Hasan (Islamic Studies)

Introduction

Hasan ibn ʿAli ibn Abi Talib, the son of ʿAli (the cousin of Muhammad) and Fatima (the daughter of Muhammad), was born on 15 Ramadan 3/2 March 625. As the grandson of Muhammad, he was particularly dear to the Prophet. Just like Muhammad, Hasan was gentle, good, and pious. Hasan, a pacific man, always preferred to avoid war in order to preserve the unity of the Muslim community. When addressing an audience, he was an excellent speaker. This entry mainly covers his life during the time of Muhammad, his role during the first four caliphs, the tribulations he had to face during his caliphate, his marriages, and how the Shiʿites view him.

General Overviews

Madelung 1996, Madelung 2004, and Jafri 1979 are the most updated and important articles and books that give a general overview on Hasan’s life.

Jafri, S. Husain M. Origins and Early Development of Shiʿa Islam. London and New York: Longman, 1979.
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Jafri dedicates one chapter of his book to the abdication of Hasan; he presents, in a critical manner, different versions from various primary sources relating the caliphate of Hasan while also focusing on the Shiʿi perspective on Hasan. Reprint by Ansariyan Publications available online.
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Madelung, Wilferd. The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511582042Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
In his conclusion, Madelung devoted a considerable amount of space to the caliphate of Hasan. His book also contains a section on the marriages and children of Hasan.
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Madelung, Wilferd. Ḥasan b. ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭaleb. In Encyclopaedia Iranica. Edited by Ehsan Yarshater, 2004.
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Madelung covers the life of Hasan based on primary sources.
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Muhammad’s Affection for Hasan

Madelung 2004 provides an account of the youth of Hasan based on traditional sources. Al-Tirmidhi 1292/1875 is a work by a Sunni traditionalist, and the majority of Muslims accept his traditions. To grasp the Shiʿi minority view on Hasan, one should read Shaykh al-Mufid 1981. At Hasan’s birth, Muhammad gave Hasan his name (meaning “beautiful, handsome, and good”) and sacrificed a ram in his honor. Hasan lived in close proximity to the Prophet for a period of seven years. Many prophetic Hadith(s) show the love of Muhammad for his grandsons. Often Muhammad would carry Hasan on his shoulders, seating him on his knees, and allowing him to ride on his back as he was prostrating himself in prayer. The Prophet even interrupted his sermon to take care of Hasan, who was climbing the pulpit to join him. Muhammad said that his two grandsons would be the lords of the youth (sayyida shabab) of paradise. It was also reported that Muhammad raised the hands of Hasan and Husayn and declared: “Whoever loves me and loves these two and loves their mother and father, will be with me in my station on the Day of Resurrection” (al-Tirmidhi, 1292/1875, Vol. 2, p. 299; quoted in Momen 1985, p. 15, listed under Hasan and the Ahl al-Bayt). The Prophet also said: “As for ʿAli, Fatima, Hasan and Husayn, I am at war with whoever fights against these and at peace with whoever is at peace with these” (al-Tirmidhi 1292/1875, Vol. 2, p. 320; quoted in Momen 1985, p. 17, listed under Hasan and the Ahl al-Bayt). Muhammad also predicted that Hasan would make peace between two factions of Muslims. Before he died, Muhammad is reported to have said about Hasan: “He has my form and my nobility. As for Husayn, he has my generosity and my bravery” (Shaykh al-Mufid 1981, p. 280).

Madelung, Wilferd. Ḥasan b. ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭaleb. In Encyclopaedia Iranica. Edited by Ehsan Yarshater, 2004.
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Madelung covers the youth of Hasan during the lifetime of the Prophet, based on traditional sources.
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Shaykh al-Mufid. Kitāb al-Irshād: The Book of Guidance into the Lives of the Twelve Imams. Translated by I. K. A. Howard. Elmhurst, NY: Tahrike Tarsile Qurʾan, 1981.
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In his book, Shaykh al-Mufid (d. 413/1022) gave the Twelver Shiʿi perspective on Hasan and quoted many Shiʿi traditions.
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al-Tirmidhi, Abu ʿIsa Muhammad. Sunan (Saḥīḥ). 4 vols. Cairo: Matbaʿat al-Madani, 1292/1875.
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Al-Tirmidhi (d. 279/892), a Sunni traditionalist and author of one of the canonical collections of Hadith, reported many positive Hadith about Hasan, Husayn, ʿAli, and Fatima.
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Hasan and the Ahl al-Bayt

