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Cesare Lombroso (Criminology)

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. No one in the history of criminology has a reputation like Cesare Lombroso. Lombroso was a multifaceted scholar who looked at virtually every aspect of the lives, minds, bodies, attitudes, words, lifestyles, and behaviors of criminal offenders in hopes of finding the definitive cause of crime. Lombroso’s main thesis was his idea of atavism, that criminals were evolutionary throwbacks who were inferior to noncriminals. Consider this passage from his magnum opus, Criminal Man: “Born criminals, programmed to do harm, are atavistic reproductions of not only savage men but also the most ferocious carnivores and rodents. This discovery should not make us more compassionate toward born criminals (as some claim), but rather should shield us from pity, for these beasts are members of not our species but the species of bloodthirsty beasts” (Lombroso 2006e, cited under Major Works, p. 348). Throughout his writings are clear and appalling passages with overt racist and sexist overtones that are consistent with a eugenics perspective of the human population. For this reason, Lombroso has been mostly vilified by the criminological community. However, he was not universally vilified. Some scholars noted the nuance and keen insights that Lombroso had about criminal offenders, insights that could not be confirmed until more than a century later with advances in brain imaging and genetics. In other words, although Lombroso’s approach was mostly crude, there were glints of brilliance.
  4.  
  5. Major Works
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  7. Lombroso’s essential work is the five volumes of Criminal Man, first published between 1876 and 1897. As suggested in DeLisi 2012 (cited under Contemporary Responses: Paradigm Shifts), Lombroso’s work can be effectively characterized as good, bad, and ugly based on the assorted claims that he made. Whereas much of his work can easily be dismissed and condemned, other aspects were empirically more defensible. The development of his atavism theory and general views of the criminal man are contained in these five volumes. Other summary works (Lombroso 1911) and a focused study of female criminals (Lombroso and Ferrero 2004) are either derivative of Criminal Man or simply contain the general approach of it. The final chapter of the first edition, chapter 11, titled “Atavism and Punishment,” presents the chilling ideas for his atavism theory where he suggests, “Those who have read this far should now be persuaded that criminals resemble savages and the colored races” (Lombroso 2006a, p. 91). The second edition (Lombroso 2006b), published in 1878, contained nine new chapters of information relating to suicide, recidivism, morality, weather, race, and other topics. There is a subtle shift and greater nuance to the discussion of the criminal population, whereby gradations of criminality or a more typological approach is used. The third edition (Lombroso 2006c), published in 1884, contained nine new chapters on topics such as the hands of criminals, prostitution, moral insanity, brain abnormalities, and others. The fourth edition (Lombroso 2006d) was published in 1889 and included twelve new chapters on topics such as physiological aspects of crime, communication patterns among criminals, and multiple chapters relating to epilepsy. The fifth edition (Lombroso 2006e) contained four volumes of material and was published in 1896 and 1897. It contained seven new chapters, many of which were expanded versions of earlier material. In other words, the five editions of Criminal Man reflected an iterative process by which Lombroso added additional chapters on constructs or topics that he felt were related to antisocial individuals.
  8.  
  9. Lombroso, Cesare. 1911. Crime: Its causes and remedies. Translated by Henry P. Horton. Boston: Little Brown.
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  11. This work was first published two years after Lombroso’s death and is largely derivative of the concepts that were advanced in the five editions of Criminal Man.
  12. Lombroso, Cesare. 1911. Crime: Its causes and remedies. Translated by Henry P. Horton. Boston: Little Brown.
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  14. Lombroso, Cesare. 2006a. “Criminal man: Edition 1.” In Criminal man. Edited and translated by Mary Gibson and Nicole Hahn Rafter, 39–96. Durham, NC: Duke Univ. Press.
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  16. The first edition of Criminal Man, published in 1876, sets the tone for which Lombroso is most known. For instance, chapter 1, titled “Criminal craniums (sixty-six skulls),” cites cranial anatomy as demonstrative of the lower development of specific groups. For instance, “These [skull] features recall the black American and Mongol races and, above all, prehistoric man much more than the white races” (p. 49).
  17. Lombroso, Cesare. 2006a. “Criminal man: Edition 1.” In Criminal man. Edited and translated by Mary Gibson and Nicole Hahn Rafter, 39–96. Durham, NC: Duke Univ. Press.
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  19. Lombroso, Cesare. 2006b. “Criminal man: Edition 2.” In Criminal man. Edited and translated by Mary Gibson and Nicole Hahn Rafter, 97–160. Durham, NC: Duke Univ. Press.
