Clash of Civilizations (Islamic Studies)

Introduction

From a contemporary perspective, the phrase “clash of civilizations” was popularized by the British-American Orientalist Bernard Lewis in an article for the Atlantic Monthly published in 1990. Lewis argued that Islamic militancy is reinvigorating an ancient rivalry between Islam and the “Judeo-Christian heritage” of the “West.” Harvard professor Samuel P. Huntington took up the concept and theorized it in two separate publications. First, in an article for Foreign Affairs, the flagship journal of the Council on Foreign Relations in the United States, and second, in a book titled The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order, he advanced his thesis with historical references. Lewis and Huntington wrote within the context of the demise of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War. They were addressing these changes in world politics and they argued against euphoric proclamations of an impending “end of history” that writers such as Francis Fukuyama suggested. According to Huntington, the end of the Cold War would not yield peace. Rather, the new world order would facilitate cultural conflict on a global scale, especially between the West, on the one side, and Islam and Confucian civilization, on the other. This conflict will be primarily determined not by ideological or economic factors, but rather by cultural divisions between those civilizations. Since publication of the theory, the clash of civilizations has been refuted in terms of both historical evidence and methodological merit by a range of scholars from different academic disciplines. Nonetheless, the debate is far from closed. The following article takes into account the increasing importance of the Internet for scholarly research and presents a selection of useful web pages that focus on the clash of civilizations or on closely related issues.

General Overviews

The literature on the clash of civilizations thesis, in general, and the supposed global conflict between Islam and the West, in particular, is voluminous and wide-ranging. The debate is interdisciplinary and increasingly global, producing effects in engendering both academic controversy and debates in the policy world. The number of publications on the subject surged after the terror attacks on the United States on 11 September 2001 and the ensuing US invasions of Afghanistan and Iraq. The list here includes studies that were published before and after those events, and they were chosen with particular reference to the alleged conflict between Islam and the West. While scholarship is overwhelmingly weighted in opposition to the idea that this civilizational conflict is inevitable, the list below includes publications that both critique and support the clash thesis. More material on the various debates is incorporated in the other sections of this article.

Background

Halliday 1995 and Esposito 1999 are two key texts. Both are helpful as an entry to the debate and provide a necessary and sufficient framework to put the clash thesis in its proper historical and analytical context. Mahdavi and Knight 2012 is a recent contribution that includes several essays written by prominent authors trained in several disciplines. Huntington 2010 is useful as a reference work in that it includes Huntington’s original essay and additional texts written by prominent contributors. Huntington 1997 expands on the author’s original thesis and is less ambiguous than the essay about the inevitability of conflict. Pipes 2003 picks up the argument in Huntington 1997 and morphs the alleged threat of “radical Islam”’ into an unbalanced assault on US culture and academia. Comparable to Lewis 2003, Pipes 2003 is another reference volume for the supporters of the clash thesis. Pipes follows a political agenda that misrepresents Islam as a seemingly threatening civilization bound to challenge the cultural tenets of the West, in general, and the United States, in particular. Trumpbour 2003 puts Huntington’s thesis into context.

Esposito, John L. The Islamic Threat: Myth or Reality. 3d ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.
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A historically informed and detailed analysis of the clash thesis within the context of Islamic relations with the West. A very accessible introduction to the debate.
Esposito, John L. The Islamic Threat: Myth or Reality. 3d ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.
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Halliday, Fred. Islam and the Myth of Confrontation: Religion and Politics in the Middle East. London: I.B. Tauris, 1995.
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Drawing on his astute knowledge of the political dynamics of the region, Halliday provides an analytically wide-ranging, concise, and lucid overview of the disciplinary controversies affecting the Islam versus West debate.
Halliday, Fred. Islam and the Myth of Confrontation: Religion and Politics in the Middle East. London: I.B. Tauris, 1995.
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Huntington, Samuel P. The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1997.
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A book-length thesis that is filled with historical references and several chapters on the relative coherence of civilizations and their tendency to clash with other such cultural blocs.
Huntington, Samuel P. The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1997.
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Huntington, Samuel P. The Clash of Civilisations? The Debate. New York: Foreign Affairs, 2010.
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Includes the original essay of Huntington and his response to critics together with a range of additional articles largely sympathetic to the clash thesis. A handy reference work.
Huntington, Samuel P. The Clash of Civilisations? The Debate. New York: Foreign Affairs, 2010.
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Lewis, Bernard. What Went Wrong? The Clash between Islam and Modernity in the Middle East. London: HarperPerennial, 2003.
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Providing a fresh view presented in earlier writings on the subject, Lewis suggests that the Islamic world is gripped by a fundamental crisis and that Muslims find the West responsible for the demise of their once flourishing civilization. This book did not have a major impact on academic debates on the subject and it was largely denounced by scholars. Nonetheless, it is indicative of the way supporters of the clash thesis construct their argument.
Lewis, Bernard. What Went Wrong? The Clash between Islam and Modernity in the Middle East. London: HarperPerennial, 2003.
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Mahdavi, Mojtaba, and Andy W. Knight, eds. Towards the Dignity of Difference? Neither “End of History” Nor “Clash of Civilizations.” London: Ashgate, 2012.
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This book provides a wide-ranging review of the clash debate, including its political implications and theoretical premises. It brings together the writings of several authors who have written authoritatively on the subject matter and on related issues.
Mahdavi, Mojtaba, and Andy W. Knight, eds. Towards the Dignity of Difference? Neither “End of History” Nor “Clash of Civilizations.” London: Ashgate, 2012.
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Pipes, Daniel. Militant Islam Reaches America. London: W.W. Norton, 2003.
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Pipes is one of the more exposed, nonacademic supporters of the clash thesis. The book is sensationalistic, which explains its commercial success, and it does not present a serious scholarly argument or a well-researched thesis, yet it has been widely read and advertised especially in the United States.
Pipes, Daniel. Militant Islam Reaches America. London: W.W. Norton, 2003.
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Trumpbour, John. “The Clash of Civilisations: Samuel P. Huntington, Bernard Lewis, and the Remaking of the Post–Cold War World Order.” In The New Crusades: Constructing the Muslim Enemy. Edited by Emran Qureshi and Michael A. Sells, 88–130. New York: Columbia University Press, 2003.
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A thought-provoking critique of the clash thesis that puts the emergence of Huntington’s thesis into its proper historical and world-political context. Comparable to the other contributions in this book, it illuminates the link between knowledge and power—in this case, the nexus between neo-conservative politics in the United States and the construction of a new enemy image after the end of the Cold War.
Trumpbour, John. “The Clash of Civilisations: Samuel P. Huntington, Bernard Lewis, and the Remaking of the Post–Cold War World Order.” In The New Crusades: Constructing the Muslim Enemy. Edited by Emran Qureshi and Michael A. Sells, 88–130. New York: Columbia University Press, 2003.
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Critiques of the Clash of Civilizations Thesis