In spite of different viewpoints on the ahl al-bayt (the people of the house) existing between Shiʿites and Sunnis, there are Sunni sources that maintain a viewpoint agreeing with the Shiʿi view (see al-Nisaburi 2002). Madelung 1996 gives a rational interpretation of the Qur’an that agrees with the Sunni historian al‑Tabari as well as the Shiʿi interpretation provided in Momen 1985. In Shiʿi theological works, the ahl al-bayt designate specifically ʿAli, Fatima, Hasan, Husayn, and the remaining Imams. Nevertheless, Shiʿites generally refer to ahl al-bayt as including all the descendants of ʿAli and Fatima (Howard 1984). Some Sunnis apply ahl al-bayt to all the wives of Muhammad. However, other Sunnis confirm that the Prophet explicitly designated ʿAli, Fatima, Hasan, and Husayn as ahl al-bayt (al-Nisaburi 2002, p. 943, nos. 4759, 4760, 4761, 4762). The phrase ahl al-bayt appears twice in the Qurʾan, once in regard to the family of Abraham (XI:73) and the other time in this verse (XXXII I:33) about purification (tathir): “Verily Allah only wishes to keep uncleanness away from you, O the ahl al-bayt, and to purify you completely.” Wilferd Madelung meanwhile makes the following observation: “Who are the ‘people of the house’ here (XXXIII:33)? The pronoun referring to them is in the masculine plural, while the preceding part of the verse is in the feminine plural. This change of gender has evidently contributed to the birth of various accounts of a legendary character, attaching the latter part of the verse to the five people of the mantle (ahl al-kisaʾ): Muhammad, ʿAli, Fatima, Hasan, and Husayn. In spite of the obvious Shiʿi significance, the great majority of the reports quoted by al-Tabari in his commentary on this verse support this interpretation” (Madelung 1996, pp. 14–15). In fact, when this specific verse was revealed, Muhammad enveloped these five with his mantle.

Howard, I. K. A. Ahl-e Bayt. In Encyclopaedia Iranica. Edited by Ehsan Yarshater, 1984.
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I. K. A. Howard gives a brief historical survey of the meaning of ahl al-bayt for different groups.
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Madelung, Wilferd. The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511582042Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Madelung elaborates on important concepts such as the ahl al‑bayt, which is subject to different interpretations among the different Islamic schools. In his conclusion, he devotes a considerable amount of space to the caliphate of Hasan.
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Momen, Moojan. An Introduction to Shiʿi Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shiʿism. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1985.
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Covers fundamental Shiʿi concepts, such as the ahl al‑bayt. Also provides a good account of the Twelver Shiʿi perspective on the life of Hasan.
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al-Nisaburi, al-Hakim. Al-Mustadrak ʿalā al-Saḥīḥayn. Beirut, Lebanon: Dar al-Kutub al-Ilmiyah, 2002.
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Al-Nisaburi (d. 405/1014), a Sunni traditionalist, quoted many Hadith designating ʿAli, Fatima, Hasan, and Husayn as the ahl al-bayt.
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The Mubahala Episode

Momen 1985 presents the Shiʿi view on the mubahala (mutual cursing) episode, while Asad 2003 gives the Sunni view on this specific event. The Shiʿites attach great importance to the episode of mubahala. Muhammad, in the ninth year of Hegira, sent letters to surrounding rulers inviting them to embrace Islam. The Christian leaders of the city of Najran met to discuss this proposition. They affirmed that Jesus predicted that the son of the comforter (see John 14:26) would conquer the earth. The comforter could not be Muhammad, however, because he had no son. They consulted one of their sacred books, called Al-Jamiʿ, where it was related that Adam had a vision of one brilliant light surrounded by four other lights. In this story, God told Adam that these lights referred to five of his descendants. The Christians sent a delegation of their religious authorities to meet Muhammad and investigate the matter. After a debate on their religious beliefs, they agreed to engage in mubahala the following day by invoking God’s curse on whoever was the liar. On this occasion, one verse of the Qurʾan (III:61) was revealed. On the day of the event, Muhammad came with only ʿAli, Fatima, Hasan, and Husayn, who were under a mantle. The Christians asked Muhammad why he did not bring the other religious leaders of his community. Muhammad answered that God had ordered him to do as he had done. The Christians remembered the five lights mentioned in their scripture, which they concluded referred to the five descendants of Adam, and they paid their tribute to Muhammad. Therefore the mubahala did not occur. Because of this episode, Muhammad, ʿAli, Fatima, Hasan, and Husayn have been called the “people of the mantle” (ahl al-kisa) (see Momen 1985, pp. 13–14). The Sunni commentators on this verse affirm that the disagreement between Christians and Muslims concerned the nature of Jesus as “son of God,” and that the Christians refused to submit to the trial through prayer (mubahala) (see Asad 2003).

Asad, Muhammad. The Message of the Qurʾān. Bitton, UK: Book Foundation, 2003.
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Asad gives a Sunni commentary on the Qurʾanic verse referring to the mubahala (III:61).
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Momen, Moojan. An Introduction to Shiʿi Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shiʿism. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1985.
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Momen provides a good account of the Twelver Shiʿi perspective on the mubahala episode.
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Hasan at the Time of the First Three Caliphs

Two primary sources are important in developing the life of Hasan during the time of the first three caliphs: Ibn Isfandiar 1320/1941 and al-Tabari 1879–1901. According to Ibn Isfandiar, Hasan participated in a Kufan military campaign to Amul in Tabaristan during ʿUmar’s caliphate (Ibn Isfandiar 1320–1941, Vol. 1, pp. 73, 155). Abu Jaʿfar al-Tabari notes that, during the siege of ʿUthman’s house, ʿAli sent his sons to protect and defend the caliph (al-Tabari 1879–1901, Vol. 1, p. 2988).

