costumes, housing, and celebration. Offers detailed topics, and it is a great starting point for all kinds of research on mentality.
  768. Find this resource:
  769. Takáts, Sándor. Régi magyar asszonyok. Budapest: “Élet” Irodalmi és Nyomda Rt, 1914.
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  771. (Hungarian aristocratic women of old). Features the biographies of the prominent Hungarian aristocratic women of the early modern age. The author aims to show them as heroines and does not want to reveal them as flawed. Easily readable, but there is not a detailed bibliography.
  772. Find this resource:
  773. Takáts, Sándor. Rajzok a török világból. 3 vols. Budapest: MTA, 1915–1917.
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  775. (Sketches from the Turkish era). Studies show the daily life of soldiers in the border castles, Hungarian merchants, and the everyday communication between the Ottomans and the Hungarians. It offers an exaggeratedly positive picture of the Ottoman presence, and it is biased toward the Habsburg administration.
  776. Find this resource:
  777. Takáts, Sándor. A régi Magyarország jókedve. Budapest: n.p., 1929.
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  779. (Cheer of old Hungary). Studies written with the aid of original sources deal with literacy, humor, holidays, and customs. They offer a somewhat naïve picture of the age, but most of the information is still reliable.
  780. Find this resource:
  781. Tárkány Szücs, Ernő. Magyar jogi népszokások. Budapest: Gondolat, 1981.
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  783. (Hungarian legal folk customs). Important for the history of folk mentality, and the book also sheds light on the legal background of the folk customs controlling everyday life. Not a popular title, but it does offer a good summary of the mentality of the illiterate social strata.
  784. Find this resource:
  785. Primary Sources
  786.  
  787. The collection and publication of economic and sociohistorical sources were not considered important for a long time, and attention turned toward them only in the 1960s. Maksay 1959 publishes a thorough selection of the urbariums, giving an insight into the lives of peasant farms. Around the same time as the emergence of customs registers were the beginnings of the most important sources of trade. Besides Ottoman documents, see citations under Ottoman Hungary. Ember 1988 collects the remaining volumes of the customs offices operating along the western borders. At the same time, publication of the tax lists also gained importance. Maksay 1990 contains the tax lists of the counties from the middle of the century, and Dávid 2001 deals with the more detailed household census. These help to reconstruct the noble society of royal Hungary and the taxpaying population of certain settlements. Bessenyei and Antal 1997–2003 contains the surviving documents of witch trials. Although the conclusions are well known, it is obvious that the majority of the trials were held in Transylvania in the 17th century, and only their consequences belong to the era of the Reformation. Much private correspondence has been published recently, but their source value varies. Vida 1988 offers the most information and gives insight into the intimate feelings of an aristocratic couple and several healing customs. Nowadays, many research groups deal with source publications that are worth seeking out.
  788.  
  789. Bessenyei, József András Kiss, and András Pál Antal. A magyarországi boszorkányság forrásai. 4 vols. Budapest: Balassi Kiadó, 1997–2003.
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  791. (Sources of Hungarian witchcraft). The book contains Hungarian, German, Latin, and Slovakian sources, and it also publishes sorcerer trials and the description of visions.
  792. Find this resource:
  793. Dávid, Zoltán. Az 1598. évi házösszeírás. Budapest: Központi Statisztikai Hivatal Levéltára, 2001.
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  795. (Household census from 1598). The most detailed known tax list from the end of the 16th century, which lists the taxpaying population by households in each settlement. Offers important data mainly for certain families, and thus family-tree researchers use it often. A great disadvantage arises from the fact that the list does not extend to the whole country.
  796. Find this resource:
  797. Ember, Győző. Magyarország nyugati külkereskedelme a 16. század közepén. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1988.
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  799. (The Western foreign trade of Hungary in the middle of the 16th century). Analyzes the registers of the customs offices along the western border. It includes the names of the goods, their value, the names of the merchants, and their hometown. The author shows the significant commercial cities and the Western destinations—and thus, the volume and role of Hungarian trade in international trade.
  800. Find this resource:
  801. Maksay, Ferenc. Magyarország birtokviszonyai a 16. század közepén. 2 vols. Budapest: MTA, 1990.
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  803. (Land possession in Hungary in the middle of the 16th century). Contains the national tax lists from the middle of the 16th century, organized in tables. Lists the noble estates by county; but as these lists were compiled only in some parts of the country and are sometimes inaccurate, they offer only occasionally useful results.
