Research paper

	Racism and Segregation during the Jim Crow Era began after the occupation of the south by the Union ended. This occupation was to allow reconstruction to occur so that buildings could be repaired, and allow for forced equality in an area that historically has been unjust to the minority population. After the occupation ended, the local population reverted to their discriminatory ways. They remained unchallenged on a large scale until June 7th, 1892, when Homer Plessy, a light skinned mulatto, sat in a white car while declaring himself to be of African descent (Wormser, “Plessy…”). This caused Homer Plessy to be arrested promptly, and a lawsuit followed that led itself to the supreme court. “Plessy’s lawyer argued that the Separate Car Act violated the thirteenth and fourteenth Amendments to the Constitution (Wormser, “Plessy…”). These Amendments guaranteed equal voting rights, and banned racial discrimination in the United States. Seven Justices voted in favor of Ferguson believing that the Segregation statue was constitutional so long as there were equal facilities (Wormser, “Plessy…”). This ruling set the stage for inequality throughout the South. As a result, Jim Crow Laws began covering things pertaining to public and private areas of life.
	The Origin of the Jim Crow Laws did not begin with a real person. The laws were nicknamed after a minstrel character featured in a song that Daddy Rice sang (“The Origin…”). These minstrel shows featured white men dressing up as black men and singing comical songs. Daddy Rice was one of the most famous Minstrel characters of the time. Because his popularity was so far reaching, the discriminatory laws were named in his character’s honor. The laws were established mainly for the control of the blacks (“the Origin…”). The southern democrats in particular felt the need to control the blacks, after the radical republicans forced reconstruction on the south. The necessity to control the blacks stemmed directly from the uplift in society they received during reconstruction, with some even holding public offices. Once the Union stopped the occupation, there was no legal way to stop segregation except by military occupation. The fourteenth amendment to the constitution prohibited the states of the country from racial segregation and discrimination, but private enterprise could not constitutionally be bound to integration, nor could the people themselves (“The Origin…”). The amendment established blacks and native Americans as citizens, and thus, disallowed discrimination within state and federal law to occur. It could not however bind businesses that operated privately, as there was no such law in effect during the time period because the idea was that one could choose whom one could offer their goods and services to. Many businesses thrived because of segregation, such as railroads, hotels, and theaters (‘The Origin…”). This was later changed in the 1963 civil rights act, which stated among other things, that businesses could not discriminate on grounds of race, religion, gender, etc., thus ending the Jim Crow era forever.
	Before the Supreme Court ruled that states could not force segregation legally, many Jim Crow laws were passed that pertained to one’s life. Mississippi established that “The marriage of a person of Caucasian blood with a Negro, Mongolian, Malay, or Hindu shall be null and void (Randall).” Mississippi banned intermarriage completely, making any miscegenation illegal. Some states, like Florida only banned interracial marriage if there was a black in the fourth generation or closer (Randall). This followed previous precedents through history establishing a need for less than 1/16 descent from minorities, and blacks in particular. “ Any negro man and white woman, or white man and negro woman, who are not married to each other, who shall habitually live in and occupy in the nighttime the same room shall each be punished by imprisonment not to exceed twelve months or by fine not to exceed five hundred dollars (Randall).” This law, enacted in Mississippi prevented white people of gender opposite that of blacks from living with them. This was a further preventative measure to prevent miscegenation from occurring. The social normality was not to have interracial relations, but especially in the later civil rights movement, it became more popular to go against the social normality. “Any person… who shall be guilty of printing, publishing, or circulating printed, typewritten, or written matter urging or presenting for public acceptance or general information, arguments or suggestions in favor of social equality or of intermarriage between whites and negroes, shall be guilty of misdemeanor and subject to [a] fine not exceeding five hundred dollars or imprisonment not exceeding six months or both (Randall)". This law was an infringement on the constitution, limiting speech about social equality. This law made it a crime to even disseminate writings in favor of anything but racial segregation. The level that state legislature went to in order to prevent the spreading of the idea of social equality shows how strongly they feared the possibility of blacks even becoming their equals.
	R.C. Hickman was a black photographer who served in the military during World War Two ("R.C. Hickman). He began photography while working for the Army, and after his enlistment ran out, he began working for newspapers (R.C. Hickman). Although the military was desegregated, many places were not. The newspaper industry was among those that was still segregated, and though Hickman had good photographs, the fact that he was a good photographer made no difference, and the paper he worked for would not use them on a regular basis (R.C. Hickman). Hickman did however find a much more worthy cause to put his skills to work for in the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. His photos were used as evidence in legal cases fighting the discrimination against black people (R.C.Hickman). his work was able to advance multiple legal cases, proving that even those discriminated against are able to fight a faulty system.
	"Marcus Garvey was an ardent black nationalist who advocated self-help and unity among black people everywhere (Wormser, "Marcus Garvey")." In 1914, Garvey began the Universal Negro Improvement Association that grew to dozens of chapters around the world and became the largest black organization in history (Wormser, "Marcus Garvey"). His organization helped black people stop relying on the government and white people for support.  Garvey then began a newspaper known as The Negro World, which attacked colonialism; promoted black nationalism; and encouraged pan-African ideas (Wormser, "Marcus Garvey"). This put him at ends with other black leaders like W.E.B. Dubois, who thought that his ideas were radical and believed he delegitimized the civil rights movement. Though from him humble upbringing in Jamaica, Garvey was able to accomplish a great deal for himself, and for his race.
	On August thirtieth to thirty-first 1919, a race riot occurred in Knoxville, Tennessee (Wheeler). ' The arrest of Maurice Mayes, a mulatto and [at some times]... deputy sheriff, touched off the riot (Wheeler)." Mayes was charged with murdering a woman in the middle of the night. After the riot was ended by the national guard, thirty-six whites were arrested, but none were convicted on their charges (Wheeler). It was subsequently believed that the all white juries wouldn't convict their criminal counterparts. Mayes was tried twice due to the extreme prejudice faced where the initial trial was, and was sentenced to death by electric chair (Wheeler). The most unfortunate part of the trial was that Mayes was convicted, despite evidence that suggested he was innocent. And though the Knoxville riot wasn't initially motivated by race, it became the prime motivator by the end of it (Wheeler).
	Following the enactment of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, among other laws and court cases that followed, segregation in all facets of life were ended, with both public and private enterprise. Affirmative action, first established in the United States in 1961 by executive order disallowed racial discrimination in hiring through the Government, and was later extended to the private sector. All facets of discrimination virtually ended when the executive order was amended to include gender as well as race. I do believe that it is tragic that discrimination based on race has been in this country. I do believe in equal opportunity, and hope that blacks may gain an equal footing with whites, and make a choice as to how they will contribute to society on their own.