Ibn Isfandiar. Tārikh-i Tabaristān. 2 vols. Edited by ʿAbbas Iqbal. Tehran, Iran: Muḥammad Ramaz̤ānī, 1320/1941.
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Ibn Isfandiar was a historian, probably from Amul, who lived in the 7th and 8th centuries. Around 603/1206, he wrote the earliest surviving book on the history of Tabaristan.
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al-Tabari, Abu Jaʿfar. Taʾrīkh al-Rusul wa al-Mulūk. Edited by M. J. de Goeje. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1879–1901.
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(History of prophets and kings.) This work by al-Tabari (d. 310/923), a Sunni scholar, covers the universal history of the world from its beginning to the author’s own times.
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Hasan during the Caliphate of ʿAli

Madelung 1996, Madelung 2004, and al-Baladhuri 1996 are significant in developing the life of Hasan during the caliphate of ʿAli. When ʿAli was caliph, Talha, al‑Zubayr and ʿAʾisha rebelled; Hasan was therefore sent to Kufa to obtain some help from its inhabitants for his father. Al-Baladhuri 1996, a Sunni source, reports a disagreement between Hasan and ʿAli regarding his father’s war policy (Vol. 2, p. 167). However, this disagreement is not reported in Shiʿi sources. Hasan took part in the battles of the Camel and Siffin, according to Madelung 2004.

al-Baladhuri, Ahmad ibn Yahya. Ansāb al-Ashrāf. Vol. 2. Edited by M. F. al-ʿAzm. Damascus, Syria: Dār al-Yaqaẓah al-ʻArabīyah, 1996.
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Al-Baladhuri (d. 279/892–893) was the Sunni author of a great historico-biographical work.
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Madelung, Wilferd. The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511582042Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Madelung covers in detail mainly the first four caliphates; in his conclusion, however, he devotes a considerable amount of space to the caliphate of Hasan.
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Madelung, Wilferd. Ḥasan b. ʿAlī b. Abī Taleb. In Encyclopaedia Iranica. Edited by Ehsan Yarshater, 2004.
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Madelung provides details on Hasan during the caliphate of ʿAli.
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Caliphate of Hasan

Many Kufans designated Hasan as caliph, but soon after this hostilities began with Muʿawiya, who refused to give his allegiance to Hasan. Subsequently, many supporters betrayed Hasan, who had no choice but to negotiate with Muʿawiya and hand him the caliphate.

Beginning of His Caliphate

Regarding Hasan’s designation as caliph, al-Baladhuri 1974 shows that even a Sunni Muslim confirms the Shiʿi view that ʿAli appointed Hasan. Shaykh al-Mufid 1981, al-Isfahani 1949, and Madelung 1996 all quote an excerpt of Hasan’s speech that is especially noteworthy, because Hasan insisted on the particular status of the people of the house “whom God has purified thoroughly.” According to Shiʿites, at Ghadir Khumm, Muhammad had clearly designated ʿAli as his successor. Muhammad had also already given his designation (nass) to Hasan and Husayn, since he is reported to have said: “These two sons of mine are imams who will experience difficulties” (Shaykh al-Mufid 1981, p. 298). ʿAli, in his speeches, mentioned on many occasions that only the ahl al-bayt (the people of the house) deserved to lead the community. He had once specifically appointed Hasan as his legatee (al-Baladhuri 1974, Vol. 2, pp. 497, 504), and Hasan inherited ʿAli’s property and the real estate of the Prophet in Medina. The day ʿAli died, Hasan is reported to have made a speech stating: “There has died tonight a man who was the first among the early (Muslims) in (good) actions. Nor did any later (Muslims) attain his level in (good) actions. . . . He, peace be on him, has died on this the night on which Jesus, son of Mary, was taken up (to Heaven), on which Joshua, son of Nun, the testamentary trustee (wasi) of Moses, peace on him, died. . . . I am the (grand)son of the one who brought the good news. I am the (grand)son of the Warner. I am the (grand)son of the man who, with God’s permission, summoned (the people) to God. I am the (grand)son of the light which shone out (to the world). I am of the house, from whom God has sent away abomination and whom God has purified thoroughly. I am of the house for whom God has required love in his Book, when God, the Most High, said (XXXIII:33): ‘Say: I do not ask you for any reward except love for (my) kin. Whoever earns good, will increase good for himself.’ The good is love for us, the house” (Shaykh al-Mufid 1981, pp. 280–281; al-Isfahani 1949, pp. 49–50; see also Madelung 1996, pp. 311–312).

Then ʿUbayd Allah b. ʿAbbas invited the people to proclaim Hasan as caliph, stating: “People, this is the son of your Prophet, the testamentary trustee (wasi) of your imam. So pledge allegiance to him” (Shaykh al-Mufid 1981, p. 281). Qays b. Saʿd b. ʿUbada al-Ansari was the first to give his allegiance to Hasan.