Cox 2000, Mottahedeh 1995, and Said 2002 are immediately pertinent as critical studies because they engage and refute the clash thesis head on and from different disciplinary perspectives, namely Islamic studies, literary studies, and international relations, respectively. Achcar 2006 and Ali 2003 contribute to the criticism of the clash thesis from the perspective of the “Left.” Adib-Moghaddam 2011 and Qureshi and Sells 2003 write after 9/11 and critically engage with Huntington from a historical/empirical perspective and in terms of the latter’s method and theory.

Achcar, Gilbert. The Clash of Barbarisms: The Making of the New World Disorder. Boulder, CO: Paradigm, 2006.
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A powerful critique of the clash thesis. Achcar argues that the clash of civilizations between Islam and the West is a myth and that we are experiencing a war between two variants of barbarity.
Achcar, Gilbert. The Clash of Barbarisms: The Making of the New World Disorder. Boulder, CO: Paradigm, 2006.
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Adib-Moghaddam, Arshin. A Metahistory of the Clash of Civilisations: Us and Them beyond Orientalism. London and New York, NY: Hurst and Oxford University Press, 2011.
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Presents a thorough refutation of the theory and method underlying the clash of civilizations and engages with overlapping debates in studies of Orientalism in the West and Occidentalism in the East.
Adib-Moghaddam, Arshin. A Metahistory of the Clash of Civilisations: Us and Them beyond Orientalism. London and New York, NY: Hurst and Oxford University Press, 2011.
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Ali, Tariq. The Clash of Fundamentalisms: Crusades, Jihads and Modernity. London: Verso, 2003.
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A vigorous and rich polemic against the clash of civilizations written with particular attention to the specter of religious fundamentalism.
Ali, Tariq. The Clash of Fundamentalisms: Crusades, Jihads and Modernity. London: Verso, 2003.
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Cox, Robert. “Thinking about Civilizations.” Review of International Studies 5 (2000): 217–234.
DOI: 10.1017/S0260210500002175Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Engages with the concept of “civilization” and largely refutes its utility as a proper analytical category for the analysis of contemporary international relations. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
Cox, Robert. “Thinking about Civilizations.” Review of International Studies 5 (2000): 217–234.
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Mottahedeh, Roy P. “The Clash of Civilisations: An Islamicist’s Critique.” Harvard Middle Eastern and Islamic Review 2.2 (1995): 1–26.
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A comprehensive and illuminating critique of Huntington’s thesis, which clarifies a range of historical and factual errors underlying the argument of the clash of civilizations.
Mottahedeh, Roy P. “The Clash of Civilisations: An Islamicist’s Critique.” Harvard Middle Eastern and Islamic Review 2.2 (1995): 1–26.
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Qureshi, Emran, and Michael A. Sells, eds. The New Crusades: Constructing the Muslim Enemy. New York: Columbia University Press, 2003.
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A selection of fine articles that directly engage with Huntington’s thesis from a geographically diverse perspective and with a particular focus on the specter of “Islamophobia” in the West. The selection of essays are thought provoking and written in an accessible and lucid style.
Qureshi, Emran, and Michael A. Sells, eds. The New Crusades: Constructing the Muslim Enemy. New York: Columbia University Press, 2003.
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Said, Edward. Reflections on Exile and Other Essays. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002.
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An eloquent and passionate critique of Huntington’s thesis that treats theoretical constructs such as the clash of civilizations as ideological inventions. Before his death, Said was one of the most unspoken critics of the clash thesis, and this article presents a good introduction into his way of thinking about the subject matter.
Said, Edward. Reflections on Exile and Other Essays. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002.
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Textbooks and Sourcebooks