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  21. The second edition, published in 1878, contains a somewhat more nuanced approach to the criminal man. Lombroso speculated that criminals of passion and the criminally insane are more likely than common criminals to commit suicide. However, there is also the crude analysis where crimes of passion are portrayed as common among those living in a savage state.
  22. Lombroso, Cesare. 2006b. “Criminal man: Edition 2.” In Criminal man. Edited and translated by Mary Gibson and Nicole Hahn Rafter, 97–160. Durham, NC: Duke Univ. Press.
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  24. Lombroso, Cesare. 2006c. “Criminal man: Edition 3.” In Criminal man. Edited and translated by Mary Gibson and Nicole Hahn Rafter, 161–226. Durham, NC: Duke Univ. Press.
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  26. The third edition, published in 1884, contained nine new chapters on topics such as the hands of criminals, prostitution, moral insanity, brain abnormalities, and others. This edition also introduces the category of the “born criminal,” which Lombroso believed comprised about 40 percent of the offender population.
  27. Lombroso, Cesare. 2006c. “Criminal man: Edition 3.” In Criminal man. Edited and translated by Mary Gibson and Nicole Hahn Rafter, 161–226. Durham, NC: Duke Univ. Press.
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  29. Lombroso, Cesare. 2006d. “Criminal man: Edition 4.” In Criminal man. Edited and translated by Mary Gibson and Nicole Hahn Rafter, 227–298. Durham, NC: Duke Univ. Press.
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  31. The fourth edition was first published in 1889 and included twelve new chapters on topics such as physiological aspects of crime and communication patterns among criminals; also included were multiple chapters relating to epilepsy. For instance, Lombroso noted, “Epilepsy, like a complete type of atavism, is characterized by primordial religiosity, ferocity, instability, impetuosity, agility, cannibalism, irascibility, precocity, and animal instincts” (p. 266).
  32. Lombroso, Cesare. 2006d. “Criminal man: Edition 4.” In Criminal man. Edited and translated by Mary Gibson and Nicole Hahn Rafter, 227–298. Durham, NC: Duke Univ. Press.
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  34. Lombroso, Cesare. 2006e. “Criminal man: Edition 5.” In Criminal man. Edited and translated by Mary Gibson and Nicole Hahn Rafter, 299–356. Durham, NC: Duke Univ. Press.
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  36. The fifth edition contained four volumes of material and was published in 1896 and 1897. It contained seven new chapters, many of which were expanded versions of earlier material. It explored political criminals, ecological correlates of crime, and even crime prevention. This edition also contains material where Lombroso warns about the mixing of the population by race and the liberal and thus ineffective policies of the criminal justice system.
  37. Lombroso, Cesare. 2006e. “Criminal man: Edition 5.” In Criminal man. Edited and translated by Mary Gibson and Nicole Hahn Rafter, 299–356. Durham, NC: Duke Univ. Press.
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  39. Lombroso, Cesare, and Guglielmo Ferrero. 2004. Criminal woman, the prostitute, and the normal woman Translated by Mary Gibson and Nicole Hahn Rafter. Durham, NC: Duke Univ. Press.
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  41. Originally published in 1893. Ironically, Lombroso was rare in that he systematically studied female offenders, which for many years before and after were ignored by criminological researchers. However, much of the outrageous pronouncements that typify his views of (male) offenders are also levied towards women who engage in antisocial conduct.
  42. Lombroso, Cesare, and Guglielmo Ferrero. 2004. Criminal woman, the prostitute, and the normal woman Translated by Mary Gibson and Nicole Hahn Rafter. Durham, NC: Duke Univ. Press.
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  44. Historical Responses
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  46. The bulk of the historical responses to Lombroso were justifiably negative and condemning. Two considerations about this historical treatment should be made. First is the appropriate negative response to the racist and misanthropic tone of this writings. But the second issue is that some critiques of Lombroso stem from disciplinary turf-guarding where biology is viewed as inappropriate to a sociological study of crime. The following works reflect this balance and contain sociologically oriented critiques and interdisciplinary-oriented (and more balanced) examinations. Still others are blatantly eugenicist in their perspective (Galton 1869, Galton 1904). More detail about these works and how they fit into historical responses to Lombroso appears next.
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  48. Receptive Perspectives
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  50. Given the considerable ideological baggage that accompanies Lombroso’s work, few scholars were openly embracing of his views. However, Galton 1869 and Galton 1904 enthusiastically endorsed Lombroso’s most controversial ideas, in part because of Galton’s own eugenicist views on the human population. At the turn of the 21st century, the criminologist who has been most vocal in supporting a biologically oriented study of crime has been Lee Ellis; Ellis 1998 offers ways that neo-Darwinian thinking could advance the study of crime.
