API tools faq
paste
Advertisement
jonstond2

Etruscans (Classics)

jonstond2
Feb 15th, 2017
570
0
Never
Add comment
Not a member of Pastebin yet? Sign Up, it unlocks many cool features!
text 61.73 KB | None | 0 0
raw download clone embed print report
  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. For most of the nine centuries prior to the Augustan settlement of Italy in 27 BCE, the Etruscans were the most significant indigenous inhabitants of the Italian peninsula. At its height, their civilization amounted to a great deal more than a pale reflection of the glory that was contemporary Greece, or an eccentric prelude to the grandeur that was destined to suffuse Republican and Imperial Rome. Treated in its own right and on its own terms, the archaeological, architectural, artistic, historical, linguistic, political, and religious record of the largely autonomous Etruscan cities is indispensable to the proper understanding of the whole pre-Roman Mediterranean.
  4.  
  5. General Overviews
  6.  
  7. Dennis 1883 still provides the best description of the land of Etruria proper: this corresponds to the modern Italian administrative regions of Lazio and Toscana, bounded on the western seaboard of the peninsula by the Tiber (the river of Rome) and the Arno (the river of Florence). Not everything that Dennis saw in the 19th century CE has survived until the 21st. Massimo Pallottino (b.1909–d.1995) was appointed in 1945 to be the first holder of the chair—the first in Italy—of Etrusco-Italic Studies at the University of Rome (“La Sapienza”); he is universally recognized as the father of modern Etruscan Studies. Pallottino 1975 transmits to English readers the concise and ground-breaking presentation of the whole field that has influenced the present generation of Italian and other specialists. Though effectively superseded by Haynes 2000, it is still worth consulting for basic facts and earlier references that later writers often take for granted. Sprenger and Bartoloni 1983 and Briquel 1999 are authoritative overviews, emanating from Germany and France, respectively. General and particular entries (corresponding to most of the sections listed here) will be found in the three associated reference works listed below as Campbell 2007, Grove Art Online, and Turner 1996.
  8.  
  9. Briquel, Dominique. 1999. La civilisation étrusque. Paris: Fayard.
  10. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  11. An elegant introduction to the whole field, by a major French player; authoritative and reliable, but less substantial than Pallottino 1975 and Haynes 2000.
  12. Find this resource:
  13. Campbell, Gordon, ed. 2007. The Grove encyclopedia of classical art and architecture. 2 vols. New York: Oxford University Press.
  14. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  15. A distillation of Grove’s Dictionary 1999– and Turner 1996.
  16. Find this resource:
  17. Dennis, George. 1883. The cities and cemeteries of Etruria. 2d ed. London: John Murray.
  18. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  19. An exceptionally thorough, accurate and (for its time) well-informed guidebook: ideal for armchair tourists, and still useful for planning fieldwork today.
  20. Find this resource:
  21. Grove art online.
  22. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  23. Provides access to the entire text of Turner 1996, with ongoing additions of new material and updates, and extensive image links.
  24. Find this resource:
  25. Haynes, Sybille. 2000. Etruscan civilization: A cultural history. Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum.
  26. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  27. Currently the best introduction to the whole field, a masterly and well-illustrated survey of the Iron Age to Hellenistic range, with appropriate attention to the life and status of Etruscan women at each stage.
  28. Find this resource:
  29. Pallottino, Massimo. 1975/1978. The Etruscans. Bloomington: Indiana University Press; Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin.
  30. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  31. Second English-language edition, based on the 6th (revised) Italian edition of Etruscologia (Milan: Hoepli, 1975), first published in 1942. The standard account throughout the second half of the 20th century, and still useful today.
  32. Find this resource:
  33. Sprenger, Maia, and Gilda Bartoloni. 1983. The Etruscans: Their history, art and architecture. Translated by Robert E. Wolf. New York: Harry N. Abrams.
  34. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  35. A substantial and extensively illustrated account of the three fields specified in the title (translation of Die Etrusker: Kunst und Geschichte; Munich: Hirmer, 1977).
  36. Find this resource:
  37. Turner, Jane, ed. 1996. The dictionary of art. 34 vols. New York: Grove’s Dictionaries.
  38. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  39. Covers the world’s art, with good basic coverage of Etruscan centers and main topics, along with convenient access to contemporary phenomena in adjacent areas.
  40. Find this resource:
  41. Reference Works
  42.  
  43. See the Bibliografia topografica della colonizzazione greca in Italia e nelle isole tirreniche 1977 and the Enciclopedia dell’Arte Antica, Classica e Orientale 1958–1966 for detailed entries and bibliographies. De Grummond 1996 and Goldberg 2016 provides briefer notes on the centers (see Centers).
  44.  
  45. Bibliografia topografica della colonizzazione greca in Italia e nelle isole tirreniche. 1977–. Pisa, Italy: Scuola Normale Superiore.
  46. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  47. An ongoing series. In spite of its title, it contains extended reviews and substantial bibliographies of all the main Etruscan centers.
  48. Find this resource:
  49. de Grummond, Nancy T., ed. 1996. Encyclopedia of the history of classical archaeology. 2 vols. London and Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn.
  50. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  51. Includes entries describing the history of discovery, excavation, and exegesis at all the main Etruscan centers.
  52. Find this resource:
  53. Enciclopedia dell’arte antica, classica e orientale. 1958–1966, 7 vols. Supplemento 1970, 1973. Secondo supplemento 1971–1994, 5 vols. Rome: Istituto della Enciclopedia Italiana.
  54. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  55. Good coverage of Etruscan centers and main topics, along with convenient access to similar treatments of Greece and the Levant.
  56. Find this resource:
  57. Goldberg, Sander, ed. 2016. The Oxford Classical Dictionary. Digital ed. New York: Oxford University Press.
  58. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  59. Coverage of Etruscan centers and topics is similar to that in the Enciclopedia dell’arte Antica, Classica e Orientale, but shorter.
  60. Find this resource:
  61. Bibliographies
  62.  
  63. Of these two items, Defosse 1976 is arranged by subject (list, pp. 17–31); L’Année Philologique, which appears annually (with a time lag of at least two years) is best approached through its indexes, especially (for Etruscan purposes) those of geographical and modern authors’ names.
  64.  
  65. Defosse, Pol. 1976. Bibliographie étrusque, Tome II: 1927–1950. Brussels, Belgium: Latomus.
  66. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  67. An invaluable guide to the crucial early stage of the “modern” period of Etruscan studies that began with the establishment of the journal Studi Etruschi (see Journals). The two further projected volumes, I (pre-1927) and III (post-1950), have never appeared.
  68. Find this resource:
  69. L’Année Philologique. Paris: Société Internationale de Bibliographie Classique.
  70. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  71. The annual bibliography of record for the whole Classics field: in print, 1924–; online from 1959.
  72. Find this resource:
  73. Journals
  74.  