No standard textbook is available on the clash debate. For academics looking for useful pedagogical material geared to the demands of undergraduate seminars, a number of lucid introductions into the theories and concepts of international relations provide a good overview of the clash thesis and corresponding themes. The list in this section refers to the chapters in these textbooks that constitute wide-ranging bibliographies and further reading sections. A good place to start is Murden 2001, which presents a clear outline of the debate. Cox 2001 and Mandaville 2009 contain additional summaries presented in a clear textbook format. Della Giusta, et al. 2006 is a useful, if overpriced, reader that includes a wide range of articles related to the subject matter. Donohue and Esposito 2007, Kurzman 1998, and Euben and Zaman 2009 are useful anthologies with translations of Muslim opinions on the idea of a clash/dialogue between Islam and the West. Rahnema 2005 is a very good reference book for secondary material on the subject of Islamist politics and perceptions of the West. Additional bibliographies and further reading sections are contained in the previous entries.

Cox, Michael. “International History since 1989.” In The Globalization of World Politics: An Introduction to International Relations. Edited by John Baylis and Steve Smith, 111–137. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.
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Provides a summary of the clash thesis along with other post–Cold War theories of international relations. This is a standard reference book in undergraduate IR seminars that has run through several editions.
Cox, Michael. “International History since 1989.” In The Globalization of World Politics: An Introduction to International Relations. Edited by John Baylis and Steve Smith, 111–137. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.
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Della Giusta, Marina, Uma S. Kambhampati, and Robert Wade, eds. Critical Perspectives on Globalization. London: Edward Elgar, 2006.
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Contains several essays on the subject matter and related controversies republished from a wide array of scholarly sources.
Della Giusta, Marina, Uma S. Kambhampati, and Robert Wade, eds. Critical Perspectives on Globalization. London: Edward Elgar, 2006.
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Donohue, John J., and John L. Esposito, eds. Islam in Transition: Muslim Perspectives. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.
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Chapter 4 of this volume presents essays, speeches, and research articles related to the clash debate. Some of the entries are translation of the writings of prominent politicians and activists in the Muslim world, including Ayatollah Khomeini, Ali Shariati, and Anwar Ibrahim. An indispensable source of primary material for students, scholars, and practitioners.
Donohue, John J., and John L. Esposito, eds. Islam in Transition: Muslim Perspectives. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.
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Euben, Roxanne L., and Muhammad Qasim Zaman, eds. Princeton Readings in Islamist Thought: Texts and Contexts from al-Banna to Bin Laden. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2009.
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Presents very well-contextualized translations of Islamist writings, including opinions on relations with the West.
Euben, Roxanne L., and Muhammad Qasim Zaman, eds. Princeton Readings in Islamist Thought: Texts and Contexts from al-Banna to Bin Laden. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2009.
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Kurzman, Charles, ed. Liberal Islam: A Sourcebook. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998.
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A useful set of translations of Muslim writers and activists that touches upon a series of pertinent issues such as the relationship between Islam, on the one side, and democracy, human rights, minorities, and women, on the other.
Kurzman, Charles, ed. Liberal Islam: A Sourcebook. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998.
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Mandaville, Peter. “How Do Religious Beliefs Affect Politics?” In Global Politics: A New Introduction. Edited by Jenny Edkins and Maja Zehfuss, 99–122. London: Routledge, 2009.
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Another summary of the clash thesis presented in textbook style. This chapter discusses the relationship between religion and culture, in, and Islam and politics, in particular.
Mandaville, Peter. “How Do Religious Beliefs Affect Politics?” In Global Politics: A New Introduction. Edited by Jenny Edkins and Maja Zehfuss, 99–122. London: Routledge, 2009.
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Murden, Simon. “Culture in World Affairs.” In The Globalization of World Politics: An Introduction to International Relations. Edited by John Baylis and Steve Smith, 456–467. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.
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A structured and easy-to-read entry into the debate. Like the other contributions in this book, this chapter includes a guide to further reading, seminar questions, web links, and other useful pedagogical reference points.
Murden, Simon. “Culture in World Affairs.” In The Globalization of World Politics: An Introduction to International Relations. Edited by John Baylis and Steve Smith, 456–467. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.
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Rahnema, Ali. Pioneers of Islamic Revival. London: Zed Books, 2005.
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A set of very well-written and accessible essays on leading figures of the Islamic world, including Al-Afghani, Abduh, Khomeini, Qutb, al-Banna, Musa al-Sadr, and Ali Shariati. This is the second edition and it is published with a new introduction by Rahnema, which contextualizes modernist Islamist politics and focuses on Western colonialism and its impact on the Muslim world.
Rahnema, Ali. Pioneers of Islamic Revival. London: Zed Books, 2005.
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Journals

Some of the most innovative and progressive research on the clash idea has been published in a range of scholarly journals in the fields of international relations (IR), Middle Eastern studies, and political science, a number of which frequently contain articles on the subject matter. Given that journals in the discipline of IR, and to a lesser extent those of Middle Eastern studies and political science, continue to be produced primarily in North America, the list of academic journals here takes into account the full range of scholarly sources beyond the mainstream that are suitable for scholars, students, and informed “lay” readers alike.