  804. Find this resource:
  805. Maksay, Ferenc, ed. Urbáriumok: XVI–XVII. század. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1959.
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  807. (Urbariums, 16th–17th centuries). Urbariums list the estates of the landlords, the people living there, and the incomes coming from them. They often mention the legal status of the communities and their relationship with the landlords. Thus, they are among the most important sources. Offers a well-balanced selection of urbariums.
  808. Find this resource:
  809. Vida, Tivadar, ed. “Szerelmes Orsikám…” A Nádasdyak és Szegedi Kőrös Gáspár levelezése. Budapest: Szépirodalmi Könyvkiadó, 1988.
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  811. (“My beloved Ursula . . .” The correspondence between the Nádasdy and Gáspár Szegedi Kőrös). The 224 letters published in the book offer information on healing, fruit production, bringing up children, and the everyday life of aristocratic families. The lack of an index makes browsing difficult.
  812. Find this resource:
  813. The Church and the Reformation
  814.  
  815. The Reformation spread rather quickly, and by the end of the 16th century the Lutheran Church, the Reformed Church, and the Unitarian Church had managed to build up their organizations. Although the Catholic Church became weaker, there were still many worshipping Catholics in the country. By the end of the period, with many Protestant communities impoverished, their foreign connections became loose, which promoted the Catholic revival led by the Jesuits.
  816.  
  817. Formation of the Protestant Denominations
  818.  
  819. The 16th century is the age of the formation of the Protestant denominations. There is a wide selection of scholarly literature available, and this entry contains only the most important works whose bibliographies help further research. The first monographs are from the first decades of the 20th century, such as Zoványi 1922. Zoványi 1977 offers a general study, but Payr 1924 focuses only on the history of the Lutherans of Transdanubia. However, these works do not explain the spread of Reformation, and neither does Bucsay 1977. The most in-depth analysis is on the development of anti-Trinitarianism (see Dán and Pirnát 1982). For the impact of the Ottoman conquest on the Reformation, see Szakály 1985. Szakály 1995 shows its economic impacts. Péter 2004 is about the causes behind the success of the Reformation.
  820.  
  821. Bucsay, Mihály. Der Protestantismus in Ungarn 1521–1978: Ungarns Reformationskirchen in Geschichte und Gegenwart. Vol. 1, Im Zeitalter der Reformation, Gegenreformation und katholischen Reform. Vienna: Böhlau, 1977.
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  823. The most cited work in international scholarly literature. The facts are reliable but the conclusions have been superseded. To be used with caution.
  824. Find this resource:
  825. Dán, Róbert, and Antal Pirnát, eds. Antitrinitarianism in the Second Half of the 16th Century. Proceedings of the international colloqium held on the 400th anniversary of Ferenc Dávid’s death, Siklós, 15–19 May 1979. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1982.
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  827. Analyzes the types of anti-Trinitarianism and how it spread, mainly from the aspect of the history of literature and intellectual culture. It mentions the close Polish relationships, the different Hungarian organizations, the religious debates with the Protestants, and the attitude of the princes of Transylvania toward religion. Copublished in the Netherlands by Brill.
  828. Find this resource:
  829. Payr, Sándor. A dunántúli evangélikus egyházkerület története. Sopron, Hungary: Ág. Hitv. Evang. Egyházkerület, 1924.
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  831. (History of the Transdanubian Lutheran Diocese). Looks at the spread of the Reformation up until 1647. The work dwells on religious debates with the Calvinists and the history of the formation of the diocese. It does not touch upon the behavior of the cities in upper Hungary, and it does not place the events into an international context.
  832. Find this resource:
  833. Péter, Katalin. A reformáció: kényszer vagy választás? Budapest: Nemzeti Tankönyv Kiadó, 2004.
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  835. (Reformation: Constraint or choice?). This essay explains the causes of the success of the Reformation, which was a neglected issue in earlier scholarly literature. It denies the fact that landlords forced their villeins to accept Protestantism. The author thinks the conversion was the result of free choice triggered by intellectual demands.
  836. Find this resource:
  837. Szakály, Ferenc. “Türkenherrschaft und Reformation in Ungarn um die Mitte des 16. Jahrhunderts.” In Études historiques hongroises. Vol. 2. Edited by Domokos Kosary, 437–459. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1985.