  51.  
  52. Ellis, Lee. 1998. Neodarwinian theories of violent criminality and antisocial behavior: Photographic evidence from nonhuman animals and a review of the literature. Aggression and Violent Behavior 3:61–110.
  53. DOI: 10.1016/S1359-1789(96)00019-5Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  54. This article examines the evolutionary development of crime and related behaviors in a manner that is consistent with Lombroso’s work. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  55. Ellis, Lee. 1998. Neodarwinian theories of violent criminality and antisocial behavior: Photographic evidence from nonhuman animals and a review of the literature. Aggression and Violent Behavior 3:61–110.
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  57. Galton, Francis. 1869. Hereditary genius: An inquiry into its laws and consequences. London: Macmillan.
  58. DOI: 10.1037/13474-000Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  59. This classic book advocates the social Darwinism that would later become associated with Lombroso’s research. Galton coined the term eugenics and is the most closely associated with research that supports eugenics policies.
  60. Galton, Francis. 1869. Hereditary genius: An inquiry into its laws and consequences. London: Macmillan.
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  62. Galton, Francis. 1904. Eugenics: Its definition, scope, and aims. American Journal of Sociology 10:1–25.
  63. DOI: 10.1086/211280Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  64. This article, with reactions from eminent social scientists and others, contains at times chilling language about the scope and aims of eugenics policies. It contains a tone that is also found in Lombroso’s research.
  65. Galton, Francis. 1904. Eugenics: Its definition, scope, and aims. American Journal of Sociology 10:1–25.
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  67. Critical Perspectives
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  69. The modal response to Lombroso over the past century has been a critical, and even vociferously critical, reaction. In various ways, the following authors take umbrage with a variety of issues offered by Lombroso. Central to these critical perspectives is concern about using biological constructs in theory and research on crime. Beirne 1987, Gibson 2002, Lindesmith and Levin 1937, Steffensmeier and Clark 1980, Thrasher 1949, and Vold 1951 represent sociologically oriented critiques.
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  71. Beirne, Piers. 1987. Adolphe Quetelet and the origins of positivist criminology. American Journal of Sociology 92:1140–1169.
  72. DOI: 10.1086/228630Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  73. This article explores the history of positivist criminology, of which Lombroso was a founder, and is critical of the determinist perspective of biologically based theories. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  74. Beirne, Piers. 1987. Adolphe Quetelet and the origins of positivist criminology. American Journal of Sociology 92:1140–1169.
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  76. Gibson, Mary. 2002. Born to crime: Cesare Lombroso and the origins of biological criminology. Westport, CT: Praeger.
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  78. This book explores the interconnections among Lombroso’s work, politics, ideology, and public policy. The author has been instrumental at translating Lombroso’s work into English.
  79. Gibson, Mary. 2002. Born to crime: Cesare Lombroso and the origins of biological criminology. Westport, CT: Praeger.
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  81. Lindesmith, Alfred, and Yale Levin. 1937. The Lombrosian myth in criminology. American Journal of Sociology 42:653–671.
  82. DOI: 10.1086/217542Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  83. This article is sharply critical of Lombroso’s research approach as well as his reputation in the criminology canon. It is an exemplar of the sociological critique of Lombrosian thought, for example, “There is no actual evidence in the voluminous criminological literature of the nineteenth century, before or after the time of Lombroso, which justifies the extravagant eulogies that are made of him” (p. 654). Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  84. Lindesmith, Alfred, and Yale Levin. 1937. The Lombrosian myth in criminology. American Journal of Sociology 42:653–671.
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  86. Steffensmeier, Darrell J., and Robert E. Clark. 1980. Sociocultural vs. biological/sexist explanations of sex differences in crime: A survey of American criminology textbooks, 1918–1965. American Sociologist 15:246–255.
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  88. This is an empirical look at the coverage of sex differences in crime within textbooks and the various explanations for them. It takes Lombroso to task for his views on female offenders and the general role of biological factors. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  89. Steffensmeier, Darrell J., and Robert E. Clark. 1980. Sociocultural vs. biological/sexist explanations of sex differences in crime: A survey of American criminology textbooks, 1918–1965. American Sociologist 15:246–255.
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  91. Thrasher, Frederic M. 1949. The comics and delinquency: Cause or scapegoat. Journal of Educational Sociology 23:195–205.
  92. DOI: 10.2307/2264555Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  93. This is a critical assessment of Lombroso’s work that focuses on methodological issues that limit his work. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  94. Thrasher, Frederic M. 1949. The comics and delinquency: Cause or scapegoat. Journal of Educational Sociology 23:195–205.