Concerning the beginning of hostilities with Muʿawiya, al-Isfahani 1949 is useful because it reports on Hasan’s arguments to legitimate his rights to the caliphate, which constitutes the foundation of Shiʿi doctrine on the superiority of the people of the house to rule. Unfortunately, Muʿawiya refused to give his allegiance to Hasan, who addressed a letter to him. In this letter, Hasan argued his rights to the caliphate on the grounds that he was the closest blood relative to the Prophet. If the Quraysh could pretend to be more deserving of the caliphate over the helpers (ansar) on the grounds that the Prophet descended from the Quraysh, the members of the family of Muhammad, who were the closest to him in every aspect, were better qualified to assume the leadership of the community. Hasan contended that Muʿawiya did not possess any known merit in religion (din) and that he was the son of Abu Sufyan, who was the greatest enemy of the Prophet among the Quraysh. Hasan exhorted Muʿawiya not to rebel and to stop shedding the blood of Muslims, for he would be accountable to God for his bad actions (al‑Isfahani 1949, p. 56). However, none of the arguments put forward by Hasan changed the mind of Muʿawiya, who arrived in Mosul with his partisans. In fact, Muʿawiya had been hostile to the Shiʿi cause since the battle of Siffin and had initiated the struggle for power.

al-Baladhuri, Ahmad ibn Yahya. Ansāb al-Ashrāf. Vols. 2–3. Edited by Muhammad Baqir al-Mahmudi. Beirut, Lebanon: Dār al-Taʻāruf lil-Maṭbūʻāt, 1974.
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Al-Baladhuri (d. 279/892–893) was the Sunni author of a great historico-biographical work.
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al-Isfahani, Abu al-Faraj. Maqātil al-Ṭālibiyīn. Tehran, Iran: Dār Iḥyāʾ al-Kutub al-ʻArabīyah, 1949.
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Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani (d. 356/967) based his account of Hasan’s caliphate on Abu Mikhnaf (d. 157/774) and five other chains of transmitters.
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Madelung, Wilferd. The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511582042Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Madelung covers in detail mainly the first four caliphates; in his conclusion, however, he devotes a considerable amount of space to the caliphate of Hasan.
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Shaykh al-Mufid. Kitāb al-Irshād: The Book of Guidance into the Lives of The Twelve Imams. Translated by I. K. A. Howard. Elmhurst, NY: Tahrike Tarsile Qurʾan, 1981.
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This work by Shaykh al-Mufid (d. 413/1022) provides the Twelver Shiʿi perspective on Hasan and quotes many Shiʿi traditions.
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Hasan’s Speech at al-Sabat and the Beginning of a Rebellion

Al-Dinawari 1960, Jafri 1979, and Ibn Abi al-Hadid 1959–1964, which reports on the speech Hasan gave at al-Sabat, illustrate well the tribulations he had to confront. Al-Baladhuri 1996 described how the rebellion against Hasan began. Hasan left Kufa for al‑Madaʾin, and on his way he stopped at al-Sabat, where he noticed that many horsemen among his troops were uncertain and had grown fearful of the battle. He made a speech saying: “O people, I do not entertain any feeling of rancor against a Muslim. I am as much an overseer over yourselves [of your interests] as I am over my own self. Now, I am considering a plan; do not oppose me in it. Reconciliation, disliked by some of you, is better [under the circumstances] than the split that some of you prefer, especially when I see that most of you are shrinking from the war and are hesitant to fight. I do not, therefore, consider it wise to impose upon you something which you do not like” (al-Dinawari 1960, p. 216; Jafri 1979, pp. 143–144).

Ibn Abi al-Hadid 1959–1964 gives al‑Madaʾini’s (a Sunni historian) shorter version of this discourse, which omits mention of the part where Hasan affirmed “that most of you are shrinking from the war and are hesitant to fight. I do not, therefore, consider it wise to impose upon you something which you do not like” (Vol. 16, p. 26). But other warriors, who did not want to make peace with Muʿawiya, rebelled against Hasan and assaulted him. Hasan left with a few of his partisans. The army of Hasan eventually took control of the situation. In Muzlim Sabat, al‑Jarrah b. Sinan al-Asadi, a Kharijite, attacked Hasan, accusing him of being a kafir (heretic). He wounded Hasan in the thigh with a pickax before being killed. Hasan was carried back to al-Madaʾin, where he stayed at the governor’s house until his wound had healed (al-Isfahani 1949, pp. 63–64; al-Baladhuri 1996, Vol. 2, pp. 381–382). In the meantime, the partisans of Muʿawiya spread the news about the rebellion against Hasan; consequently, many partisans of Hasan deserted him.