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  839. Breaks with the common wisdom and shows that it was not the Ottoman support but rather the interests of the strong city-dwellers of the middle classes that caused the spread of the Reformation in Ottoman Hungary. However, it overemphasizes the causes of this spread, a tendency that is set right by Molnár 2003, cited under The Catholic Church in the 16th Century.
  840. Find this resource:
  841. Szakály, Ferenc. Mezőváros és reformáció: Tanulmányok a korai magyar polgárosodás kérdéséhez. Budapest: Balassi Kiadó, 1995.
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  843. (Market town and Reformation: Studies in the early Hungarian embourgeoisement). These loosely linked studies offer an insight into the spread of the Reformation in Ottoman Hungary. The most important settings are Pécs, Szeged, Nagymaros, and Nyírbátor, where prosperous merchants supported the new trends. Also reveals the economic background of Protestantism.
  844. Find this resource:
  845. Zoványi, Jenő. A reformáczió Magyarországon 1565-ig. Budapest: Genius, 1922.
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  847. (Reformation in Hungary until 1565). A positivist work dealing with the events from the beginning. Contains plenty of good information and uses a lot of sources, but its conclusions are now mostly outdated, as the book attributes the success of the Reformation to the abuses of the church.
  848. Find this resource:
  849. Zoványi, Jenő. A magyarországi protestantizmus 1565-től 1600-ig. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1977.
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  851. (Protestantism in Hungary from 1565 to 1600). The manuscript was completed in 1949, but it was published posthumously; thus, the results of the research in the 1950s and 1960s are not included. It shows the formation of the structural frameworks and the changes in church administration and the canon.
  852. Find this resource:
  853. The Catholic Church in the 16th Century
  854.  
  855. Few historians have dealt with the issue until recently, and they have regarded the 16th-century history of the Catholic Church as a period of decline. Karácsonyi 1922–1924 reveals the history of the Franciscans being in constant expansion. Hermann 1973 does not have extensive writing on the period, but what does appear is accurate. Following 1989 there has been a revival of research on the history of the Catholic Church. Beke 2003 presents the biographies of the archbishops of Esztergom, the leaders of the Catholic Church in Hungary. Fazekas 2005 looks at the career of Miklós Oláh, the most significant high priest of the 16th century. Molnár 2003 writes about Catholicism in Ottoman Hungary on the basis of new sources, and Molnár 2007 reveals the changes in the relationship with the Holy See in Rome.
  856.  
  857. Beke, Margit, ed. Esztergomi érsekek 1001–2003. Budapest: Szent István Társulat, 2003.
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  859. (The archbishops of Esztergom, 1001–2003). Contains the short biographies of the archbishops of Esztergom, with a bibliography attached to each. It is not enough for complex church historical research but can be useful for certain persons. A work that definitely fills a gap in scholarship.
  860. Find this resource:
  861. Fazekas, István. “Miklós Oláhs Reformbestrebungen in der Erzdiözese Gran zwischen 1553 und 1568.” In Kaiser Ferdinand I: Ein mitteleuropäischer Herrscher. Edited by Martina Fuchs, Teréz Oborni, and Gábor Ujváry, 163–178. Münster, Germany: Aschendorff, 2005.
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  863. The author uses the career of Miklós Oláh to show how a humanist serving in the Habsburg court became the first leader of Catholic revival. Oláh organized synods, established schools, and controlled lower clergy; thus, he started to reorganize the Catholic Church according to the Tridentine reforms.
  864. Find this resource:
  865. Hermann, Egyed. A katolikus egyház története Magyarországon 1914-ig. München: Aurora, 1973.
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  867. (History of the Catholic Church in Hungary until 1914). The manuscript was completed in 1948, but it is still one of the most useful works around. Can be used as a university coursebook, as it has a bibliography (now outdated) at the end of each chapter. It covers the 16th century only in twenty pages; thus, it can be regarded as a draft.
  868. Find this resource:
  869. Karácsonyi, János. Szent Ferenc rendjének története Magyarországon 1711-ig. 2 vols. Budapest: MTA, 1922–1924.
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  871. (The history of the order of St. Francis in Hungary until 1711). A monograph using all the known sources, this study reveals the history of Franciscans from the very beginning, by provinces and monasteries. It is still a useful and thorough work, but the topics make browsing difficult because it does not include an index, and the majority of the cited sources have been lost.