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  96. Vold, George B. 1951. Criminology at the crossroads. Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science 42:155–162.
  97. DOI: 10.2307/1139873Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  98. This work provides a general overview of Lombroso and overall concludes that his research and the biological paradigm generally are not taken seriously by criminology. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  99. Vold, George B. 1951. Criminology at the crossroads. Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science 42:155–162.
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  101. Balanced Perspectives
  102.  
  103. Although much of Lombroso’s work was responded to in a negative and even pejorative manner, there is also substantial evidence of criminologists who were willing to investigate Lombroso beyond his patently absurd ideas. For more than half of the 20th century, criminologists and behavioral scientists discussed the keen insights from Lombroso’s work and the potential of using the field of biology to study human behavior. Fishbein 1990, Mannheim 1936, Raine 1993, Rowe and Osgood 1984, Sellin 1937, Wilson and Herrnstein 1985, Wolfgang 1961, and Wolfgang 1972 represent interdisciplinary-oriented examinations.
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  105. Fishbein, Diana H. 1990. Biological perspectives in criminology. Criminology 28:27–72.
  106. DOI: 10.1111/j.1745-9125.1990.tb01317.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  107. Somewhat before its time, this article reviews content areas that show the relevance of biology to crime and thus runs counter to many works in criminology at the time which were critical of Lombroso. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  108. Fishbein, Diana H. 1990. Biological perspectives in criminology. Criminology 28:27–72.
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  110. Mannheim, Hermann. 1936. Lombroso and his place in modern criminology. The Sociological Review 1:31–49.
  111. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-954X.1936.tb01318.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  112. This article presents a more balanced view of Lombroso’s research that both criticizes the abhorrent aspects of his work while also acknowledging the important insights. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  113. Mannheim, Hermann. 1936. Lombroso and his place in modern criminology. The Sociological Review 1:31–49.
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  115. Raine, Adrian. 1993. The psychopathology of crime: Criminal behavior as a clinical disorder. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
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  117. This book is a general primer about the role of biological, neurological, endocrine, and genetic factors in the etiology of problem behaviors and crime. It shows the sophistication in biological criminology and how far it has come since Lombroso’s era.
  118. Raine, Adrian. 1993. The psychopathology of crime: Criminal behavior as a clinical disorder. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
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  120. Rowe, David C., and D. Wayne Osgood. 1984. Heredity and sociological theories of delinquency: A reconsideration. American Sociological Review 49:526–540.
  121. DOI: 10.2307/2095466Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  122. Published in the leading sociology journal, this article shows the compatibility of sociological and biological frames of inquiry toward the study of crime. This article was ahead of its time. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  123. Rowe, David C., and D. Wayne Osgood. 1984. Heredity and sociological theories of delinquency: A reconsideration. American Sociological Review 49:526–540.
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  125. Sellin, Thorsten. 1937. Letter to the editor on “The Lombrosian Myth in Criminology.” American Journal of Sociology 42:897–899.
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  127. This article is a response and critique of the Lindesmith and Levin article that is more supportive of Lombroso. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  128. Sellin, Thorsten. 1937. Letter to the editor on “The Lombrosian Myth in Criminology.” American Journal of Sociology 42:897–899.
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  130. Wilson, James Q., and Richard J. Herrnstein. 1985. Crime and human nature: The definitive study of the causes of crime. New York: Free Press.
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  132. This book shocked the field of criminology by utilizing constructs from an array of disciplines outside of sociology—including biology—to explain crime. It brought an unapologetic tone to the use of the biological to understand crime, and was sharply criticized in some ways consistent with the criticism that Lombroso’s work received.
  133. Wilson, James Q., and Richard J. Herrnstein. 1985. Crime and human nature: The definitive study of the causes of crime. New York: Free Press.
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  135. Wolfgang, Marvin E. 1961. Pioneers in criminology: Cesare Lombroso (1835–1909). Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science 52:361–391.
  136. DOI: 10.2307/1141263Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  137. This article provides a balanced assessment and in some respects defense of the reasonable aspects of Lombroso’s work. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  138. Wolfgang, Marvin E. 1961. Pioneers in criminology: Cesare Lombroso (1835–1909). Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science 52:361–391.
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  140. Wolfgang, Marvin E. 1972. Cesare Lombroso: 1835–1909. In Pioneers in criminology. 2d ed. Edited by Hermann Mannheim, 232–291. Montclair, NJ: Patterson Smith.
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  142. This article also provides a balanced assessment and in some respects defense of the reasonable aspects of Lombroso’s work. It is similar to the defense by Sellin that was published thirty-five years earlier.