International Studies

The debate about the clash of civilizations draws on several academic disciplines and it goes beyond the world of academia as well. This debate has not been confined to scholars, however. It is also deliberated in policy circles. In the 1990s and especially after 9/11, Foreign Policy and Foreign Affairs, the two most prominent policy journals in the United States, routinely published articles on the idea of the clash of civilizations or related issues. Equally, International Affairs addresses both academics and policymakers and is one of the most influential IR journals in Britain. Debates in the discipline of international relations (IR) continue to be centralized in North America and, to a lesser extent, in Western Europe. In the United States, the field has been dominated by the journals published by the International Studies Association, in particular International Studies Quarterly. But journals such as the Cambridge Review of International Affairs, Millennium, and Third World Quarterly routinely publish critical scholarship that challenges the mainstream. In recent years, the journal Critical Studies on Terrorism, founded by Richard Jackson, has challenged some of the ideas prevalent in the proliferating subfield of terrorism studies.

Cambridge Review of International Affairs (CRIA). 1986–.
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A progressive and rigidly peer-reviewed journal of international relations that is published by the Centre of International Studies at Cambridge University.
Cambridge Review of International Affairs (CRIA). 1986–.
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Critical Studies on Terrorism. 2008–.
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Published by Routledge, this young journal attracts critical perspectives on terrorism studies.
Critical Studies on Terrorism. 2008–.
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Foreign Affairs. 1922–.
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Published since 1922 by the Council on Foreign Relations in the United States, this journal published Huntington’s original essay and dedicated several additional editions on the subject matter.
Foreign Affairs. 1922–.
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Foreign Policy. 1970–.
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The highly successful US magazine was founded by Samuel Huntington and Warren Demian Manshel in 1970. It has recently introduced an equally successful “Middle East” blog.
Foreign Policy. 1970–.
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International Affairs. 1922–.
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One of the main journals of world politics in the United Kingdom, published by the Royal Institute of International Affairs (RIIA), or Chatham House as it is more commonly known.
International Affairs. 1922–.
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International Studies Quarterly. 1959–.
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This is the main journal of the International Studies Association (ISA) in the United States and it routinely publishes some of the most prominent research on IR theory.
International Studies Quarterly. 1959–.
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Millennium: Journal of International Studies. 1971–.
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One of the most prominent British journals of international affairs, Millennium regularly features progressive articles on the subject.
Millennium: Journal of International Studies. 1971–.
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Third World Quarterly. 1979–.
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One of the leading journals of international studies that has repeatedly published articles on the clash debate, in general, and relations between Islam and the Western world, in particular.
Third World Quarterly. 1979–.
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Islamic and Middle Eastern Studies

Several journals in the fields of Islamic and Middle Eastern studies have published articles focusing on the clash debate and the Islam versus West controversy. The International Journal of Middle East Studies continues to be the most influential journal of the field in the United States. Middle East Report publishes shorter pieces and, since its establishment in the 1970s, it has attracted a loyal following. Equally, Middle East Policy is frequently listed as one of the most widely read journals in the United States. Middle East Critique (formerly Critique: Critical Journal of Middle East Studies) is edited by Eric Hooglund and provides an interesting forum for theoretical debates and progressive research agendas. In recent years, international collaboration has increased and several journals are now published in Europe and western Asia that are dedicated to the field, including INAMO and ORIENT in Germany, and Insight Turkey in Turkey. The former publishes in German, while Insight Turkey is in English. In recent years, scholars of Middle Eastern studies have developed subfields in the discipline. To that end, the Middle East Journal of Culture and Communication presents an innovative interdisciplinary forum.

INAMO. 1994–.
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One of the most progressive journals published in German, INAMO has repeatedly covered a range of issues pertinent to the subject matter in a distinctly innovative, global, and accessible way.
INAMO. 1994–.
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Insight Turkey. 1998–.
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A very well-edited journal published in Turkey that covers Islamic affairs, in general, and Turkish politics, in particular.
Insight Turkey. 1998–.
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International Journal of Middle East Studies. 1970–.
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The flagship journal of the Middle East Studies Association (MESA) in the United States.
International Journal of Middle East Studies. 1970–.
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Middle East Critique. 1992–.
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Edited by Eric Hooglund and published by Routledge, this journal presents some of the most cutting edge and progressive scholarship on the region and it has repeatedly featured articles on the clash thesis.
Middle East Critique. 1992–.
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Middle East Journal of Culture and Communication. 2008–.
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This is a relatively new journal that publishes interdisciplinary research with a particular emphasis on media studies.
Middle East Journal of Culture and Communication. 2008–.
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Middle East Policy. 1992–.
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A prominent policy-focused journal on the region published in the United States by the Middle East Policy Council.
Middle East Policy. 1992–.
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Middle East Report. 1971–.
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One of the most established magazines focusing on related subjects since 1971. A part of the Middle East Research and Information Project, it has also featured a very successful online portal.
Middle East Report. 1971–.
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ORIENT. 1961–.
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An established German journal of Islamic studies and Middle Eastern affairs.
ORIENT. 1961–.
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The Debate