  75. Since 1927, the principal international journal for research papers in all fields of Etruscan studies has been the Italian periodical Studi Etruschi, flanked by two major monograph series and the Atti (Proceedings) of the annual thematic conferences held under the auspices of the Istituto Nazionale di Studi Etruschi ed Italici in Florence. In the English-speaking world, the recently established and smaller Etruscan Studies and Rasenna are useful, while Etruscan News is a lively and informative biennial newsletter. These items regularly carry reviews of books on Etruscan subjects, as do the American Journal of Archaeology, the Bryn Mawr Classical Review, the Classical Review, the Journal of Roman Archaeology, and (though less frequently) a number of other journals in the fields of classics and archaeology.
  76.  
  77. American Journal of Archaeology. 1897–. Boston: Archaeological Institute of America.
  78. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  79. Covers the art and archaeology of ancient Europe and the Mediterranean, including the Near East and Egypt, from prehistory to Late Antiquity.
  80. Find this resource:
  81. Bryn Mawr Classical Review. 1990–. Bryn Mawr, PA: Bryn Mawr College.
  82. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  83. Book reviews only (sometimes followed by responses) of current scholarly work in the whole field of classical studies.
  84. Find this resource:
  85. Classical Review. 1887–1950; new series 1951–. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
  86. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  87. Book reviews only of current scholarly work in the whole field of classical studies.
  88. Find this resource:
  89. Etruscan News: Newsletter of the American Section of the Institute for Etruscan and Italic Studies. 2002–. New York: Center for Ancient Studies, New York University.
  90. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  91. Notes, news, and correspondence regarding current Etruscan books, conferences, discoveries, excavations, and exhibitions.
  92. Find this resource:
  93. Etruscan Studies: Journal of the Etruscan Foundation. 1994–. Freemont, MI: Etruscan Foundation.
  94. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  95. Articles and discussions on all areas of research and study related to the Etruscan civilization; includes reviews of meetings as well as books.
  96. Find this resource:
  97. Journal of Roman Archaeology. 1988–. Portsmouth, RI.
  98. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  99. Specializes in synthetic articles and long reviews regarding all aspects of archaeolology between c. 700 BCE and c. 700 CE in Italy and all parts of the Roman world.
  100. Find this resource:
  101. Rasenna: Journal of the Center for Etruscan Studies. 2007–. Amherst, MA: Department of Classics, University of Massachusetts.
  102. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  103. Still relatively new, and therefore evolving: articles and book reviews of varying lengths in all Etruscan research areas; also announcements of excavation opportunities, museum reviews, and the like.
  104. Find this resource:
  105. Studi Etruschi. 1927–. Rome: Giorgio Bretschneider for the Istituto Nazionale di Studi Etruschi ed Italici, Florence.
  106. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  107. The principal international journal for specialist research papers in all fields of Etruscan studies. The Rivista di Epigrafia Etrusca is an integral and substantial annual section, publishing a selection of newly discovered inscriptions. Associated with Studi Etruschi are two monograph series, Biblioteca di Studi Etruschi and Monumenti Etruschi.
  108. Find this resource:
  109. Reports and Research Papers
  110.  
  111. Reports of excavations on Etruscan sites often appear in the official Italian periodicals Notizie degli Scavi di Antichità and, combined with exegetical comment, Monumenti Antichi. Preliminary news in English of discoveries and excavations in Etruria has appeared at irregular intervals in Archaeological Reports since 1968. In addition to the journals listed (see Journals), Etruscan research papers are often carried by the journals of the foreign institutes in Rome, particularly the Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome, the Papers of the British School at Rome, the Mélanges de l’École Française de Rome, the Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts (Römische Abteilung), and Opuscula Romana (Sweden).
  112.  
  113. Archaeological reports. 1954–. London: Hellenic Society and British School at Athens.
  114. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  115. An illustrated digest of recent archaeological work in Greece (annually) and in other parts of the Classical world (less frequently). Reports on archaeology in Etruria appear in the issues for 1968 (David Ridgway, pp. 29–48), 1974 (David Ridgway, pp. 42–59), 1980 (David Ridgway, pp. 54–70), 1986 (Tom Rasmussen, pp. 102–122), 1996 (Tom Rasmussen, pp. 48–58), and 2003 (Margarita Gleba, pp. 89–103).
  116. Find this resource:
  117. Mélanges de l’École Française de Rome. 1881–. Rome: École Française de Rome.
  118. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  119. Scholarly research papers and reports in all areas of ancient Italian studies, usually emanating from France and in many cases arising out of the various projects of the École Française de Rome.
  120. Find this resource:
  121. Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome. 1915–. Ann Arbor, MI: American Academy in Rome.
  122. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  123. Includes archaeological, art historical, cultural, and historical research papers (not necessarily arising out the American Academy’s own projects) in the Italian areas of classical studies.
  124. Find this resource:
  125. Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts (Römische Abteilung; often cited as Römische Mitteilungen). 1886–. Regensburg, Germany: Schnell and Steiner.
  126. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  127. Scholarly research papers and reports, usually emanating from Germany and in many cases arising out of the various projects of the Deutsches Archäologisches Institut, Rome. Covers all areas of Italian and North African study, ranging from the Early Bronze Age to the Early Middle Ages, but with a distinct emphasis on Classical and Late Antiquity.
  128. Find this resource:
  129. Monumenti Antichi. 1890–. Rome: Giorgio Bretschneider for Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei.
  130. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  131. Major site and excavaton reports (with full discussion), usually arising out of excavations conducted by, or under the auspices of, the official Italian Archaeological Superintendencies.
  132. Find this resource:
  133. Notizie degli Scavi di Antichità. 1876–. Rome: Bardi Editore for Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei.
  134. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  135. Excavation reports, usually arising out of excavations conducted by, or under the auspices of, the official Italian Archaeological Superintendencies and presented with a minimum of discussion.
  136. Find this resource:
  137. Opuscula Romana. 1954–2007. Stockholm, Sweden: Åström.
  138. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  139. Reflects mainly Swedish scholarship in the Italian fields represented by the Swedish Institute in Rome: the Italian sectors of Classical art and archaeology, Classical philology, history of art, and architecture. This journal ceased publication in 2006/2007; it is now merged with Opuscula Atheniensia to form Opuscula: Annual of the Swedish Institutes at Athens and Rome.
  140. Find this resource:
  141. Papers of the British School at Rome. 1902–1937; new series, 1938–. London: British School at Rome.
  142. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  143. Research papers and reports in all areas of ancient Italian studies, usually emanating from Great Britain and the Commonwealth, and in many cases arising out of the various projects of the British School at Rome.
  144. Find this resource:
  145. Collections of Papers
  146.  
  147. The five items cited in this section all add much to the General Overviews section and are all well supplied with notes and bibliographies. They consist of the collected papers regarding the whole field by two internationally acknowledged leaders in the field of Etruscan studies (Colonna 2005, Pallottino 1979), and three multi-authored collections (Bonfante 1986, Hall 1996, and Pallottino 1986), which among them also cover a wide range.
  148.  
  149. Bonfante, Larissa, ed. 1986. Etruscan life and afterlife: A handbook of Etruscan studies. Warminster, UK: Aris and Phillips.
  150. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  151. A useful set of authoritative reviews of mainstream subjects, including the international contacts of the Etruscans, their art and craftsmanship, and their language.