  143. Wolfgang, Marvin E. 1972. Cesare Lombroso: 1835–1909. In Pioneers in criminology. 2d ed. Edited by Hermann Mannheim, 232–291. Montclair, NJ: Patterson Smith.
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  145. Contemporary Responses
  146.  
  147. Over time, some criminologists began to incorporate biological constructs in their research and advocate for a more interdisciplinary approach to studying crime. This new approach acknowledged Lombroso’s specific attainments but also offered no allegiance to his methodological and ideological biases. In this way, the biosocial criminology paradigm (which is semantically different from Lombroso’s biological criminology) is more scientifically nuanced and palatable to many criminologists, most of whom are still trained in the sociological tradition. Many of these works reflect this balanced assessment of biology and crime, often without much reference to Lombroso or his historical baggage. Some are still quite critical and reminiscent of an earlier response to biological explanation in general and Lombroso’s work in particular. The most visible development in this research area is the explosion of research by the Biosocial Criminology Research Group and others who expressly advocate using genetics and brain imaging to study and understand crime. Unlike prior eras where biologically friendly criminologists were defensive and sensitive to the negative lineage of Lombroso, this new guard is confident, unapologetic, and feverishly empirical in its approach to criminology. The contemporary responses to Lombroso are organized into four types and are discussed in more detail next.
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  149. Paradigm Shifts
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  151. In more recent years, studies from criminologists, including Angel 2011; Beaver 2009; Beaver and Walsh 2010; Beaver and Walsh 2011; Cooper, et al. 2010; DeLisi 2012; DeLisi, et al. 2010; and DeLisi, et al. 2009, have become bolder in their embrace of biological constructs to study crime, and ironically, often do so without much mention of Lombroso. This reflects a paradigm shift whereby Lombroso’s central notion—that biology matters for the study of crime—has come full circle. The following works show how theory and research in criminology and in the behavioral sciences generally are readily compatible with biological research.
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  153. Angel, Ronald J. 2011. Agency versus structure: Genetics, group membership, and a new twist on an old debate. Social Science & Medicine 73:632–635.
  154. DOI: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2011.06.039Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  155. This article is an admonition about the place of biology in social science research that compares the crudeness of much of Lombroso’s work with the sophistication of current biosocial research. It shows how far biological research has penetrated into the normal theorizing of social science. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  156. Angel, Ronald J. 2011. Agency versus structure: Genetics, group membership, and a new twist on an old debate. Social Science & Medicine 73:632–635.
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  158. Beaver, Kevin M. 2009. Biosocial criminology: A primer. Dubuque, IA: Kendall Hunt.
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  160. This book is an introduction and overview of biosocial methods and research. Ironically, it shows how far the biosocial paradigm is removed from the biological approach of Lombroso.
  161. Beaver, Kevin M. 2009. Biosocial criminology: A primer. Dubuque, IA: Kendall Hunt.
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  163. Beaver, Kevin M., and Anthony Walsh. 2010. Biosocial theories of crime. Burlington, VT: Ashgate.
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  165. This book is an edited volume of previously published research on biological correlates of antisocial behavior. It contains research by scholars from an array of academic perspectives.
  166. Beaver, Kevin M., and Anthony Walsh. 2010. Biosocial theories of crime. Burlington, VT: Ashgate.
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  168. Beaver, Kevin M., and Anthony Walsh. 2011. The Ashgate research companion to biosocial theories of crime. Burlington, VT: Ashgate.
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  170. This volume is a companion to Beaver and Walsh 2010 above but contains new contributions from emerging and established scholars in biosocial criminology. There is little mention of Lombroso, which again attests to his reduced visibility in this area of research.
  171. Beaver, Kevin M., and Anthony Walsh. 2011. The Ashgate research companion to biosocial theories of crime. Burlington, VT: Ashgate.
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  173. Cooper, Jonathon A., Anthony Walsh, and Lee Ellis. 2010. Is criminology moving toward a paradigm shift? Evidence from a survey of the American Society of Criminology. Journal of Criminal Justice Education 21:332–347.
  174. DOI: 10.1080/10511253.2010.487830Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  175. This survey of members of the American Society of Criminology demonstrates the emergence of biological factors in the theorizing and research of criminologists. The authors suggest that a paradigm shift is underway, something that could not have been said in most prior eras of criminology. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  176. Cooper, Jonathon A., Anthony Walsh, and Lee Ellis. 2010. Is criminology moving toward a paradigm shift? Evidence from a survey of the American Society of Criminology. Journal of Criminal Justice Education 21:332–347.