Since the publication of Huntington’s essay and throughout the 1990s the idea of a clash of civilizations between the Islamic world and the West has engendered both various criticisms, as exemplified in Gerges 1999 and Hunter 1998, and implicit support for the thesis, as in Lewis 2004. The debate is not limited to Europe and North America. From the outset, the clash thesis elicited multifarious reactions from scholars worldwide. After the terror attacks on the United States in 2001, the global terrorist campaign spearheaded by al-Qaeda, and the launching of the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq, interest in the alleged incompatibility of Islamic culture and Western norms surged on a global scale, as seen in Halliday 2002. The bulk of scholarly opinion, as the following selection of studies shows, refutes the theoretical and empirical merit of the clash thesis. The theoretical and conceptual criticism is particularly pronounced in Russet, et al. 2000 and Todorov 2010, whereas other scholars have focused on the political utility of the clash thesis and the misperceptions underlying its fundamental logic. In particular, Bulliet 2006 elaborates on the profound commonalities between Islam and Christianity and makes the case for an Islamo-Christian discourse. Similarly, Majid 2009 is concerned with reconciliation between cultures. More studies on the specific theme of the dialogue among civilizations are listed at the end of this article. Undoubtedly, with ongoing tensions in Afghanistan, Iraq, Iran, and Pakistan as well as lively debates about immigration and integration in Europe and North America, the subject continues to garner attention within and beyond academia.

Bulliet, Richard. The Case for Islamo-Christian Civilization. New York: Columbia University Press, 2006.
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A convincing case is made in favor of an Islamo-Christian dialogue that appreciates the commonalities of both religions in accentuating the hybridity of cultures rather than separation.
Bulliet, Richard. The Case for Islamo-Christian Civilization. New York: Columbia University Press, 2006.
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Gerges, Fawaz. America and Political Islam: Clash of Cultures or Clash of Interests? Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511800542Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
A good introduction into the clash debate in the United States and the way the challenge of political Islam is perceived among policy circles in the country.
Gerges, Fawaz. America and Political Islam: Clash of Cultures or Clash of Interests? Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
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Halliday, Fred. Two Hours That Shook the World: September 11, 2001: Cause and Consequences. London: Saqi, 2002.
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An analytically sober analysis and written in a lucid and accessible style, this book engages with a range of issues related to Huntington’s thesis, including the international politics of West Asia and North Africa, Iran, Saudi Arabia, the United States, the Palestinian-Israeli conflict, global terrorism, religious, and theories of international relations.
Halliday, Fred. Two Hours That Shook the World: September 11, 2001: Cause and Consequences. London: Saqi, 2002.
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Hunter, Shireen. The Future of Islam and the West: Clash of Civilizations or Peaceful Coexistence? London: Praeger, 1998.
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This is an accessible work that critiques the cultural determinism permeating Huntington’s conceptualization of civilizations with particular emphasis on the prospect of dialogue between the Islamic world and the West.
Hunter, Shireen. The Future of Islam and the West: Clash of Civilizations or Peaceful Coexistence? London: Praeger, 1998.
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Lewis, Bernard. The Crisis of Islam: Holy War and Unholy Terror. New York: Random House, 2004.
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Suggests that the 9/11 terror attacks can be attributed to the dissatisfaction of Muslims with the demise of Islamic civilization and the political situation in the Middle East. The historical material marshaled in this book is rather thin and this study did not resonate among scholars, but the suggestion that Western values are incompatible with the central tenets of Islam has found supporters in media circles and beyond.
Lewis, Bernard. The Crisis of Islam: Holy War and Unholy Terror. New York: Random House, 2004.
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Majid, Anouar. We Are All Moors: Ending Centuries of Crusades against Muslims and Other Minorities. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2009.
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A historically informed study in support of tolerance toward Muslims and other minorities with a particular emphasis on legacies of racial exclusion in the United States and Europe.
Majid, Anouar. We Are All Moors: Ending Centuries of Crusades against Muslims and Other Minorities. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2009.
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Russet, Bruce M., John R. Oneal, and Michaelene Cox. “Clash of Civilizations, or Realism and Liberalism Déjà Vu? Some Evidence.” Journal of Peace Research 37.5 (2000): 583–608.
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The article presents an empirically grounded refutation of the idea that civilizational conflicts are increasing in the international system. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
Russet, Bruce M., John R. Oneal, and Michaelene Cox. “Clash of Civilizations, or Realism and Liberalism Déjà Vu? Some Evidence.” Journal of Peace Research 37.5 (2000): 583–608.
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Todorov, Tzvetan. The Fear of Barbarians: Beyond the Clash of Civilizations. London: Polity, 2010.
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Todorov engages with the concepts of “civilization” and “barbarism” and argues against Huntington’s clash thesis. This is an accessible and well-argued book that is driven by analytical acumen and in-depth knowledge about the political and cultural context framing the Islam versus West controversy.
Todorov, Tzvetan. The Fear of Barbarians: Beyond the Clash of Civilizations. London: Polity, 2010.
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Role of the Media