  152. Find this resource:
  153. Colonna, Giovanni. 2005. Italia ante romanum imperium: Scritti di antichità etrusche, italiche e romane (1958–1998). 4 vols, Pisa: IEPI.
  154. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  155. The collected papers of Massimo Pallottino’s successor at the University of Rome. In four volumes: I, Tra storia e archeologia (two parts); II, Arte, artigianato, architettura (two parts); III, Epigrafia, lingua e religione; IV, Pyrgi e storia della ricerca.
  156. Find this resource:
  157. Hall, John F., ed. 1996. Etruscan Italy: Etruscan influences on the civilizations of Italy from antiquity to the modern era. Provo, UT: Museum of Art, Brigham Young University.
  158. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  159. Discusses an interesting selection of aspects and influences, ranging in date from the period of origins, via the Etruscan governance of Rome, to Etruscan echoes in Italian Renaissance art and modern roof tiles.
  160. Find this resource:
  161. Pallottino, Massimo. 1979. Saggi di antichità. 3 vols. Rome: G. Bretschneider.
  162. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  163. The collected papers, in three volumes, of the 20th century father of modern Etruscan Studies: I, Alle origini dell’Italia antica; II, Documenti per la storia della civiltà etrusca; III, Immagini inedite e alternative di arte antica.
  164. Find this resource:
  165. Pallottino, Massimo. 1986. Rasenna: Storia e civiltà degli Etruschi. Milan: Libri Scheiwiller.
  166. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  167. A landmark collection of authoritative, extended, annotated, and well-illustrated accounts of Etruscan history (M. Torelli), economy and society (M. Cristofani), religion (M. Torelli), private life (G. Camporeale), texts and language (M. Pallottino), town planning and architecture (G. Colonna), art (F. Roncalli), and historical topography (G. Mansuelli). Always worth consulting, even if only for the illustrations.
  168. Find this resource:
  169. Museum and Exhibition Catalogues
  170.  
  171. In relatively recent years, Etruscan civilization has emerged as a particularly attractive subject for temporary exhibitions in Italian and other museums. Some of these exhibits (notably those mounted in various parts of Etruria in 1985, officially designated the “Year of the Etruscans”) have been devoted to single topics or centers; some of their catalogues are accordingly cited in other sections of this bibliography. A selection of the major and more general catalogues appears below. Of these, Macnamara 1990 and Turfa 2005 treat the important permanent collections housed, respectively, in the British Museum, London, and the University of Pennsylvania Museum, Philadelphia; the other four items were occasioned by memorable temporary exhibitions in Berlin (Kunze and Kästner 1988); Memphis, TN (Buranelli 1992); Paris (Pallottino 1992); Venice (Torelli 2001); and Dallas, TX (Warden 2009).
  172.  
  173. Buranelli, Francesco. 1992. The Etruscans: Legacy of a lost civilization from the Vatican museums. Memphis, TN: Lithograph Publishing.
  174. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  175. Descriptions and illustrations of a selection of artifacts from the Gregorian Etruscan Museum in the Vatican, designed successfully to illustrate aspects of Etruscan life.
  176. Find this resource:
  177. Kunze, Max, and Volker Kästner. 1988. Die Welt der Etrusker: Archäologische Denkmäler aus Museen der sozialistischen Länder. Berlin: Henschel Verlag.
  178. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  179. Catalogue of an exhibition at the Altes Museum, Berlin.Descriptions and illustrations of a wide range of previously unfamiliar Etruscan material from museums in “socialist countries” (i.e., from behind what was still regarded at the time as the Iron Curtain).
  180. Find this resource:
  181. Macnamara, Ellen. 1990. The Etruscans. London: British Museum Publications.
  182. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  183. A brief but helpful guide to the permanent Etruscan exhibition in the British Museum.
  184. Find this resource:
  185. Pallottino, Massimo, 1992. Les Étrusques et l’Europe. Paris: Réunion des Musées Nationaux.
  186. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  187. Catalogue of an exhibition at the Grand Palais, Paris, in 1992, and the Altes Museum, Berlin, in 1993. A wide range of Etruscan and other material from museums in Italy and elsewhere is described and illustrated; the extensive set of accompanying essays is designed primarily to illustrate the extent of Etruscan influence on Europe as a whole.
  188. Find this resource:
  189. Torelli, Mario, ed. 2001. The Etruscans. London: Thames and Hudson.
  190. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  191. Catalogue of an exhibition at the Palazzo Grassi,Venice. Descriptions and illustrations of a wide range of Etruscan material from museums in Italy and elsewhere, along with essays on various aspects of Etruscan society, life, and foreign relations.
  192. Find this resource:
  193. Turfa, Jean MacIntosh. 2005. Catalogue of the Etruscan gallery of the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology.
  194. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  195. The definitive illustrated catalogue, both scholarly and accessible, of the permanent Etruscan exhibition in the University of Pennsylvania Museum. The introductory essays and the catalogue itself are arranged in sections illustrating a wide range of topics. The collection includes many well-provenanced pieces from Narce and Vulci.
  196. Find this resource:
  197. Warden, P. Gregory, ed. 2009. From the temple and the tomb: Etruscan treasures from Tuscany. Dallas, TX: Meadows Museum, Southern Methodist University.
  198. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  199. Catalogue of an exhibition. An instructive selection of Etruscan material from the National Archaeological Museum in Florence, well described, illustrated, and discussed.
  200. Find this resource:
  201. History
  202.  
  203. The following sections deal with Etruscan history from the beginnings through the rise of Rome.
  204.  
  205. Origins
  206.  
  207. Writing in the 5th century BCE, Herodotus (Histories 1.94) reported that, according to the Lydians of Asia Minor, the Etruscans of his day were descended from Lydians who had emigrated to Italy. More than four centuries later, Dionysius of Halicarnassus (History of Archaic Rome 1.30.2) declared that the Etruscans were indigenous to Italy. This fundamental difference of opinion between two distinguished Greek historians occasioned much vigorous debate, both ancient and modern (reviewed in depth by Aigner Foresti 1974), and the controversy was not in fact resolved until the middle of the 20th century, when Pallottino suggested that “the formative process of the Etruscans can only have taken place on the territory of Etruria itself” (1975, p. 79). This conclusion was subsequently reinforced by the convincing demonstration by Briquel 1991 (especially pp. 3–89) that the Lydian hypothesis was deliberately fabricated by the Lydians themselves, not long before Herodotus’s day, for reasons connected with their foreign policy at the time.
  208.  
  209. Aigner Foresti, Luciana. 1974. Tesi, ipotesi e considerazioni sull’origine degli Etruschi. Vienna: Verlag der Wissenschaftlichen Gesellschaften Österreichs.
  210. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  211. Derived from the author’s doctoral thesis, this item is a well-informed and even-handed critical review of the principal ancient and modern theories of Etruscan origins.
  212. Find this resource:
  213. Briquel, Dominique. 1991. L’Origine lydienne des Étrusques: Histoire de la doctrine dans l’antiquité. Rome: École Française de Rome.
  214. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  215. Not an exposition of the “Lydian theory” itself, but a detailed historiographical analysis of its reception between Herodotus’s time and that of Justinian.