Concerning the betrayal of ʿUbayd Allah, al-Yaʿqubi 1960 provides an account of this betrayal, while Ibn Atham al-Kufi 1968–1975 and Jafri 1979 report on the speech Hasan gave on this occasion, which shows the unreliability of his supporters. At Akhnuniyya, Muʿawiya offered 1 million dirhams to the general of the vanguard of Hasan’s troops, ʿUbayd Allah, who betrayed Hasan to join him. Many men (eight thousand) followed their general, while a smaller number (four thousand) remained in the camp of Hasan, under the direction of Qays b. Saʿd (al-Yaʿqubi 1960, Vol. 2, p. 214). In spite of their small number, Hasan’s partisans were able to block the Syrian advance. When Qays reported the desertion to Hasan in a letter, Hasan without delay called in the Iraqi leaders and addressed them in disgust: “O people of Iraq, what should I do with your people who are with me? Here is the letter of Qays b. Saʿd informing me that even the nobles (ashraf) from among you have gone over to Muʿawiya. By God, what shocking and abominable behavior on your part! You were the people who forced my father to accept arbitration at Siffin; and when the arbitration to which he yielded [because of your demand] took place, you turned against him. And when he called upon you to fight Muʿawiya once again, then you showed your slackness and lassitude. After the death of my father, you yourself came to me and paid me homage out of your own desire and wish. I accepted your homage and came out against Muʿawiya; only God knows how much I meant to do [i.e. how full of zeal and spirit I was in facing Muʿawiya’s challenge]. Now you are behaving in the same manner as before [with my father]. O People of Iraq, it would be enough for me from you if you would not defame me in my religion, because now I am going to hand over this affair [the caliphate] to Muʿawiya” (Ibn Aʿtham al-Kufi 1968–1975, Vol. 4, p. 157; Jafri 1979, p. 146).

Al-Baladhuri 1996 reports on the negotiations of Hasan with Muʿawiya. Hasan, who had carefully assessed the situation, found it unlikely that he could win the battle against Muʿawiya. Afterward, Muʿawiya committed himself in a witnessed letter to cede power after his own death to Hasan and to grant him a million dirhams. Hasan replied to Muʿawiya that if he granted safety to the people, Hasan would pledge allegiance to him. Muʿawiya then sent him a blank sheet with the former’s seal at the bottom, inviting Hasan to write down whatever conditions he wanted to add. Hasan responded that he would give up his power if Muʿawiya acted in accordance with the Book of God and the sunna. At the end of his life, Muʿawiya would leave the question of his succession to an electoral council (shura). Muʿawiya would also grant his protection to Hasan and his companions (al-Baladhuri 1996, Vol. 2, pp. 385–386).

The fact that al-Baladhuri, a Sunni Muslim, reported the speech of Hasan’s abdication, which insisted on the prerogative of the Prophet’s grandsons to rule, is significant. The unfavorable circumstances forced Hasan to abdicate. After a reign of seven months, in Rabiʾ I 11/August 661, Hasan at the age of thirty-eight made a declaration at the Mosque of Kufa that he was renouncing the caliphate. In his speech, Hasan reminded his audience that he and Husayn were the only grandsons of the Prophet. Muʿawiya had contested a right that belonged to Hasan, who yielded it for the protection of the community, in order to avoid bloodshed. In his own speech, Muʿawiya refused to comply with his previous promises to Hasan because they were mainly made to end a state of rebellion. At the end of his discourse, Muʿawiya told his listeners that they had to pledge allegiance to him within three days or they would not be pardoned. Afterward, Hasan chose to retire to Medina with his family. When Muʿawiya was in al-Qadisiya, he demanded that Hasan fight some Kharijites who had rebelled against the caliph. Hasan, who had opted for a pacific life, replied that he would not fight against Muʿawiya or for him (al-Baladhuri 1996, Vol. 2, pp. 387–389).

al-Baladhuri, Ahmad ibn Yahya. Ansāb al-Ashrāf. Vol. 2. Edited by M. F. al-ʿAzm. Damascus, Syria: Dār al-Yaqaẓah al-ʻArabīyah, 1996.
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Al-Baladhuri (d. 279/892-3) was the Sunni author of a great historico-biographical work.
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al-Dinawari, Abu Hanifa Ahmad ibn Daʿud. Kitāb al-Akhbār al-Tiwāl. Cairo, 1960.
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The Shiʿite al-Dinawari, who lived around 282/895, provided interesting details but not a comprehensive account of Hasan’s abdication in his short history.
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Ibn Abi al-Hadid. Sharḥ Nahj al-Balāgha. 20 vols. Edited by Muhammad Abu al-Fadl Ibrahim. Cairo, 1959–1964.
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In this work, Ibn Abi al-Hadid quotes the Sunni historian al‑Madaʾini, whose book was lost.
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Ibn Aʿtham al-Kufi and Abu Muhammad Ahmad. Kitāb al-Futūḥ. 8 vols. Hyderabad, India: Oriental Publications Bureau, Osmania University, 1968–1975.
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Ibn Aʿtham wrote one of the earliest comprehensive and systematic accounts of the early history of Islam. According to M. A. Shaban (see “Ibn Aʿtham” in Encyclopedia of Islam, 2d ed.), Ibn Aʿtham composed his work in 204/819. Ibn Aʿtham offered the complete narrative of al-Madaʾini and more details than al-Madaʾini’s account given by Abu Jaʿfar al-Tabari.
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al-Isfahani, Abu al-Faraj. Maqātil al-Ṭālibiyīn. Tehran, Iran: Dār Iḥyāʾ al-Kutub al-ʻArabīyah, 1949.
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Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani (d. 356/967) based his account of Hasan’s caliphate on the Shiʿite Abu Mikhnaf and five other chains of transmitters.
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Jafri, S. Husain M. Origins and Early Development of Shiʿa Islam. London and New York: Longman, 1979.
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Jafri dedicates one chapter of his book to the abdication of Hasan; he presents, in a critical manner, different versions from various primary sources describing the caliphate of Hasan while also focusing on the Shiʿi perspective on Hasan. Reprint by Ansariyan Publications available online.
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al-Yaʿqubi, Ahmad b. ʿAli Yaʿqub al-Wadih. Al-Taʾrīkh. Beirut, Lebanon, 1960.
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Al-Yaʿqubi (d. c. 905), a Shiʿi scholar, provided interesting details but not a comprehensive account of Hasan’s abdication in his short history.
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Hasan and His Marriages