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  178. DeLisi, Matt. 2012. Revisiting Lombroso. In The Oxford handbook of criminological theory. Edited by Francis T. Cullen and Pamela Wilcox. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
  179. DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199747238.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  180. This work summarizes Lombroso’s main contributions and the various criminological responses to them using the metaphor of good, bad, and ugly to characterize Lombroso’s oeuvre.
  181. DeLisi, Matt. 2012. Revisiting Lombroso. In The Oxford handbook of criminological theory. Edited by Francis T. Cullen and Pamela Wilcox. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
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  183. DeLisi, Matt, Kevin M. Beaver, Michael G. Vaughn, and John Paul Wright. 2010. Contemporary perspectives on biological and biosocial theories of crime. In Criminological theory: Readings and retrospectives. Edited by Heith Copes and Volkan Topalli, 74–83. New York: McGraw-Hill.
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  185. This work, written by the four members of the Biosocial Criminology Research Group, explores the reputation and contributions of Lombroso and the ways that the current biosocial criminology paradigm differs from the approach taken by him. In many respects, the chapter creates separation between the current era and Lombroso.
  186. DeLisi, Matt, Kevin M. Beaver, Michael G. Vaughn, and John Paul Wright. 2010. Contemporary perspectives on biological and biosocial theories of crime. In Criminological theory: Readings and retrospectives. Edited by Heith Copes and Volkan Topalli, 74–83. New York: McGraw-Hill.
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  188. DeLisi, Matt, John Paul Wright, Michael G. Vaughn, and Kevin M. Beaver. 2009. Copernican criminology. The Criminologist 34:14–16.
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  190. This strident article warns criminologists that failing to embrace a biosocial perspective, with all of the evidence that is being accumulated, will result in professional obsolescence. It suggests that the biosocial paradigm is a Copernican revolution.
  191. DeLisi, Matt, John Paul Wright, Michael G. Vaughn, and Kevin M. Beaver. 2009. Copernican criminology. The Criminologist 34:14–16.
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  193. The Emergence of Genetics
  194.  
  195. Lombroso lacked the technology to genotype research participants and explore empirical linkages among measured genes, measured environments, and measured behaviors. Today, scholars have such luxury. One of the most exciting—and to some, controversial—areas in the biologically friendly study of crime centers on genetics research. Despite initial concerns, genetics research demonstrates the important role of environmental factors at modifying genetic factors (and vice versa) to show how nature and nurture interact instead of compete. Caspi, et al. 2002; DeLisi 2012; and Moffitt 2005 highlight the role of genetic factors in criminal behaviors.
  196.  
  197. Caspi, Avshalom, Joseph McClay, Terrie E. Moffitt, et al. 2002. Role of genotype in the cycle of violence in maltreated children. Science 297:851–854.
  198. DOI: 10.1126/science.1072290Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  199. This study is among the first to demonstrate the interaction between a measured gene and measured environments to produce antisocial outcomes. It focuses on the MAOA gene and child maltreatment and found that high biological and high environmental risks are most likely to produce antisocial outcomes. Available online with registration.
  200. Caspi, Avshalom, Joseph McClay, Terrie E. Moffitt, et al. 2002. Role of genotype in the cycle of violence in maltreated children. Science 297:851–854.
  201. Find this resource:
  202. DeLisi, Matt. 2012. Genetics: L’Enfant terrible of criminology. Journal of Criminal Justice 40:515–516.
  203. DOI: 10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2012.08.002Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  204. This pithy editorial demonstrates the salience of genes for understanding criminal behavior and highlights recent research on the topic. It advises that scholars who dispute genetics face professional embarrassment. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  205. DeLisi, Matt. 2012. Genetics: L’Enfant terrible of criminology. Journal of Criminal Justice 40:515–516.
  206. Find this resource:
  207. Moffitt, Terrie E. 2005. The new look of behavioral genetics in developmental psychopathology: Gene-environment interplay in antisocial behaviors. Psychological Bulletin 131:533–554.
  208. DOI: 10.1037/0033-2909.131.4.533Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  209. This article is an overview of the gene-environment interplay that exists in psychology and the neurosciences. It shows the grace and complexity of biologically oriented research that typifies the current paradigm. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  210. Moffitt, Terrie E. 2005. The new look of behavioral genetics in developmental psychopathology: Gene-environment interplay in antisocial behaviors. Psychological Bulletin 131:533–554.
  211. Find this resource:
  212. Biosocial Criminology
  213.  