  216. Find this resource:
  217. Pallottino, Massimo. 1975/1978. The Etruscans. Bloomington: Indiana University Press; Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin.
  218. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  219. Second English-language edition, based on the sixth (revised) Italian edition of Etruscologia (Milan: Hoepli, 1975), first published in 1942. The standard account throughout the second half of the 20th century, and still useful today.
  220. Find this resource:
  221. Villanovan to Roman
  222.  
  223. The crucial stage of the formative process postulated by Pallottino can readily be detected in the Etruria of the 9th and 8th centuries BCE, when the indigenous possessors of the Iron Age Villanovan culture (described in depth in Bartoloni 2002) can reasonably be regarded as Etruscan (c. 1000–750/700 BCE; the absolute dating of the Italian Iron Age is discussed to good effect by the contributors to Bartoloni and Delpino 2005). By then, the mineral and the relevant skilled human resources of Tuscany were attracting the attention of the outside world, much of it channeled through the Bay of Naples. Ridgway 1992 shows what this area contributed to the Orientalizing period (c. 750/700–600 BCE), characterized in Etruria by luxury goods of eastern Mediterranean origin: illustrated and discussed in the exhibition catalogue Dore, et al. 2000, they were imported, produced by immigrant specialists and their local pupils, and deposited in the rich graves of local Etruscan “princes.” The society they repesented was replaced in the Archaic period (c. 600–475/450 BCE) by a class of wealthy merchants; Bonfante 1981 shows how their prosperity led to territorial expansion beyond the Tiber and the Arno. But there was no “national” organization that could resist the growing power of Rome, which culminated in the destruction in 396 of Veii (the most southerly of the great centers of Etruria proper). Other losses followed; and Etruscan institutions, customs, and even the language soon began to fade, although Romans of Etruscan descent were still proud of their ancestry in Imperial times.
  224.  
  225. Bartoloni, Gilda. 2002. La cultura villanoviana: All’inizio della storia etrusca. Rome: Carrocci.
  226. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  227. A detailed review of the Villanovan culture that defines the Etruscans of the Iron Age, with particularly informative attention to exchange mechanisms with the outside world, and to the social implications of these and of the development of villages into proto-urban centers.
  228. Find this resource:
  229. Bartoloni, Gilda, and Filippo Delpino, eds. 2005. Oriente e Occidente: Metodi e discipline a confronto, riflessioni sulla cronologia dell’età del ferro in Italia: Atti dell’Incontro di Studi, Roma, 30–31 ottobre 2003 (Mediterranea 1). Pisa, Italy: Istituti Editoriali e Poligrafici Internazionali.
  230. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  231. Proceedings of a major international conference, presenting analysis and dialogue arising out of modern developments in radiocarbon and dendrochronological dating and their effect on Iron Age sequences in Italy in general and Etruria in particular. For a critical assessment in English, see Jean MacIntosh Turfa, Bryn Mawr Classical Review, 10 August 2006.
  232. Find this resource:
  233. Bonfante, Larissa. 1981. Out of Etruria: Etruscan influence north and south. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports.
  234. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  235. Collected, and in some cases translated, papers regarding the causes and effects of Etruscan expansion northward (beyond the Arno) and southward (beyond the Tiber).
  236. Find this resource:
  237. Dore, Anna, Marinella Marchesi, and Laura Minarini, eds. 2000. Principi etruschi: Tra Mediterraneo ed Europa. Venice: Marsilio.
  238. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  239. Catalogue of an exhibition at the Museo Civico Archeologico, Bologna. Illustrates the tombs and dwellings (and their contents) of the international “Orientalizing” culture that had spread from Greece to Etruria by 600 BCE, following the formation of the Etruscan people by 750 and the emergence of their “princes.”
  240. Find this resource:
  241. Ridgway, David. 1992. The first Western Greeks. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
  242. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  243. An account of the first Western Greeks, Euboeans with Eastern contacts, who established the flourishing multinational emporium of Pithekoussai on the island of Ischia in the Bay of Naples by around 750 BCE; see pp. 121–144 for the effect this had on Etruria.
  244. Find this resource:
  245. Etruscan Art
  246.  
  247. The appreciation of all fields of Etruscan art has inevitably suffered by comparison with the contemporary achievements of the Greek genius at home and abroad—not least in southern Italy (“Magna Graecia”), and, especially in the fom of imported Attic pottery of the “best” period, in Etruria itself. Two views of the Etruscan–Greek relationship are current. For some, Etruscan art is a “showy blend of Greek, oriental, and barbarian taste which can still inspire or impress those who cannot come to terms with the more controlled achievements of Greek art” (Boardman 1999, p. 200). For others, “The Etruscans not only pick and choose those elements of Greek art that please them, but they also make those elements very much their own” (Small 1992, p. 51). Of these views, the second appears to be gaining ground at the time of writing. In other words, it is increasingly accepted that Greek priorities and perceptions cannot reasonably be applied to a non-Greek civilization that used Greek techniques for non-Greek purposes. The debate between these two attitudes continues; meanwhile, Brendel 1995 provides a classic and well-illustrated account of all fields of Etruscan art; and Bonfante 2003 sheds new and sometimes unexpected light on the visual background of Etruscan civilization.
  248.  
  249. Boardman, John. 1999. The Greeks overseas: Their early colonies and trade. 4th ed. London: Thames and Hudson.
  250. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  251. An archaeological account of the spread of Greek civilization through Europe, Africa and the Near East. See pp. 161–224 for Italy, Sicily, and the West, especially pp. 198–210 (“Greeks and Etruscans”).
  252. Find this resource:
  253. Bonfante, Larissa. 2003. Etruscan dress. 2d ed. Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press.
  254. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  255. A clear and well-informed critical analysis of dress as an index to the society and chronology of Etruria. Extensively illustrated and organized by garment type, this unique study uses the evidence of Etruscan art to define commercial and social trends.
  256. Find this resource:
  257. Brendel, Otto J. Etruscan art. 1995. 2d ed. New Haven and London: Yale University Press.
  258. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  259. Progress since the first edition (1978) is reviewed in a bibliographical essay and an additional bibliography (404 items), both by Francesca R. Serra Ridgway, pp. 486–513.
  260. Find this resource:
  261. Small, J. Penny. 1992. The Etruscan view of Greek art. Boreas: Münstersche Beiträge zur Archäologie 14–15:51–65.
  262. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  263. An interesting account, of lasting value, of the Etruscan reaction to the Greek artistic phenomena outlined by Boardman 1999.
  264. Find this resource:
  265. Architecture
  266.  
  267. More is still known about Etruscan tombs and cemeteries than about Etruscan houses, other buildings, and town planning. This is due in part to the understandable preferences of early excavators (shared by modern clandestine operators) for the rich pickings that could reasonably be expected in cemeteries, but also to the scarcity in Etruria itself of stone suitable for building. Houses and urban areas, along with temples and sanctuaries, did not begin to attract serious and widespread attention until the second half of the 20th century. Since then, the study of architectural terracotta decoration (deliciae fictiles) has emerged as a particularly significant and informative growth area, treated since 1993 in a dedicated seres of regular meetings (see most recently Edlund-Berry, et al. 2006), and culminating in the major treatment of this category by Winter 2009. For the rest, Prayon 1975 and Boethius 1978 are good introductions to the whole field; Naso 1996 adds much from the specifically funerary sector; Stopponi 1985 usefully reviews work on houses and palaces at a number of key sites, a process usefully continued by Turfa and Steinmayer 1996, which compares the situation in contemporary Greece.