Madelung 1996, Madelung 2004, and Ibn Saʿd 1416/1996 provide a realistic and reliable account of Hasan and his marriages. At the end of his life, Hasan got married several times, but according to his grandson ʿAbd-Allah b. Hasan, he had only four wives at a time (Ibn Saʿd 1416/1996, p. 68). Accounts reporting that he had over seventy wives and a harem of more than three hundred concubines are obviously too exaggerated to be true. As Madelung 2004 points out, Ibn Saʿd appears to give a more realistic and reliable account: that Hasan had fifteen sons and nine daughters from six wives and three named concubines. In fact, the number of Hasan’s marriages is smaller than what is recorded for the caliph ʿUthman. For details regarding Hasan’s marriages and children, see Madelung 1996.

Ibn Saʿd, Muhammad. Tarjumat al-Imām al-Ḥasan. Edited by ʿA. al‑Tabaṭabaʾi. Qum, Iran, 1416–1996.
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Ibn Saʿd (d. 230/844–845), a Sunni scholar, wrote a systematic and comprehensive biographical work covering important figures from the beginning of Islam to his own time.
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Madelung, Wilferd. The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511582042Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Madelung’s book contains a section on the marriages and children of Hasan.
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Madelung, Wilferd. Hasan b. ʿAlī b. Abī Taleb. In Encyclopaedia Iranica. Edited by Ehsan Yarshater, 2004.
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Madelung provides a more recent update of the caliphate of Hasan than Vaglieri 1971, but both articles provide complementary details.
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Vaglieri, L. Veccia. “Hasan b. ʿAlī b. Abī Tālib.” In Encyclopédie de l’Islam, 2d ed., Vol. 3. Edited by Martijn Theodoor Houtsma, 247–250. Paris: G.-P. Maisonneuve et Larose, 1971.
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Vaglieri provides details about the life of Hasan that are complementary to those in Madelung 2004.
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Hasan’s Death

The majority of both Sunni and Shiʿi sources report that Hasan died on 5 Rabiʾ I 50/2 April 670 (Ibn Saʿd 1416/1996, p. 91) at the age of forty-five or forty-six, and that he was poisoned by one of his wives, Jaʿda, daughter of al-Ashʿath, to whom Muʿawiya offered money for killing Hasan.

Ibn Saʿd, Muḥammad. Tarjumat al-Imām al-Ḥasan. Edited by ʿA. al‑ al‑Tabaṭabaʾi. Qum, Iran, 1416/1996.
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Ibn Saʿd (d. 230/844–845), a Sunni scholar, wrote a systematic and comprehensive biographical work covering important figures from the beginning of Islam to his own time.
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Descendants of Hasan Called Sharif or Sayyid

In the Muslim world, the descendants of Hasan are often called sharif (noble), while the descendants of Husayn are designated as sayyid (lord). However, there are Muslims who designate the progeny of Hasan as sayyid. This idea is commonly accepted and developed in most books that cover the topic. On this topic, see Gleave 2004a, Gleave 2004b, Hitti 2002, and Hodgson 1974.

Gleave, Robert. “Sayyid.” In Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World, Vol. 2. Edited by Richard C. Martin, 611. Farmington Hills, MI: Macmillan Reference USA, 2004a.
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Examines the concept of sayyid, commonly used to refer to a descendant from the line of Husayn.
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Gleave, Robert. “Sharif.” Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World, Vol. 2. Edited by Richard C. Martin, 619. Farmington Hills, MI: Macmillan Reference USA, 2004b.
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Examines the concept of sharif, one of the most common designations referring to a descendant from the line of Hasan.
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Hitti, Philip. History of the Arabs: From the Earliest Times to the Present. Rev. 10th ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002.
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Addresses the titles of sharif and sayyid. The descendants of Hasan are referred to as sharifs, while those of Husayn are designated as sayyids. The sharifs of Makka and the sharifs of Morocco are considered to be the descendants of Hasan.
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Hodgson, Marshall G. S. The Venture of Islam. 3 vols. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1974.
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Hodgson notes: “The descendants of ʿAli by Fatima, as Muhammad’s daughter (not the other ʿAlids) were given the special titles of sayyid or sharif, with unusual privileges, they were entitled to the alms of the faithful. . . . Popularly it was felt that their presence carried a special divine blessing” (Vol. 2, p. 452).
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The Shiʿi Viewpoint on Hasan

The books listed here are the most relevant in covering the Shiʿi view on Hasan. The Twelver Shiʿites consider Hasan as their second Imam. Shiʿites have explained and justified his abdication of the caliphate in terms of his pious detachment from worldly matters, as noted in Momen 1985 (pp. 26–28, 66), Jafri 1979 (pp. 130–169), and Tabatabaʾi 1975 (pp. 194–195).