  214. Although the flurry of biosocial research in criminology reflects a paradigm shift in the field (Gatti and Verde 2012), it has not gone without criticism. Although most contemporary research ignores Lombroso, many of the concerns about biology writ large remain. Rafter 2005, Rafter 2007, Rock 2007, Shichor 2010, and Walby and Carrier 2010 convey this concern and guarded caution about using biological constructs in criminology.
  215.  
  216. Gatti, Uberto and Alfredo Verde. 2012. Cesare Lombroso: Methodological ambiguities and brilliant intuitions. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 35:19–26.
  217. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijlp.2011.11.004Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  218. This article highlights the many areas of criminological scholarship where Lombroso had keen insights that anticipated many of the research areas of the current biosocial paradigm. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  219. Gatti, Uberto and Alfredo Verde. 2012. Cesare Lombroso: Methodological ambiguities and brilliant intuitions. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 35:19–26.
  220. Find this resource:
  221. Mazzarello, Paolo. 2011. Cesare Lombroso: An anthropologist between evolution and degeneration. Functional Neurology 26:91–101.
  222. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  223. This interesting article explores the interplay among criminality, madness or mental illness, and genius in Lombroso’s work.
  224. Mazzarello, Paolo. 2011. Cesare Lombroso: An anthropologist between evolution and degeneration. Functional Neurology 26:91–101.
  225. Find this resource:
  226. Rafter, Nicole. 2005. The murderous Dutch fiddler: Criminology, history and the problem of phrenology. Theoretical Criminology 9:65–96.
  227. DOI: 10.1177/1362480605048943Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  228. This detailed history explores the limitations of phrenology and the biological paradigm generally.
  229. Rafter, Nicole. 2005. The murderous Dutch fiddler: Criminology, history and the problem of phrenology. Theoretical Criminology 9:65–96.
  230. Find this resource:
  231. Rafter, Nicole. 2007. Somatotyping, antimodernism, and the production of criminological knowledge. Criminology 45:805–834.
  232. DOI: 10.1111/j.1745-9125.2007.00092.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  233. This article is critical of the biological approach with special focus on examining body types as a correlate of crime. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  234. Rafter, Nicole. 2007. Somatotyping, antimodernism, and the production of criminological knowledge. Criminology 45:805–834.
  235. Find this resource:
  236. Rafter, Nicole. 2008. The criminal brain: Understanding biological theories of crime. New York: New York Univ. Press.
  237. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  238. This book explores the new paradigm of biosocial criminology but is still largely dated in its critical take on biology and concerted effort to link current research to Lombroso.
  239. Rafter, Nicole. 2008. The criminal brain: Understanding biological theories of crime. New York: New York Univ. Press.
  240. Find this resource:
  241. Rock, Paul. 2007. Caesare Lombroso as a signal criminologist. Criminology & Criminal Justice 7:117–133.
  242. DOI: 10.1177/1748895807075565Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  243. This critical article readdresses the place of Lombroso in the criminological canon and indicates that he is overrated given the inaccuracy of many of his views. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  244. Rock, Paul. 2007. Caesare Lombroso as a signal criminologist. Criminology & Criminal Justice 7:117–133.
  245. Find this resource:
  246. Shichor, David. 2010. The French-Italian controversy: A neglected historical topic in criminological literacy. Journal of Criminal Justice Education 21:211–228.
  247. DOI: 10.1080/10511253.2010.488109Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  248. This detailed sociohistory examines Lombroso and the larger issues relating to his effect on Italian criminology and its relation to thought in other nations. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  249. Shichor, David. 2010. The French-Italian controversy: A neglected historical topic in criminological literacy. Journal of Criminal Justice Education 21:211–228.
  250. Find this resource:
  251. Walby, Kevin, and Nicola Carrier. 2010. The rise of biocriminology: Capturing observable bodily economies of “criminal man.” Criminology & Criminal Justice 10:261–285.
  252. DOI: 10.1177/1748895810370314Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  253. This article is very critical of the biosocial criminology paradigm and in many respects harkens back to the reactionary dislike of Lombroso. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  254. Walby, Kevin, and Nicola Carrier. 2010. The rise of biocriminology: Capturing observable bodily economies of “criminal man.” Criminology & Criminal Justice 10:261–285.
  255. Find this resource:
  256. Prevention and Treatment
  257.  
  258. It is important to note that biological constructs are being used not only to explain crime, but also to prevent it (an area that was also an interest of Lombroso). Several scholars point to the potential of burgeoning biosocial knowledge to inform prevention and treatment efforts (see Rocque, et al. 2012; Vaske, et al. 2011; Wilson and Scarpa 2012). Consequently, other works (Wright, et al. 2008a; Wright, et al. 2008b; Wright and Cullen 2012; Wright and Miller 1998) stress the importance of biological training for criminologists to become conversant in this new paradigm. The following works highlight the potential of biosocial criminology to inform prevention and treatment efforts and the need to educate criminologists in biological sciences to keep up with this new research paradigm.