  268.  
  269. Boëthius, Axel. 1978. Etruscan and early Roman architecture. 2d integrated ed., revised by Roger Ling and Tom Rasmussen. Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin.
  270. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  271. First published in 1970, this is still an attractive and effective standard account of the techniques, materials, and design of Etruscan public and private buildings.
  272. Find this resource:
  273. Edlund-Berry, Ingrid, Giovanna Greco, and John Kentfield, eds. 2006. Deliciae fictiles III. Architectural terracottas in ancient Italy: New discoveries and interpretations. Proceedings of the International Conference held at the American Academy in Rome, 2002. Oxford: Oxbow.
  274. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  275. The latest in a series of proceedings of specialist international conferences on architectural terracottas.
  276. Find this resource:
  277. Naso, Alessandro. 1996. Architetture dipinte: Decorazioni parietali non figurate nelle tombe a camera dell’Etruria meridionale (VII-V sec. a.C.). Rome: L’Erma di Bretschneider.
  278. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  279. A detailed analytical study of around three hundred examples of painted architectural decoration in tombs, which began at Caere in the second quarter of the 7th century BCE.
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Prayon, Friedhelm. 1975. Frühetruskische Grab- und Hausarchitektur. RM Ergänzungsheft 22. Heidelberg, Germany: F. H. Kerle.
  282. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  283. A pioneering study that has helped to set the scene for all subsequent work on the architecture of Etruscan tombs and buildings; it could usefully be studied now in conjunction with Naso 1996.
  284. Find this resource:
  285. Stopponi, Simonetta, ed. 1985. Case e palazzi d’Etruria. Milan: Electa.
  286. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  287. A “Year of the Etruscans” exhibition catalogue from Siena. An informative and still valuable set of progress reports on research at various key sites in Etruria.
  288. Find this resource:
  289. Turfa, Jean MacIntosh, and A.G. Steinmayer, Jr. 1996. The comparative structure of Greek and Etruscan monumental buildings. Papers of the British School at Rome 64:1–39.
  290. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  291. Compares and contrasts the structural revolutions that took place in Greece and Etruria during the 7th century BCE, following the introduction of roof tiles in both areas.
  292. Find this resource:
  293. Winter, Nancy A. 2009. Symbols of wealth and power: Architectural terracotta decoration in Etruria and central Italy, 640–510 B.C. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
  294. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  295. The definitive catalogue of a critical element in domestic architecture that provides a series of significant insights into the architectural history of Etruria.
  296. Find this resource:
  297. Metalwork
  298.  
  299. Owing no doubt to the ready availability of their constituent elements (copper and tin) in Tuscany, and the local expertise thus engendered already in prehistoric times, Etruscan bronzes are of outstanding quality from the Iron Age onward; this is conveniently illustrated by Bietti Sestieri and Macnamara 2007, a veritable encyclopedia of Italian nonferrous metalwork between the Copper Age and the dawn of Etruscan civilization; and by Naso 1996, the definitive catalogue of the impressive range of bronzes of the full Etruscan period now in Mainz. Between the late 6th and 2nd centuries BCE, particularly notable specialized productions include bronze mirrors with incised figured decoration; examples of these, often decontextualized in museums worldwide, are being listed in the fascicules of the ongoing Corpus Speculorum Etruscorum, initiated in 1981, for which the papers edited by de Grummond 1982 effectively set the scene. For the rest, the range and importance of the Etruscan bronzeworker’s craft is brilliantly illustrated by Haynes 1985, a carefully chosen anthology of museum pieces, and by Richardson 1983 (limited to votive figures presumably dedicated in sanctuaries); both authors furnish perceptive accounts of local traditions and styles and their reaction to incoming influences from Greece and Ionia. From the Orientalizing period onward, immigrant goldsmiths and their local Etruscan pupils (the distinction is not always clear) were also capable of particularly fine work; their achievements are illustrated, and reviewed in depth, by Cristofani and Martelli 1983, while Nestler and Formigli 2001 analyze and discuss the characteristic Etruscan technique of granulation.
  300.  
  301. Bietti Sestieri, Anna Maria, and Ellen MacNamara. 2007. Prehistoric metal artefacts from Italy (3500–720 BC) in the British Museum. London: British Museum Press.
  302. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  303. The definitive catalogue of 837 prehistoric and proto-historic Italian copper and bronze artifacts in the British Museum, the majority of Iron Age date; fully illustrated, and accompanied by detailed typological analysis. A major work of reference.
  304. Find this resource:
  305. Cristofani, Mauro, and Marina Martelli, eds. 1983. L’oro degli Etruschi. Novara, Italy: Istituto Geografico de Agostini.
  306. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  307. An extensively and memorably illustrated account of the outstanding gold artifacts from Orientalizing and later Etruscan contexts, including well-informed discussion of their affinities elsewhere in the Mediterranean.
  308. Find this resource:
  309. de Grummond, Nancy T., ed. 1982. A guide to Etruscan mirrors. Tallahassee, FL: Archaeological News.
  310. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  311. A pioneer collection of papers on various aspects of a characteristcally Etruscan product, including particularly valuable accounts of the manufacturing processes and the subject matter depicted on the engraved surfaces.
  312. Find this resource:
  313. Haynes, Sybille. 1985. Etruscan bronzes. London and New York: Sotheby’s.
  314. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  315. A catalogue of 200 pieces, selected for the information they provide about wider historical issues, and accompanied by a review of bronzeworking techniques.
  316. Find this resource:
  317. Naso, Alessandro. 2003. I bronzi etruschi e italici del Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum. Mainz, Germany: Verlag des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums.
  318. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  319. An annotated and well-illustrated catalogue of the 534 Etruscan and Italic bronzes in a major German collection.
  320. Find this resource:
  321. Nestler, Gerhard, and Edilberto Formigli. 2001. Etruskische Granulation: Eine antike Goldschmiedetechnik. 2d ed. Siena, Italy: Nuova Immagine.
  322. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  323. A technical account of the methods used to obtain the characteristically Etruscan granulation effect, the art of breaking up the smooth surfaces of gold ornaments with minute granules of gold.
  324. Find this resource:
  325. Richardson, Emeline H. 1983. Etruscan votive bronzes: Geometric, orientalizing, archaic. Mainz, Germany: von Zabern.
  326. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  327. An imposing catalogue of more than 1,300 votive bronze figures (from more than 100 museums worldwide), arranged by typology and providing much information on a variety of stylistic and technical topics.
  328. Find this resource:
  329. Pottery: Bucchero
  330.  