Jafri, S. Husain M. Origins and Early Development of Shiʿa Islam. London and New York: Longman, 1979.
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Jafri dedicates one chapter of his book to the abdication of Hasan; he presents, in a critical manner, different versions from various primary sources, while also focusing on the Twelver Shiʿi perspective on Hasan. Reprint by Ansariyan Publications available online.
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Momen, Moojan. An Introduction to Shiʿi Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shiʿism. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1985.
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Momen provides a good account of the Twelver Shiʿi perspective on the life of Hasan.
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Tabatabaʾi, Muhammad Husayn. Shi‛ite Islam. Translated from the Persian by Seyyed Hossein Nasr. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1975.
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The Twelver Shiʿi viewpoint on Hasan may be illustrated by Tabatabaʾi, who was recognized as a great official authority in Iran. Originally titled Shīʿī Dar Islām.
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Ahl al-Bayt (the People of the Household): Best Interpreters of the Qurʾan

For the Shiʿites, the Qurʾan cannot be separated from the household of the Prophet (ahl al-bayt). This was clearly indicated at Ghadir Khumm by the Prophet, who said: “I am leaving you the Book of God [Qurʾan], and if you follow this you will not go astray. And I am leaving you also the members of household (ahl al‑bayt), who are not to be separated from the Book of God until they meet me at the drinking fountain of Kawthar.” Then, taking ʿAli’s hands and raising them, he continued: “Whoever has me as his Master (Mawla) has ʿAli as his Master. Be friend to his friends, O Lord, and be an enemy to his enemies” (Steigerwald 2006, p. 374). Shiʿites generally refer to ahl al-bayt (the household of the Prophet) as including all the descendants of ʿAli and Fatima, but Muhammad Husayn Tabatabaʾi thinks that this designation should be limited to the twelve Imams recognized by Twelver Shiʿites (see Tabatabaʾi 1975, pp. 180–181). Muhammad once sat Hasan and Husayn on his knees and said: “Whoever loves me, should love these two. They, peace be on them, are the two proofs (hujjatay Allah) of God of His Prophet in the contest of prayer (mubahala). After their father, the commander of the faithful, they are the two proofs of God (hujjatay Allah) to the community concerning religion (din) and belief (milla)” (Shaykh al‑Mufid 1981, p. 297). Another Shiʿi tradition asserts, “God conferred his Secret to the angel Gabriel, the angel Gabriel conferred it to the Prophet, who conferred it to ʿAli, ʿAli conferred it to al-Hasan, who conferred it to al-Husayn, he to his son ʿAli” (al-Saffar al-Qummi 1380/1960, pp. 377–378; Amir-Moezzi 1994, p. 195, no. 382). Thus only the ahl al-bayt inherited the prophetic knowledge, and they are therefore the best interpreters of the Qurʾan.

Amir-Moezzi, Mohammad Ali. The Divine Guide in Early Shiʿism: The Sources of Esotericism in Islam. Translated by David Streight. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1994.
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Amir-Moezzi discusses many traditions that are particularly significant for understanding the importance of the people of the mantle for Shiʿites.
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al-Ṣaffar al-Qummi. Baṣaʾir al-darajāt. Edited by Mirza Kutchibaghi. Tabriz, Iran: Shirkat-i Chāp-i Kitāb, 1380/1960.
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This work by al-Saffar al-Qummi (d. 290/903) provides the oldest compilation of Shiʿi traditions.
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Shaykh al-Mufid. Kitāb al-Irshād: The Book of Guidance into the Lives of The Twelve Imams. Translated by I. K. A. Howard. Elmhurst, NY: Tahrike Tarsile Qurʾan, 1981.
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Shaykh al-Mufid (d. 413/1022) provides the Twelver Shiʿi perspective on Hasan, as well as many Shiʿi traditions.
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Steigerwald, Diana. “Twelver Shīʿī Taʾwīl.” In The Blackwell Companion to the Qurʾān. Edited by Andrew Rippin, 373–385. Oxford: Blackwell, 2006.
DOI: 10.1111/b.9781405117524.2006.00027.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Many Shiʿites maintain that ʿUthman excised significant verses from the original Qurʾan. Some of these Qurʾanic verses specifically designated ʿAli, Fatima, Hasan, and Husayn as members of the ahl al‑bayt.
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Ṭabatabaʾi, Muhammad Husayn. Shiʿite Islam. Translated from Persian by Seyyed Hossein Nasr. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1975.
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The Twelver Shiʿi viewpoint on Hasan is illustrated by TabatabaʾI, who was recognized as a great scholar in Iran. Originally published as Shīʿī Dar Islām.
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Impeccability of the Ahl al-Bayt

Shiʿites believe that the ahl al-bayt, the people of the household of Muhammad are impeccable (sinless) because of this Qurʾanic verse (XXXIII:33) about purification (tathir): “Verily Allah only wishes to keep uncleanness away from you, O the ahl al-bayt, and to purify you completely.” The ahl al-bayt, because of the purity of their souls, inherited the prophetic knowledge; consequently, they are the only ones who can reveal the true and accurate interpretation of the Qurʾan. The Shiʿi imam Jaʿfar al‑Sadiq said, “When the apostle of God, may God bless him and grant him peace, died, ʿAli, peace be on him, inherited his knowledge, his weapons and what there was. Then that went to al-Hasan, peace be on him, then to al-Husayn, peace be on him” (Shaykh al-Mufid 1981, p. 416). The sinless state of the ahl al‑bayt is a dogma of the Shiʿi faith that can be found in most books covering Shiʿism.