Some have identified the international media as an incubator for ideas pertaining to the clash of civilization thesis, a view that is convincingly argued in Abrahamian 2003, Morey and Yaqin 2011, and Poole 2002. Several studies have engaged with underlying cultural systems that feed into the idea that Islam and the West are in conflict. Such debates were already apparent in the 1990s as elaborated in Said 1997. But in the last decade the literature has grown drastically and more and more scholars focus on the nexus between the fear of Islam, or Islamophobia, and the resurgence of right-wing politics, in particular in Europe but also beyond. This link between culture, domestic politics, and the clash thesis is central to Bottici and Challand 2012, Esposito and Kalin 2011, and Sayyid and Vakil 2011, while Mastnak 2003 presents a very useful historical context to the issue. These very recent studies provide an excellent starting point to unravel the specter of Islamophobia in the West. Besteman and Gusterson 2005 adds an anthropological viewpoint to the debate and makes the case for a rather more critical approach to culture.

Abrahamian, Ervand. “The US Media, Huntington and September 11.” Third World Quarterly 24 (2003): 529–544.
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Abrahamian demonstrates the complicity of the mainstream international media in perpetrating the idea that the terror attacks on the United States in September 2001 were inspired by a clash between Islam and the West. He successfully unravels the ideological utility of the clash thesis for some sections of the political elites in the United States and beyond. Available online by subscription.
Abrahamian, Ervand. “The US Media, Huntington and September 11.” Third World Quarterly 24 (2003): 529–544.
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Besteman, Catherine, and Hugh Gusterson, eds. Why America’s Top Pundits Are Wrong: Anthropologists Talk Back. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005.
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Includes several essays by anthropologists who are critical of popular writings in the social sciences and especially in international relations.
Besteman, Catherine, and Hugh Gusterson, eds. Why America’s Top Pundits Are Wrong: Anthropologists Talk Back. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005.
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Bottici, Chiara, and Benoît Challand. The Myth of the Clash of Civilisations. Abingdon, UK: Routledge, 2012.
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An illuminating study that shows how the myth of a clash between Islam and the West has been embedded in the debate and facilitated by the international media, academia, and popular culture, including Hollywood movies.
Bottici, Chiara, and Benoît Challand. The Myth of the Clash of Civilisations. Abingdon, UK: Routledge, 2012.
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Esposito, John L., and Ibrahim Kalin, eds. Islamophobia: The Challenge of Pluralism in the 21st Century. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011.
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This book includes several well-argued essays on the resurgence of racism and violence against Muslims after 9/11.
Esposito, John L., and Ibrahim Kalin, eds. Islamophobia: The Challenge of Pluralism in the 21st Century. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011.
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Mastnak, Tomaž. “Europe and the Muslims: The Permanent Crusade.” In The New Crusades: Constructing the Muslim Enemy. Edited by Emran Qureshi and Michael A. Sells, 205–248. New York: Columbia University Press, 2003.
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Presents a historical outline of European representations of Islam. The discussion encompasses contemporary manifestations of Islamophobia that feed into the idea of an inevitable clash between the West and Islam.
Mastnak, Tomaž. “Europe and the Muslims: The Permanent Crusade.” In The New Crusades: Constructing the Muslim Enemy. Edited by Emran Qureshi and Michael A. Sells, 205–248. New York: Columbia University Press, 2003.
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Morey, Peter, and Amina Yaqin. Framing Muslims: Stereotyping and Representation after 9/11. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011.
DOI: 10.4159/harvard.9780674061149Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
This is a very well-researched study of the distortive and biased impact of the international media on the perception of Muslims and Islam.
Morey, Peter, and Amina Yaqin. Framing Muslims: Stereotyping and Representation after 9/11. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011.
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Poole, Elizabeth. Reporting Islam: Media Representations of British Muslims. London: I.B. Tauris, 2002.
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A comprehensive and empirically detailed analysis of the various ways that British Muslims are represented in the media with reference to Edward Said’s Orientalism (New York: Vintage, 1978) and the clash thesis of Huntington.
Poole, Elizabeth. Reporting Islam: Media Representations of British Muslims. London: I.B. Tauris, 2002.
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Said, Edward. Covering Islam: How the Media and the Experts Determine How We See the Rest of the World. London: Vintage, 1997.
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Based on his seminal study Orientalism (New York: Vintage, 1978), Said examines how culturally grounded misperceptions of Islam feed into the misrepresentation of Arabs and Iranians. Said unmistakably combines polemics with literary criticism to deny that an inevitable clash exists between Islam and the West.
Said, Edward. Covering Islam: How the Media and the Experts Determine How We See the Rest of the World. London: Vintage, 1997.
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Sayyid, Salman, and Abdoolkarim Vakil, eds. Thinking through Islamophobia: Global Perspectives. New York: Columbia University Press, 2011.
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Edited by two scholars of contemporary Muslim politics and postcolonial theory, this book brings together several analytically strong essays on the issue of Islamophobia beyond Europe.
Sayyid, Salman, and Abdoolkarim Vakil, eds. Thinking through Islamophobia: Global Perspectives. New York: Columbia University Press, 2011.
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Global Voices