  331. Imported Greek ceramic assocations indicate that the distinctive black pottery known as bucchero, the Etruscans’ only independent invention, was being made at Caere well before the middle of the 7th century BCE; it was strongly influenced from the outset by Corinthian forms. Production soon spread to other centers, and bucchero is ubiquitous throughout the 7th and 6th centuries in the graves, sanctuaries, and settlements of Etruria proper; bucchero exports provide good evidence for Etruscan commerce with the outside world, notably southern France and the eastern Mediterranean. In cataloguing the British Museum’s extensive holdings of bucchero, Perkins 2007 has distilled recently published assemblages (notably Berkin 2003) and other advances (especially Rasmussen 1979 and Regter 2003) into what is in effect an illustrated dictionary of bucchero forms.
  332.  
  333. Berkin, Jon M. 2003. The orientalizing bucchero from the lower building at Poggio Civitate (Murlo). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology.
  334. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  335. A catalogue, with discussion, of 139 pieces from an important non-funerary context in Northern Etruria, mostly ranging in date from the last quarter of the 7th century to the first quarter of the 6th.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. Perkins, Philip. 2007. Etruscan bucchero in the British Museum. London: British Museum Press.
  338. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  339. An annotated and well-illustrated catalogue of the bucchero pottery in the British Museum, arranged by shape.
  340. Find this resource:
  341. Rasmussen, Tom B. 1979. Bucchero pottery from southern Etruria. Reprinted 2006. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
  342. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  343. This classic study established a bucchero typology of lasting value, based on reliably associated contexts in the core area of southern Etruria (mainly Caere, Veii, and Tarquinia).
  344. Find this resource:
  345. Regter, Wim. 2003. Imitation and creation: Development of early bucchero design at Cerveteri in the seventh century BC. Amsterdam: Allard Pierson Museum.
  346. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  347. Identifies individual hands on the basis of particular ways of handling the instruments used to obtain the characteristic combed fan (ventaglietti) decoration on bucchero shapes.
  348. Find this resource:
  349. Pottery: Painted
  350.  
  351. Potters and painters of Etrusco-Corinthian vases (Szilágyi 1992), abundant and widely distributed between c. 630 and c. 550 BCE, were self-evidently influenced by their Corinthian contemporaries. In sharp contrast, the imported Nikosthenic amphorae—Attic black figure amphorae signed by the potter Nikosthenes between c. 545 and c. 510 (Tosto 1999)—imitate a bucchero model that is particularly common at Caere (Rasmussen 1979, pp. 74–79, amphora type 1g). There too, the black-figure water jars known as Caeretan hydriae were produced during the last quarter of the 6th century by a single workshop, seemingly staffed by two immigrant potters from Greece (Hemelrijk 1984). Other features of Etruscan black-figure production include the so-called Pontic style developed by the Paris Painter and his followers (Hannestad 1974 and 1976); notable too is the Micali Painter (Spivey 1987), who owes at least as much to native Etruscan imagination as he does to Attic influence. From the end of the 5th century, black-figure was succeeded by the plethora of red-figure workshops treated in depth for the first time by Beazley 1947. A good selection of Etruscan red-figure from Tarquinian funerary contexts will be found in Cavagnaro Vanoni and Serra Ridgway 1989.
  352.  
  353. Beazley, John D. 1947. Etruscan vase painting. Reprinted 1976. Oxford: Clarendon Press; New York: Hacker Art Books.
  354. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  355. A pioneering study of lasting value, mainly devoted to Etruscan red-figure; includes less attention to Etruscan black-figure and minor fabrics.
  356. Find this resource:
  357. Cavagnaro Vanoni, Lucia, and Francesca R. Serra Ridgway. 1989. Vasi etruschi a figure rosse: Dagli scavi della Fondazione Lerici nella necropoli dei Monterozzi a Tarquinia. Rome: L’Erma di Bretschneider.
  358. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  359. A usefully representative set of Etruscan red-figure vases from known funerary contexts, recently and reliably excavated.
  360. Find this resource:
  361. Corpus Vasorum Antiquorum.
  362. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  363. Etruscan vases of all kinds, mostly decontextualized, in museums worldwide are listed in the fascicules of the ongoing Corpus Vasorum Antiquorum, initiated in 1922
  364. Find this resource:
  365. Hannestad, Lise. 1974. The Paris painter: An Etruscan vase-painter. Historisk-Filosofiske Meddelelser 47:2. Copenhagen, Denmark: Munksgaard.
  366. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  367. First of Hannestad’s two studies bring order to the whole range of the Etruscan black-figure style conventionally (and misleadingly) known as Pontic.
  368. Find this resource:
  369. Hannestad, Lise. 1976. The Followers of the Paris Painter. Historisk-Filosofiske Meddelelser 47:4. Copenhagen, Denmark: Munksgaard.
  370. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  371. Second of Hannestad’s two studies bring order to the whole range of the Etruscan black-figure style conventionally (and misleadingly) known as Pontic.
  372. Find this resource:
  373. Hemelrijk, Jaap M. 1984. Caeretan hydriae. Mainz, Germany: von Zabern.
  374. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  375. A detailed stylistic analysis of a distinctive class of black-figure water jars made at Etruscan Caere, many of which are decorated with particularly striking scenes from Greek mythology.
  376. Find this resource:
  377. Spivey, Nigel J. 1987. The Micali Painter and his followers. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
  378. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  379. A full stylistic study of this significant black-figure painter, accompanied by a catalogue of his surviving works.
  380. Find this resource:
  381. Szilágyi, János György. 1992. Ceramica Etrusco-Corinzia figurata, I: 630–580C.; II: 590/580–550C. Monumenti Etruschi 7, 8. Florence, Italy: Olschki.
  382. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  383. These two volumes identify groups (consisting of individual painters, their circles, and their followers) of the Etrusco-Corinthian vases produced continuously over three generations (c. 630–550 BCE); they also discuss the social and economic implications of the evolving distribution of this important ceramic category.
  384. Find this resource:
  385. Tosto, Vincent. 1999. The black-figure pottery signed Nikosthenesepoiesen. Amsterdam: Allard Pierson Museum.
  386. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  387. A well-informed reassessment of an interesting artistic personality; between 545 and 510 BCE (peaking 530–515), his Attic workshop produced distinctive (“Nikosthenic”) amphorae for the Etruscan, especially Caeretan, market.
  388. Find this resource:
  389. Wall Painting
  390.  
  391. A number of underground chamber tombs assigned to upper-class Etruscans in various centers, especially Tarquinia, have preserved the largest surviving complex of pre-Roman wall painting in the Mediterranean world. It ranges in date from the 7th to the 2nd century BCE; the extraordinary Tarquinian series, much augmented by modern geophysical prospection, dates from the mid-6th century onward. The lively, even cheerful, scenes of everyday life—banquets, games, hunting, and fishing—characteristic of the 6th and 5th centuries are succeeded in the late 4th and 3rd centuries by scenes of the underworld that are altogether darker in both color and content. Steingräber 1986, augmented by the new discoveries presented in his 2006 volume (Steingräber 2006), provides a full and extensively illustrated catalogue raisonné, accompanied by extensive discussion. Serra Ridgway 2007 uses Steingräber’s work to demonstrate that the later tombs preserve certain basic features and allusions that were already common in the 6th century.