  259.  
  260. Rocque, Michael, Brandon C. Welsh, and Adrian Raine. 2012. Biosocial criminology and modern crime prevention. Journal of Criminal Justice 40:306–312.
  261. DOI: 10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2012.05.003Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  262. This paper reviews multiple ways in which crime prevention programs, an area studied by Lombroso, utilize knowledge from biosocial research to prevent antisocial development. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  263. Rocque, Michael, Brandon C. Welsh, and Adrian Raine. 2012. Biosocial criminology and modern crime prevention. Journal of Criminal Justice 40:306–312.
  264. Find this resource:
  265. Vaske, Jamie, Kevin Galyean, and Francis T. Cullen. 2011. Toward a biosocial theory of offender rehabilitation: Why does cognitive-behavioral therapy work? Journal of Criminal Justice 39:90–102.
  266. DOI: 10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2010.12.006Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  267. One of the most popular areas of correctional treatment is cognitive-behavioral therapy, and this article illustrates the reasons why it works from a neurodevelopmental perspective. Its authors are both biosocial and classic sociological criminologists. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  268. Vaske, Jamie, Kevin Galyean, and Francis T. Cullen. 2011. Toward a biosocial theory of offender rehabilitation: Why does cognitive-behavioral therapy work? Journal of Criminal Justice 39:90–102.
  269. Find this resource:
  270. Wilson, Laura C., and Angela Scarpa. 2012. Criminal behavior: The need for an integrative approach that incorporates biological influences. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice 28:366–381.
  271. DOI: 10.1177/1043986212450232Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  272. This article is part of a special issue on biosocial criminology and articulates a broad-based incorporation of biological constructs and methods toward the study of crime and related problem behaviors. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  273. Wilson, Laura C., and Angela Scarpa. 2012. Criminal behavior: The need for an integrative approach that incorporates biological influences. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice 28:366–381.
  274. Find this resource:
  275. Wright, John Paul, Kevin M. Beaver, Matt DeLisi, Michael G. Vaughn, Danielle Boisvert, and Jamie Vaske. 2008a. Lombroso’s legacy: The miseducation of criminologists. Journal of Criminal Justice Education 19:325–338.
  276. DOI: 10.1080/10511250802476137Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  277. This article presents results of a survey which indicates that very few criminologists are trained at all in the biological sciences, a neglect that is due in large part to the assorted negative reputation and connotation of Lombroso’s work. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  278. Wright, John Paul, Kevin M. Beaver, Matt DeLisi, Michael G. Vaughn, Danielle Boisvert, and Jamie Vaske. 2008a. Lombroso’s legacy: The miseducation of criminologists. Journal of Criminal Justice Education 19:325–338.
  279. Find this resource:
  280. Wright, John Paul, and Francis T. Cullen. 2012. The future of biosocial criminology: Beyond scholars’ professional ideology. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice 28:237–253.
  281. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  282. This article explores the interplay between criminologists’ ideological perspective and disciplinary perspective, and how this bears on the ascendancy of and concerns about biosocial criminology. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  283. Wright, John Paul, and Francis T. Cullen. 2012. The future of biosocial criminology: Beyond scholars’ professional ideology. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice 28:237–253.
  284. Find this resource:
  285. Wright, John Paul, Stephen G. Tibbetts, and Leah E. Daigle. 2008b. Criminals in the making: Criminality across the life course. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
  286. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  287. This is a leading textbook that explores broad biological constructs and their relation to crime. Its coverage of the brain and the neural underpinnings of behavior is top-notch.
  288. Wright, John Paul, Stephen G. Tibbetts, and Leah E. Daigle. 2008b. Criminals in the making: Criminality across the life course. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
  289. Find this resource:
  290. Wright, Richard A., and J. Mitchell Miller. 1998. Taboo until today? The coverage of biological arguments in criminology textbooks, 1961 to 1970 and 1987 to 1996. Journal of Criminal Justice 26:1–19.
  291. DOI: 10.1016/S0047-2352(97)00050-0Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  292. This study of criminology textbooks shows the waxing and waning of coverage of biology. Given the rapid ascendancy of biosocial criminology, the results would be even more pronounced today. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  293. Wright, Richard A., and J. Mitchell Miller. 1998. Taboo until today? The coverage of biological arguments in criminology textbooks, 1961 to 1970 and 1987 to 1996. Journal of Criminal Justice 26:1–19.
  294. Find this resource:
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