  872. Find this resource:
  873. Molnár, Antal. A katolikus egyház a hódolt Dunántúlon. Budapest: METEM, 2003.
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  875. (The Catholic Church in Ottoman Transdanubia). The book proves that Catholicism survived even in those parts of Ottoman Hungary where the Catholic infrastructure had been destroyed. The author shows that the Ottoman Empire was not interested in Christian religious debates and that its goal was to preserve tranquility. Thus, he revises the views of Szakály 1985 (cited under Formation of the Protestant Denominations) in this field.
  876. Find this resource:
  877. Molnár, Antal. Le Saint-Siege, Raguse et les missions catholiques de la Hongrie Ottomane 1572–1647. Rome: Accademia d’Ungheria, 2007.
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  879. Reveals the aims of the Holy See relating to the Catholic Church in Hungary on the basis of documents from the Roman archives that were formerly unknown. The majority of the book does not deal with the 16th century, but it is still of interest, as the Catholic reorganization in Ottoman Hungary started very early in the center of Dubrovnik. Copublished with Bibliotheque Nationale e Hongrie–Société pour l’Encyclopédie de l’Histoire de l’Église en Hongrie (Budapest).
  880. Find this resource:
  881. Primary Sources
  882.  
  883. The collection of the early modern sources of church history started in the 18th century. Lampe and Debreceni 1728 concentrates on the history of the Reformed Church. Bunyitay, et al. 1902–1912 publishes all the known sources from the early period of the Reformation, from 1521 to 1552. Payr 1910 provides information on the Lutheran communities in Transdanubia, and thus it covers the same issues as Iványi 1990. Válaszúti 1981 gives insight into a religious dispute between the Unitarians and the Calvinists in the late 16th century.
  884.  
  885. Bunyitay, Vince, Rajmund Rapaics, János Karácsonyi, Ferenc Kollányi, and József Lukcsics, eds. Egyháztörténelmi emlékek a magyarországi hitújítás korából. 5 vols. Budapest: Szent István Társulat, 1902–1912.
  886. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  887. (Remnants of ecclesiastical history from the age of the Hungarian Protestant Reformation). A unique work that contains all the sources related to church history from 1521 to 1552. Contains varied information, donations, registers, data on purchase of books and the destruction of estates, etc. A detailed index is helpful.
  888. Find this resource:
  889. Iványi, Béla, ed. A körmendi Batthyány-levéltár reformációra vonatkozó oklevelei I. 1527–1625. Szeged, Hungary: József Attila Tudományegyetem, 1990.
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  891. (Charters of the Batthyány Archives in Körmend relating to the Reformation. Volume 1, 1527–1625). A collection of Hungarian, German, and Latin sources found in the archives of the Batthyány family, who had the biggest estates in Transdanubia. Contains references to the Reformation. The book is difficult to use, as the sources are incomplete, and there is no index to help the reader.
  892. Find this resource:
  893. Lampe, Friedrich Adolf, and Pál Ember Debreceni. Historia ecclesiae reformatae in Hungaria et Transylvania. Utrecht: Apud Jacobum van Poolsum, 1728.
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  895. An apologetic work written amidst the denominational struggles of the 18th century. It contains plenty of original sources from the 16th century and includes some reports on religious debates and the texts of different creeds.
  896. Find this resource:
  897. Payr, Sándor, ed. Egyháztörténelmi Emlékek: Forrásgűjtemény a Dunántúli Ág. Hitv. Evang. Egyházkerület történetéhez. Vol. 1. Sopron, Hungary: Ág. Hitv. Evang. Egyházkerület, 1910.
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  899. (Church historical memories: Collection of sources to the history of the Lutheran Diocese in Transdanubia). A collection of sources forming the basis of Payr 1924 (cited under Formation of the Protestant Denominations). It offers a selection of materials concerning city, church, and national archives, and it gives an insight into the lives of the Transdanubian Lutheran communities.
  900. Find this resource:
  901. Válaszúti, György. Pécsi disputa. Edited by Robert Dán and Katalin S. Németh. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1981.
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  903. (Dispute of Pécs). Records of the religious dispute between the Unitarians and the Calvinists in the city of Pécs. They were written down by the Unitarian preacher takng part in the dispute. Contains important data on the intellectual life of the community and the theological problems arising between the two denominations.
  904. Find this resource:
  905. Intellectual Culture
  906.  