  392.  
  393. Serra Ridgway, Francesca R. 2007. Revisiting the Etruscan underworld. In Accordia Research Papers, vol. 10 (2004–2006). Edited by Edward Herring,127–141.London: Accordia Research Institute.
  394. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  395. Stresses the continuity between the paintings of the 6th–5th and those of the 4th–3rd centuries BCE, with particular reference to the theme of meeting predeceased relatives.
  396. Find this resource:
  397. Steingräber, Stephan, ed. 1986. Etruscan painting: Catalogue raisonné of Etruscan wall painting. New York: Johnson Reprint.
  398. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  399. The basic compendium, of which the main feature is a detailed catalogue, extensively illustrated, of the Etruscan wall paintings known at the time of publication.
  400. Find this resource:
  401. Steingräber, Stephan. 2006. Abundance of life: Etruscan wall painting. Translated by Russell Stockman. Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum.
  402. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  403. Translation of Pittura murale etrusca (Verona: Arsenale, 2006).This item affords further comprehensive coverage of the field and incorporates new discoveries, most notably the Tomb of the Blue Demons, discovered at Tarquinia in 1985 and dated between the mid-5th and early 4th centuries BCE.
  404. Find this resource:
  405. Religion
  406.  
  407. Etruscan religion was a polytheistic system, characterized by the submission of human affairs to the overriding power of the gods, who dwelled in particular houses of a sixteen-part sky: their will had to be established by constant interrogation through rituals prescribed by prophets (the Etruscan “discipline”), and was made manifest through thunder and the behavior of the entrails (especially the liver) of sacrificial victims. The interpretation of these two natural phenomena was clearly in the hands of priests, who were able to consult remarkably detailed reference material, of which two examples have survived: the text of a calendar specifying the significance of thunder on each day of the year (Turfa 2006), and a bronze model of a sheep’s liver, annotated in Etruscan (van der Meer 1987). The Roman historian Livy’s statement (History of Rome 5.1.6) that the Etruscans were “a people more concerned than any other with religion” receives some measure of confirmation from the archaeologcal record of Etruscan temples, religious iconography, and ritual equipment. Gaultier and Briquel 1997 signaled a resurgence of interest in the religious aspects of Etruscan civilization, triggered not least by the excavation and study of sanctuaries and temples that characterized the second half of the 20th century (most notably at Pyrgi: Serra Ridgway 1990). Jean-René Jannot’s excellent synthesis (Jannot 2005) effectively sets the scene for the appreciation both of the further advances discussed in de Grummond and Simon 2006 and of the radical rethinking proposed by de Grummond 2006 under headings inextricably linked with religion; and there is much of Etruscan interest in the thematic volumes of Thesaurus Cultus et Rituum Antiquorum 2004–2006.
  408.  
  409. de Grummond, Nancy T. 2006. Etruscan myth, sacred history, and legend. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology.
  410. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  411. Breaks new ground by looking at its subject matter from the inside rather than through Greek or Roman eyes; this is particularly relevant to the presentation of the Etruscan view of creation, time, and the universe in chapter 3 and to the pantheon of Etruscan gods and spirits discussed in chapters 4–7.
  412. Find this resource:
  413. de Grummond, Nancy T., and Erika Simon, eds. 2006. The religion of the Etruscans. Austin: University of Texas Press.
  414. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  415. Proceedings of a memorable conference at Florida State University; a useful collection that adds much to Jannot’s 2005 overview.
  416. Find this resource:
  417. Gaultier, Françoise, and Dominique Briquel, eds. 1997. Les plus religieux des hommes: État de la recherche sur la religion étrusque. Paris: Documentation Française.
  418. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  419. These proceedings of a major colloquium in Paris contain much of lasting value and effectively set the scene for the subsequent items cited under this heading.
  420. Find this resource:
  421. Jannot, Jean-René. 2005. Religion in ancient Etruria. Translated by Jane K. Whitehead. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
  422. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  423. Translation of Devins, dieux et démons: Regards sur la religion de l‘Étrurie antique (Paris: Picard, 1998). An exceptionally clear introduction to the whole field, well informed, well organized, and considerately provided with useful scholarly notes and a glossary.
  424. Find this resource:
  425. J. Paul Getty Museum. 2004–2006. Thesaurus cultus et rituum antiquorum. 5 vols. Los Angeles: Getty Museum Publications.
  426. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  427. A comprehensive resource on ancient cult and ritual in Greek, Etruscan, and Roman religion, in five thematic volumes of essays accompanied by essential bibliographies and catalogues of epigraphic, literary, iconographic, and archaeological evidence.
  428. Find this resource:
  429. Serra Ridgway, Francesca R.. 1990. Etruscans, Greeks, Carthaginians: The sanctuary at Pyrgi. In Greek colonists and native populations: Proceedings of the First Australian Congress of Classical Archaeology, held in honour of Emeritus Professor A. D. Trendall, Sydney, 9–14 July 1985. Edited by Jean-Paul Descoeudres. Canberra, Australia: Humanities Research Centre; Oxford: Clarendon Press.
  430. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  431. A wide-ranging summary of research at Pyrgi, the port of Caere, where Italian excavations have revealed an Etruscan sanctuary with two Archaic temples, and important epigraphic evidence for a politico-religious relationship with Carthage.
  432. Find this resource:
  433. Turfa, Jean MacIntosh. 2006. The Etruscan brontoscopic calendar. In The religion of the Etruscans. Edited by Nancy T. de Grummond and Erika Simon, 173–190. Austin: University of Texas Press.
  434. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  435. An edition (Greek text, English translation and commentary) of John the Lydian’s 6th-century CE translation of an Etruscan calendar showing the significance of thunder on each day of the year.
  436. Find this resource:
  437. van der Meer, L. Bouke. 1987. The Bronze Liver of Piacenza: Analysis of a polytheistic structure. Amsterdam: J. C. Gieben.
  438. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  439. A detailed account of a bronze model of a sheep’s liver, bearing 42 Etruscan inscriptions, and probably made and inscribed around 100 BCE for use by priests to interpret their observations of the livers of sacrificial victims.
  440. Find this resource:
  441. Language
  442.  
  443. The Etruscan alphabet is instantly recognizable as a slightly adjusted version of its Greek counterpart; unlike Greek, and unlike its Italic neighbors, the basis of the Etruscan language is not Indo-European. There is no Etruscan literature; the surviving texts consist of several thousand short inscriptions, mainly funerary or votive, and fewer than a dozen longer (and highly technical) religious and legal prescriptions. They range in date from the seventh to the first century BCE, and can be read with confidence; although they cannot always be completely understood, decipherment is not an issue. Regional differences in dialect were clearly well established by the time the Etruscans had learned to write. Bonfante and Bonfante 2002 is the best overall introduction to the study of the Etruscan language; Bagnasco Gianni 1996 and Marchesini 1997 are detailed reviews, respectively, of the linguistic resources of Orientalizing Etruria and of the personal Etruscan names attested at the major center of Caere. The annual Rivista di Epigrafia Etrusca publishes new texts, usually from current excavations. Etruscan inscriptions are being collected, by area, in the fascicules of the ongoing Corpus Inscriptionum Etruscarum, initiated in 1885; meanwhile, Rix 1991, the Etruscan Texts Project, and Wallace 2008 stand out as admirably user-friendly and reliable items in a field that has always been regrettably subject to incursions from the “lunatic fringe” of scholarship.