The debate about the clash of civilizations is dispersed today throughout the main academic centers of the world. This section brings together writings centering on the reactions of scholars beyond the United States and additional scholarship from writers in the non-Western world. Ahmad 2010, Amiri 1995, and Rashid 1997 are good examples of the latter, i.e., they exemplify how the clash thesis and related debates are viewed from the perspective of writers in Asia. Boroujerdi 1997 adds to this understanding with a particular emphasis on intellectual controversies in Iran, while Cook 2008 provides insights into the way the “war on terror” exacerbates misperceptions between the West and Muslims, with a particular emphasis on the dynamics in Israel. The European angle is covered in Hafez 2000 and MacMaster 2003, and the latter also deals with the specter of Islamophobia in France (see the section on the Role of the Media). Finally, the geographical scope of this section is complemented by Tsygankov 2003, a study of Russian perceptions of the clash debate.

Ahmad, Talmiz. Children of Abraham at War: The Clash of Messianic Militarisms. Delhi: AAKAR, 2010.
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Written by a career diplomat in the foreign service of India, this book compares the role of Christian, Jewish, and Islamic messianisms in the politics of West Asia and North Africa and engages with Huntington’s thesis from that angle. Ahmad verges on sympathizing with the idea that there is coherence to cultures and civilizations and that they can clash, but he is careful enough to refrain from theorizing this suggestion.
Ahmad, Talmiz. Children of Abraham at War: The Clash of Messianic Militarisms. Delhi: AAKAR, 2010.
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Amiri, Mojtaba, ed. Theory of Clash of Civilisations: Huntington and His Critics. Tehran, Iran: Foreign Ministry Publishing House, 1995.
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Presents a useful overview of the intellectual debates surrounding the clash thesis in Iran and beyond.
Amiri, Mojtaba, ed. Theory of Clash of Civilisations: Huntington and His Critics. Tehran, Iran: Foreign Ministry Publishing House, 1995.
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Boroujerdi, Mehrzad. “Iranian Islam and the Faustian Bargain of Western Modernity.” Journal of Peace Research 34.1 (1997): 1–5.
DOI: 10.1177/0022343397034001001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
A short introduction into the way Huntington’s thesis is perceived by Iranian intellectuals with an additional focus on Fukuyama’s “end of history” theory. In this short essay Boroujerdi manages to negate the notion of the inevitability of conflict between Islam and the West that is intrinsic to the theory of a clash of civilizations. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
Boroujerdi, Mehrzad. “Iranian Islam and the Faustian Bargain of Western Modernity.” Journal of Peace Research 34.1 (1997): 1–5.
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Cook, Jonathan. Israel and the Clash of Civilisations: Iraq, Iran and the Plan to Remake the Middle East. London: Pluto, 2008.
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Surveys the international politics of the Middle East after the invasions of Iraq and Afghanistan and argues that the US strategy of confrontation is aided and abetted by the Israeli state, and that this policy is premised on a clash of civilizations imagined by some Israeli strategist and their neo-conservative allies in the United States.
Cook, Jonathan. Israel and the Clash of Civilisations: Iraq, Iran and the Plan to Remake the Middle East. London: Pluto, 2008.
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Hafez, Kai, ed. The Islamic World and the West: An Introduction to Political Cultures and International Relations. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2000.
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A fine selection of essays on the subject matter written primarily by scholars based in Germany. Presents case studies and country analyses and provides a good insight into the way the clash thesis is treated in German academia.
Hafez, Kai, ed. The Islamic World and the West: An Introduction to Political Cultures and International Relations. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2000.
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MacMaster, Neil. “Islamophobia in France and the ‘Algerian Problem.’” In The New Crusades: Constructing the Muslim Enemy. Edited by Emran Qureshi and Michael A. Sells, 288–313. New York: Columbia University Press, 2003.
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This article focuses on contemporary manifestations of the clash idea in France and the utility of anti-Islamic politics for right-wing elements in the country. A well-argued and thorough piece.
MacMaster, Neil. “Islamophobia in France and the ‘Algerian Problem.’” In The New Crusades: Constructing the Muslim Enemy. Edited by Emran Qureshi and Michael A. Sells, 288–313. New York: Columbia University Press, 2003.
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Rashid, Salim, ed. “The Clash of Civilizations?” Asian Responses. Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1997.
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This volume consists of short replies to the clash thesis by authors in Asia, who engage and largely criticize the idea that the West clashes with Islam, on the one hand, and with Confucian civilization, on the other.
Rashid, Salim, ed. “The Clash of Civilizations?” Asian Responses. Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1997.
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Tsygankov, Andrei P. “The Irony of Western Ideas in a Multicultural World: Russians’ Intellectual Engagement with the ‘End of History’ and ‘Clash of Civilisations.’” International Studies Review 5.1 (2003): 53–76.
DOI: 10.1111/1521-9488.501003Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Provides a thorough overview of the reactions to the clash thesis from the perspective of the political and intellectual elites in Russia in indicating the global significance of the clash thesis and the reactions of its critics beyond Europe and North America. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
Tsygankov, Andrei P. “The Irony of Western Ideas in a Multicultural World: Russians’ Intellectual Engagement with the ‘End of History’ and ‘Clash of Civilisations.’” International Studies Review 5.1 (2003): 53–76.
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The Dialogue Among Civilizations