  907. The term “intellectual culture” has been interpreted differently by particular monographs. Domanovszky 1940 and Kósa 2002, cited in Collections of Studies, hold that everything belongs under this term except for political history. This section focuses on schooling, the book, and the issues of the history of literature.
  908.  
  909. Schooling, Printing, the Book, and Communication
  910.  
  911. At the end of the 19th century, it was mainly clergy members who dealt with the history of schooling. Frankl 1873 deals with the registers of foreign universities, while Békefi 1910 concentrates on Hungarian institutions. Their work was not continued, as research started to focus on later periods. A source publication on the peregrinations of Transylvanian students was collected in 1992, but nobody has dealt with the other areas of the Kingdom of Hungary yet. Attention has recently turned toward the book and maecenate, and for this see Péter 1995, Szabó 1999, and Tóth 2000. Monok 2005 analyzes the roles of aristocratic courts, and Almási 2009 writes about the most significant scholars of the 16th century. Kőszeghy 2003–2009 is a breakthrough, as it presents new knowledge in the form of an encyclopedia and builds the foundations for a new monograph.
  912.  
  913. Almási, Gábor. The Uses of Humanism: Johannes Sambucus (1534–1581), Andreas Dudith (1533–1589), and the Republic of Letters in East Central Europe. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 2009.
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  915. Modern biographies of the two most influential Hungarian humanists of the 16th century, within the framework of Hungarian intellectual life. Zsámboky and Dudith gained central European importance due to their correspondences. Zsámboky was also a significant historian and publisher.
  916. Find this resource:
  917. Békefi, Remig. A káptalani iskolák története Magyarországon 1540-ig. Budapest: MTA, 1910.
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  919. (History of chapter schools in Hungary until 1540.). This book deals with the best chapter schools and proves that these offered sufficient knowledge to their students. However, it sometimes offers an unrealistically positive image of these schools and is not always factually sound. It is still useful for studying Hungarian schooling.
  920. Find this resource:
  921. Frankl, Vilmos: A hazai és külföldi iskolázás a XVI. században. Budapest, Eggenberger, 1873.
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  923. (Hungarian and foreign schooling in the 16th century). This book reveals the education of the era on the basis of the registers of foreign universities and sources on Hungarian schools. It proves that plenty of Hungarian students attended foreign universities in this period. The identification of names is sometimes wrong, but this text is still useful.
  924. Find this resource:
  925. Koszeghy, Peter, ed. Magyar Művelődéstörténeti Lexikon: Középkor és kora újkor. 9 vols. Budapest: Balassi Kiadó, 2003–2009.
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  927. (Encyclopedia of the history of Hungarian intellectual culture: Middle Ages and early modern period). Covers the field of intellectual culture in a broad sense, and presents the newest scholarly results concerning intellectual culture, schooling, and art history in 10,000 entries. It is a universal aid. Also available online.
  928. Find this resource:
  929. Monok, István, ed. Blue Blood, Black Ink: Book Collections of Aristocratic Families from 1500 to 1700. Budapest: National Széchényi Library, 2005.
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  931. Following the move of the royal court to Vienna, aristocratic courts remained the centers of culture. The book contains the booklists of these courts and proves that these families established varied foreign connections and cultural interests.
  932. Find this resource:
  933. Péter, Katalin. Papok és nemesek: Magyar művelődéstörténeti tanulmányok a reformációval kezdődő másfél évszázadból. Budapest: Ráday Gyűjtemény, 1995.
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  935. (Priests and nobles: Studies of Hungarian cultural history for a century and a half from the beginning of the Reformation). Almost half of these fifteen studies deal with the 16th century. The topics include schooling, aristocratic maecenate, and the impact of Erasmists. It offers a realist picture of the intellectual culture of the period. It gives an interesting evaluation of the published books based on theme and language.
  936. Find this resource:
  937. Szabó, András. Respublica litteraria: Irodalom- és művelődéstörténeti tanulmányok a késő humanizmus koráról. Budapest: Balassi Kiadó, 1999.
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  939. (Studies on the history of literature and culture in the age of late humanism). The majority of these fourteen studies deal with 16th-century humanist intellectual culture. The studies about the relationships between Wittenberg and the Hungarian impact of Copernicus are quite lively, as are the ones on the intellectual topography of the northeastern region.
  940. Find this resource:
  941. Tóth, István György. Literacy and Written Culture in Early Modern Central Europe. Budapest: Central European University Press, 2000.