  444.  
  445. Bagnasco Gianni, Giovanna. 1996. Oggetti iscritti di epoca orientalizzante in Etruria. Biblioteca di Studi Etruschi 30. Florence, Italy: Olschki.
  446. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  447. A major reexamination, and corpus, of the inscriptions of the Orientalizing period; includes details of the items on which they appear, and (where known) their contexts.
  448. Find this resource:
  449. Bonfante, Giuliano, and Larissa Bonfante. 2002. The Etruscan language: An introduction. 2d ed. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press.
  450. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  451. The most concise and complete account of Etruscan in English, with good attention to the archaeological background and an informative section of translated texts.
  452. Find this resource:
  453. Etruscan Texts Project.
  454. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  455. An online editio minor, established in 2004 under the auspices of the Classics Department and the Center for Etruscan Studies at the University of Massachusetts at Amherst and updated monthly, of inscriptions discovered since 1999 and thus not listed in Rix 1991; includes a search facility.
  456. Find this resource:
  457. Marchesini, Simona. 1997. Studi onomastici e sociolinguistici sull’Etruria arcaica: Il caso di Caere. Biblioteca di Studi Etruschi 32. Florence, Italy: Olschki.
  458. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  459. An important study of the personal names attested at Caere, their formation, affinities, and social implications.
  460. Find this resource:
  461. Rivista di Epigrafia Etrusca.
  462. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  463. An integral (and substantial) section of the journal Studi Etruschi (see Journals); publishes an annual selection of newly discovered inscriptions.
  464. Find this resource:
  465. Rix, Helmut, ed. 1991. Etruskische Texte: Editio minor. 2 vols. Tübingen, Germany: G. Narr.
  466. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  467. The standard corpus of texts in volume 2 is preceded in volume 1 by detailed background material, including bibliography, concordances, and indexes.
  468. Find this resource:
  469. Wallace, Rex. 2008. Zikh Rasna: A manual of the Etruscan language and inscriptions. Ann Arbor: Beech Stave.
  470. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  471. A clear and balanced description of Etruscan grammar; provides word-by-word analysis of around 200 inscriptions.
  472. Find this resource:
  473. Centers
  474.  
  475. The main Etruscan centers in Etruria proper and to the north and south are Acquarossa, Arezzo, Bisenzio, Bologna (Etruscan Felsina; Roman Bononia), Caere (modern Cerveteri; Drago Troccoli 2006), Capena, Capua (also known as Volturnum; Santa Maria Capua Vetere), Castel d’Asso (Colonna Di Paolo and Colonna 1970), Chiusi (Clusium), Cortona, Fiesole, Gravisca, Luni sul Mignone, Marzabotto, Marsiliana d’Albegna, Massa Marittima, Monterano, Murlo (also known as Poggio Civitate; De Puma and Small 1994; Phillips 1993), Nepi (Nepet[e]), Norchia (Colonna Di Paolo and Colonna 1978), Perugia, Pisa, Pitigliano, Poggio Buco, Pontecagnano, Populonia, Pyrgi (Santa Severa), Roselle, San Giovenale, San Giuliano, Saturnia, Sovana, Spina, Suessula, Sutri, Telamon, Tarquinia (Leighton 2004), Tuscania, Veii (Bartoloni 1997), Vetralla, Vetulonia, Volterra, Volsinii, and Vulci (Riccioni 1979). The detailed studies, all of more than local interest, for Caere, Castel d’Asso, Murlo, Norchia, Tarquinia, Veii, and Vulci include research publications of groundbreaking fieldwork (Colonna Di Paolo and Colonna 1970 and 1978), major works of accessible synthesis (Leighton 2004; Phillips 1993; Riccioni 1979); important collections of papers prompted by recent work at single centers (Bartoloni 1997; De Puma and Small 1994); and a specialist guidebook (Drago Troccoli 2006).
  476.  
  477. Bartoloni, Gilda (ed.). 1997. Le necropoli arcaiche di Veio: giornata di studio in memoria di Massimo Pallottino. Rome: Università degli studi di Roma, La Sapienza.
  478. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  479. Conference papers, chiefly valuable for the amount of information regarding the notoriously unpublished Villanovan cemeteries of Veii.
  480. Find this resource:
  481. Colonna Di Paolo, Elena, and Giovanni Colonna. 1970. Castel d’Asso. Rome: Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche.
  482. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  483. Describes and illustrates the rock-cut tombs (ranging in date mainly from the 4th century BCE to the 1st CE) in its area, in the context of valuable attention to the nature of “Middle Etruria” (i.e., inland from the coast).
  484. Find this resource:
  485. Colonna Di Paolo, Elena, and Giovanni Colonna. 1978. Norchia I. Rome: Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche.
  486. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  487. Continues the valuable work initiated by the same authors’ Castel d’Asso; no further volumes in this series have appeared.
  488. Find this resource:
  489. De Puma, Richard D., and J. Penny Small, eds. 1994. Murlo and the Etruscans: Art and society in ancient Etruria. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
  490. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  491. A useful set of specialist studies arising out of the Poggio Civitate project at Murlo (see Phillips 1993).
  492. Find this resource:
  493. Drago Troccoli, Luciana. 2006. Cerveteri. Rome: Libreria dello Stato.
  494. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  495. An authoritative and up-to-date short archaeological guide to Cerveteri (Etruscan Caere).
  496. Find this resource:
  497. Leighton, Robert. 2004. Tarquinia: An Etruscan city. London: Duckworth.
  498. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  499. This well-informed account of the most important center of ancient Etruria takes full account of recent and current Italian excavations in the city itself.
  500. Find this resource:
  501. Phillips, Kyle M., Jr. 1993. In the hills of Tuscany: Recent excavations at the Etruscan site of Poggio Civitate (Murlo, Siena). Philadelphia: University Museum, University of Pennsylvania.
  502. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  503. A valuable assessment of the non-funerary site of Poggio Civitate, Murlo (near Siena), written by the excavator shortly before his death; includes an annotated bbliography (complete to the time of publication) of preliminary reports and specialist studies.
  504. Find this resource:
  505. Riccioni, Giuliana. 1979. Vulci: A topographical and cultural survey. In Italy before the Romans: The Iron Age, Orientalizing, and Etruscan periods. Edited by David Ridgway and Francesca R. Ridgway, 241–276. London and New York: Academic Press.
  506. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  507. Still the best account in any language of Vulci, the least-known of the major Etruscan centers and an especially prolific source of Greek vases.
  508. Find this resource:
  509. back to top
Advertisement
Add Comment
Please, Sign In to add comment
Advertisement
Public Pastes
Advertisement
We use cookies for various purposes including analytics. By continuing to use Pastebin, you agree to our use of cookies as described in the Cookies Policy.  OK, I Understand
Not a member of Pastebin yet?
Sign Up, it unlocks many cool features!