The clash debate has elicited reactions beyond academia. In particular, the idea that Islam and the West are bound to be in conflict provoked a symbolic counterapproach in the policy world in the form of the “Dialogue among Civilisations” initiative, suggested in Khatami 2000 and adopted by the United Nations as a political motto in 2001. Mohammad Khatami continues to operate the Centre for Dialogue amongst Civilisation in Tehran and his ideas have been decisively influenced by Daryush Shayegan, who has engaged with the theme of cultural dialogue from a distinctly philosophical perspective (Shayegan 1997). In 2004, former Spanish president José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero called for the establishment of the Alliance of Civilisations, which has been co-sponsored by Turkish prime minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan and which operates under the auspices of the United Nations. Other prominent policymakers and opinion setters who have supported the theme of a dialogue between civilizations, in general, and Islam and the West, in particular, include Anwar Ibrahim and Jonathan Sacks, whose writings on the subject are passionate and persuasive (see Ibrahim 1995 and Sacks 2003). In addition, Esposito and Voll 2000 provides a valuable scholarly overview that engages with the theme of dialogue from the perspective of writers and opinion makers in the Islamic world. Lynch 2000 adds a theoretical dimension to the debate and shows how dialogue can open up spaces for cultural engagement, while German peace theorist Dieter Senghaas widens the discussion on civilizational engagement beyond the Islam versus West debate in Senghaas 2001. In recent years, Tariq Ramadan has acted as an interlocutor in the debate and his writings, as in Ramadan 2004, are a good, easily digestible example in support of engagement between Islam and Europe.

Esposito, John, and John O. Voll. “Islam and the West: Muslim Voices of Dialogue.” Millennium: Journal of International Studies 29 (2000): 613–639.
DOI: 10.1177/03058298000290031301Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Written by two prominent experts of the Islamic world, this article provides a well-written overview of the paradigms for dialogue between East and West put forward by prominent Muslim intellectuals and policymakers. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
Esposito, John, and John O. Voll. “Islam and the West: Muslim Voices of Dialogue.” Millennium: Journal of International Studies 29 (2000): 613–639.
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Ibrahim, Anwar. The Need for Civilizational Dialogue. Occasional Paper Series. Washington, DC: Center for Muslim-Christian Understanding, Georgetown University, 1995.
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A case is made for dialogue between East and West by former deputy prime minister Anwar Ibrahim of Malaysia.
Ibrahim, Anwar. The Need for Civilizational Dialogue. Occasional Paper Series. Washington, DC: Center for Muslim-Christian Understanding, Georgetown University, 1995.
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Khatami, Mohammad. Islam, Dialogue and Civil Society. Canberra: Centre for Arab and Islamic Studies, Australian National University, 2000.
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Contains Khatami’s speech on a dialogue among civilizations presented to the UN General Assembly and several additional speeches and articles on related issues.
Khatami, Mohammad. Islam, Dialogue and Civil Society. Canberra: Centre for Arab and Islamic Studies, Australian National University, 2000.
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Lynch, Marc. “The Dialogue of Civilisations and International Public Spheres.” Millennium: Journal of International Studies 29.2 (2000): 307–330.
DOI: 10.1177/03058298000290020601Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Adds a scholarly perspective to the theme of a dialogue among civilizations. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
Lynch, Marc. “The Dialogue of Civilisations and International Public Spheres.” Millennium: Journal of International Studies 29.2 (2000): 307–330.
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Ramadan, Tariq. Western Muslims and the Future of Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.
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The book makes the case for empathy and dialogue focusing on the role of Muslims in Europe and North America.
Ramadan, Tariq. Western Muslims and the Future of Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.
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Sacks, Jonathan. The Dignity of Difference: How to Avoid the Clash of Civilizations. London: Continuum, 2003.
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A case against civilizational clashes by Jonathan Sacks, the chief rabbi of the United Hebrew Congregations of the Commonwealth of Nations.
Sacks, Jonathan. The Dignity of Difference: How to Avoid the Clash of Civilizations. London: Continuum, 2003.
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Senghaas, Dieter. The Clash within Civilizations: Coming to Terms with Cultural Conflicts. London: Routledge, 2001.
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A discussion of the clash of civilizations with reference to Chinese political philosophy and Islamic attitudes toward the West. Contains chapters on intercultural dialogue and the challenges of modernity to non-Western value systems.
Senghaas, Dieter. The Clash within Civilizations: Coming to Terms with Cultural Conflicts. London: Routledge, 2001.
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Shayegan, Daryush. Cultural Schizophrenia: Islamic Societies Confronting the West. London: Saqi, 1997.
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This is an illuminating study of perceptions in the East of the West written by a prominent Iranian philosopher whose ideas had a profound impact on Khatami’s dialogue among civilizations theme.
Shayegan, Daryush. Cultural Schizophrenia: Islamic Societies Confronting the West. London: Saqi, 1997.
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