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  943. Charts the spread of literacy in the social strata of peasants and lesser nobles. The majority of its examples are from the 17th century, but it is still useful for those researching earlier ages. Many helpful charts and tables.
  944. Find this resource:
  945. History of Literature and Historical Writing
  946.  
  947. Modern research on the history of literature started in the University of Budapest under the leadership of János Horváth in the 1920s. His plan was to make a summary, but only three volumes were published during his life, the last of which is Horváth 1953. His successor and the most prominent researcher of Hungarian history of literature was Tibor Klaniczay, who managed to make the summary Horváth had dreamed about (see Klaniczay 1964). His collected studies are Klaniczay 1961 and Klaniczay 1985. Emma Bartoniek belonged to another school: she started to deal with historical writing before World War II. However, her incomplete summary was published posthumously as Bartoniek 1975. Birnbaum 1985 shows humanism in the Jagiellon era from a Croatian point of view. The National Széchényi Library has hosted several excellent exhibitions (see Monok 2006), and researchers at the Institute for Literary Studies have published many works on the issue, as evidenced in Balázs 2006.
  948.  
  949. Balázs, Mihály. Felekezetiség és fikció: Tanulmányok a 16–17. századi irodalmunkról. Budapest: Balassi Kiadó, 2006.
  950. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  951. (Denominations and fiction: Studies on 16th–17th-century Hungarian literature). The book focuses on the literature of Transylvania and anti-Trinitarianism. It also touches upon church history when dealing with Transylvanian religious freedom. It reveals the formation of denominations on the basis of international similarities.
  952. Find this resource:
  953. Bartoniek, Emma. Fejezetek a XVI–XVII. századi magyarországi történetírás történetéből. Edited by Zsigmondné Ritoók. Budapest: MTA Irodalomtörténeti Intézet, 1975.
  954. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  955. (Chapters from the history of the Hungarian historiography in the 16th and 17th centuries). This book is the most thorough study of early modern Hungarian historical writing. There is a short biography of each writer and an analysis of their achievements. Although some of these significant writers have become common knowledge in academic circles, this is still the most precise work available.
  956. Find this resource:
  957. Birnbaum, Marianna. Humanists in a Shattered World: Croatian and Hungarian Latinity in the Sixteenth Century. Columbus, OH: Slavica, 1985.
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  959. Croatian historian sums up the humanists of the Jagiellon period. Many of them were of South Slav origin, but they were all connected by their intellectual culture and their knowledge of Latin language and culture. The monograph reveals that central European humanism was not secondary to the movement present in the western countries.
  960. Find this resource:
  961. Horváth, János. A reformáció jegyében: A Mohács utáni félszázad magyar irodalomtörténete. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1953.
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  963. (Under the sign of the Reformation: History of Hungarian literature of the fifty years after the Battle of Mohács). Apart from fiction, the book also investigates all the fields of literature and science, and Latin literature is also included. Its disadvantage is that it considers the Reformation the end of the Renaissance and humanism.
  964. Find this resource:
  965. Klaniczay, Tibor. Reneszánsz és barokk: Tanulmányok a régi magyar irodalomról. Budapest: Szépirodalmi Könyvkiadó, 1961.
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  967. (Renaissance and Baroque: Studies on ancient Hungarian literature). Of the fifteen studies here, five deal with the period of the Renaissance. They offer an overview of the most important literary features. Its obvious Marxist view is not overbearing, however, and it shows the Renaissance characteristics of Hungarian literature in a wide context.
  968. Find this resource:
  969. Klaniczay, Tibor. Pallas magyar ivadékai. Budapest: Szépirodalmi Kiadó, 1985.
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  971. (Hungarian offspring of Pallas). The first nine studies of this book show the survival of humanism in the 16th century. They deal with the self-image of intellectuals and the methods of humanist historical writing. Emphasizes Italian connections.
  972. Find this resource:
  973. Klaniczay, Tibor, ed. A Magyar irodalom története I. A magyar irodalom története 1600-ig. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1964.
  974. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  975. (History of Hungarian literature. Vol. 1, History of Hungarian literature until 1600). This book charts the development of Hungarian literature, and it accepts the existence of more artistic styles at the same time. Covers the different genres (prose, Bible translations) of the Reformation within Renaissance literature. A detailed bibliography is at the end of each chapter. Also available online.
  976. Find this resource:
  977. Monok, István, ed. Myth and Reality: Latin Historiography in Hungary 15th-18th Centuries; Exhibition in The National Széchényi Library 7 July–3 September 2006. Budapest: National Széchényi Library, 2006.
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  979. This catalogue shows the achievements of neo-Latin historians from the aspect of how they contributed to the formation of historical myths. They were the ones to speak about the Hun-Hungarian relationship, and they set Matthias Corvinus on a pedestal. It offers great examples of the formation of the memory.
  980. Find this resource:
  981. Primary Sources
  982.  
  983. Written sources form the basis of the research on intellectual culture and the history of literature. Publication began in the 19th century. Constant work resulted in Szilády, et al. 1877–2004 and Borsa 1971. In the meantime, publication of longer critical works also began (see Olahus 1938). Now the majority of the works of humanist, Renaissance, Protestant, and Catholic writers are published—see Kulcsár 1977, Nemeskürty 1980, or Jankovics, et al. 2000.
  984.  
  985. Borsa, Gedeon, ed. Res litteraria Hungariae vetus operum impressorum: Régi Magyarországi Nyomtatványok. Vol. 1, 1473–1600. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1971.
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  987. This book (often abbreviated as RMNY) contains the bibliographical description and the front cover of 6,700 works published in Europe in the Hungarian language or in Hungary in any language. A basic source of research on the history of books. Also available online.
  988. Find this resource:
  989. Jankovics, József, Kőszeghy, Péter, and Géza Szabó Szentmártoni, eds. Régi magyar irodalmi szöveggyűjtemény. Vol. 2, A 16. század magyar nyelvű világi irodalma. Budapest, Balassi Kiadó, 2000.
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  991. (Old Hungarian literary anthology. Vol. 2, Sixteenth-century secular literature in Hungarian). Can be useful for seminars in literature, but the disadvantage of the book is that it does not offer any information about the writers and their works and publishes only the texts. Available online.
  992. Find this resource:
  993. Kulcsár, Péter, ed. Humanista történetírók. Budapest: Szépirodalmi Kiadó, 1977.
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  995. (Humanist historians). Selected works of the most important 15th- to 16th-century Hungarian historians, with over 1,100 pages. There are notes and a study in the book, the latter focusing on the characteristics of the humanist style.
  996. Find this resource:
  997. Nemeskürty, István, ed. Heltai Gáspár és Bornemisza Péter művei. Budapest: Szépirodalmi Kiadó, 1980.
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  999. (Works of Gáspár Heltai and Péter Bornemissza). Contains almost the whole oeuvre of two significant Protestant writers. Heltai is characterized by punch lines, while Bornemissza was a talented dramatist. The book includes their detailed biographies, plus a Latin and a German glossary.
  1000. Find this resource:
  1001. Olahus, Nicolaus. Hungaria–Athila. Edited by Eperjessy Kálmán and Juhász László. Budapest: K. M. Egyetemi Nyomda, 1938.
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  1003. A critical translation of Miklós Oláh’s Latin description of Hungary and his work promoting the Hungarian-Hun relationship. There are some humanist topoi in the works, but the volume contains plenty of useful data on geography and agriculture.
  1004. Find this resource:
  1005. Szilády, Áron, Cyrill Horváth, Lajos Dézsi, Béla Varjas, and Géza Szabó Szentmártoni, eds. Régi Magyar Költők Tára, XVI század. 12 vols. Budapest: MTA, Balassi Kiadó, 1877–2004.
  1006. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1007. (Inventory of old Hungarian poets, 16th century). An anthology, RMTK XVI is the most complete collection of the works of 16th-century Hungarian poets. It contains religious, martial and love poetry as well as epics and narratives. It covers almost the entirety of Hungarian literature of the age.
  1008. Find this resource:
  1009. The Arts
  1010.  
  1011. Between 1450 and 1600, Renaissance art and humanist art were the dominant styles in Hungary, although at the beginning of the period the late Gothic style was also present. In addition, toward the end of this era Baroque arts also appeared, which came from court culture. Short works on interesting art-historical facts were published in the second half of the 19th century, but Domanovszky 1940, cited in Collections of Studies, is the first to offer a summary. Since the 1960s, attention has turned toward the court of King Matthias I, and the the results of this can be read about in English in Feuer-Tóth 1990. Galavics 1986 reveals the impact of the Turkish war on visual arts. Art history on this period also includes cartography and research on Italian castle construction, and these topics are dealt with by Szathmáry 1987 and Domokos 2000. A new field of research is the categorization of tombs on the basis of different artistic styles, and for writing on this subject see Mikó 2005 and Mikó 2009. Artifacts featured in the exhibitions of increasing quality are dealt with in Farbaky, et al. 2009, and Marosi 2009.
  1012.  
  1013. Domokos, György. Ottavio Baldigara: Egy itáliai várfundáló mester Magyarországon. Budapest: Balassi Kiadó, 2000.
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  1015. (Ottavio Baldigara: Italian fort architect in Hungary). The presence of Italian fort architecture proves that the Hungarian borderland was an integrated part of the border fortress system across the Mediterranean formed against the Ottomans. The European military revolution was also felt in this region. The book offers several original sources on the activity of Baldigara.
  1016. Find this resource:
  1017. Farbaky, Péter, Enikő Spekner, Katalin Szende, and András Végh, eds. Hunyadi Mátyás, a király: Hagyomány és megújítás a királyi udvarban 1458–1490.. Budapest: Budapesti Történeti Múzeum, 2008.
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  1019. (Matthias Corvinus the King: Tradition and renewal in the Hungarian Royal Court 1458–1490). Exhibition catalogue. Attempts to offer a complete picture of the age of King Matthias, although it focuses on his court and court culture. The exhibits are from the Uffizi Gallery in Florence, the Vatican Library in Rome, and from other places such as Vienna, the Czech Republic, Germany, and Slovakia.
  1020. Find this resource:
  1021. Feuer-Tóth, Rózsa. Art and Humanism in Hungary in the Age of Matthais Corvinus. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1990.
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  1023. The court of King Matthias was the center of central European humanism, and it influenced the whole region. As a result of the king’s maecenate, significant artists of the age worked in Hungary for varying lengths of time. The book shows their artistic heritage using an abundance of evocative pictures.
  1024. Find this resource:
  1025. Galavics, Géza. Kössünk kardot az pogány ellen: Török háborúk és képzőművészet. Budapest: Képzőművészeti Kiadó, 1986.
  1026. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1027. (Let’s gird ourselves with a sword against the heathen: Turkish wars and the fine arts). The participation in the fight against the Ottomans influenced the self-image and representation of the elite. Almost 250 pictures show the description of the enemy in works of art, offering It offers information on the impact of wars on the arts.
  1028. Find this resource:
  1029. Marosi, Ernő, ed. On the Stage of Europe: The Millennial Contribution of Hungary to the Idea of European Community. Budapest: Balassi Kiadó, 2009.
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  1031. Reveals the thousand-year contribution of Hungary to the concept of the European community from an art-historical perspective. The 150 colored pictures of artifacts are commented on by art historians. A great reference resource for presentations, lectures, and books.
  1032. Find this resource:
  1033. Mikó, Árpád. “Késő reneszánsz és kora barokk síremlékek a Magyar Királyság területén (1540–1690).” In Idővel paloták: Magyar udvari kultúra a 16–17. században Edited by G. Etényi, Nóra, and Ildikó Horn, 625–661. Budapest: Balassi Kiadó, 2005.
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  1035. (Late Renaissance and early Baroque tombs in the Kingdom of Hungary, 1540–1690). Tombs can be regarded as the artistic representations of an era. The Hungarian builders attempted to copy European movements. However, this impact was weaker on the periphery, as can be seen from the execution of the tombs.
  1036. Find this resource:
  1037. Mikó, Árpád. A reneszánsz Magyarországon. Budapest: Corvina, 2009.
  1038. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1039. (The Renaissance in Hungary). A short but thorough summary of the Renaissance in Hungary, also touching upon Croatian and Transylvanian works of art. Plenty of pictures and a rich bibliography help with the understanding of the text and with further research.
  1040. Find this resource:
  1041. Szathmáry, Tibor, ed. Descriptio Hungariae: Magyarország és Erdély nyomtatott térképei 1477–1600. Fusignano: Grafiche Morandi, 1987.
  1042. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1043. (Printed maps of Hungary and Transylvania, 1477–1600). This work is useful not only for art historians but also for those interested in the history of science and technology. It reveals the background on how different maps were drawn, as well as their uniqueness and significance.
  1044. Find this resource:
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