Shaykh al-Mufid. Kitāb al-Irshād: The Book of Guidance into the Lives of The Twelve Imams. Translated by I. K. A. Howard. Elmhurst, NY: Tahrike Tarsile Qurʾan, 1981.
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Shaykh al-Mufid (d. 413/1022) provides the Twelver Shiʿi perspective on Hasan and quotes many Shiʿi traditions in this work.
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Missing Qur’anic Verses regarding the Ahl al-Bayt

Many Shiʿites believe that the canonical compilation of ʿUthman is partly incomplete and disorganized (see Bar-Asher 1993, Kohlberg 1972, Lawson 1991, and Modarressi 1993). Imam Jaʿfar al-Sadiq is reported to have said, “Had the Qurʾan been read as it was sent down, you should have found us named in it.” This may allude to the ahl al-bayt (the people of the household of Muhammad, ʿAli, Fatima, Hasan, and Husayn) who were alive during the life of the Prophet (Steigerwald 2006, p. 381). Many Shiʿi Imams have reported Qurʾanic citations that are different from the ʿUthmanic Quʾran (see Steigerwald 2006). In the following example given by Imam Jaʿfar al-Sadiq, the differences or additions to the text of the Qurʾan (XX:115) are in italics: “In the past we confided to Adam words about Muhammad, ʿAli, Fatima, al-Hasan, al‑Husayn, and the imams of their descendants, but he forgot” (al-Kulayni n.d., Vol. 2, p. 283, no. 23; Amir-Moezzi 1994, p. 85). For more details see separate article on Twelver Shiʿa.

Amir-Moezzi, Mohammad Ali. The Divine Guide in Early Shiʿism: The Sources of Esotericism in Islam. Translated by David Streight. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1994.
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Amir-Moezzi discusses many traditions that are particularly significant for understanding the importance of the people of the mantle for Shiʿites.
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Bar-Asher, Meir M. “Variant Readings and Additions of the Imami Shiʿa to the Qurʾan.” Israel Oriental Studies 13 (1993): 39–74.
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Bar-Asher explains why many Shiʿites consider the canonical compilation of ʿUthman to be partly incomplete and disorganized.
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Kohlberg, Etan. “Some Notes on the Imamite Attitude to the Quʾrān.” In Islamic Philosophy and the Classical Tradition. Edited by Samuel Stern, Albert Hourani, and Vivian Brown, 209–224. Oxford: Cassirer, 1972.
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Kohlberg explains why numerous Shiʿites regard ʿUthman’s canonical compilation as partly incomplete and disorganized.
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al-Kulayni, Muhammad ibn Yaʿqub. Al-Uṣūl min al-kāfī. 4 vols. Edited by J. Mustafawi, with Persian translation. Tehran, Iran: Office for the Propagation of the Culture of the Ahlul Bait.
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The al-kāfī of Al-Kulayni (d. 329/940) is a compilation of various Shiʿi traditions.
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Lawson, Todd B. “Note for the Study of aShiʿi Qurʾan.” Journal of Semitic Studies 36 (1991): 279–295.
DOI: 10.1093/jss/XXXVI.2.279Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Lawson explains why many Shiʿites consider the canonical compilation of ʿUthman to be partly incomplete and disorganized.
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Modarressi, Hossein. “Early Debates on the Integrity of the Qur’an.” Studia Islamica 77 (1993): 5–39.
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Modarressi explains why numerous Shiʿites regard ʿUthman’s canonical compilation as partly incomplete and disorganized.
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Steigerwald, Diana. “Twelver Shīʿī Taʾwīl.” In The Blackwell Companion to the Qurʾān. Edited by Andrew Rippin, 373–385. Oxford: Blackwell, 2006.
DOI: 10.1111/b.9781405117524.2006.00027.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Many Shiʿites maintain that ʿUthman excised significant verses from the original Qurʾan. Some of these Qurʾanic verses specifically designated ʿAli, Fatima, Hasan, and Husayn as members of the ahl al‑bayt.
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Exalted Position of the Ahl al-Kisaʾ

Many Shiʿi Hadith exalt the position of the ahl al-kisaʾ (people of the mantle). The names of these five figures derive from the names of God. When Adam was created, he saw five inscriptions on the Throne. He asked God about this and received the following answer: “First there is Muhammad, for I am al-Mahmud (The Praise One); second, there is ʿAli, for I am al-Aʿla (The Most High); third, there is Fatima, for I am al-Fatir (The Creator); fourth there is al‑Hasan, for I am al-Muhsin (The Benefactor); and fifth, there is al-Husayn, for I am Dhu al-Ihsan (The Lord of Kindness)” (Ibn Babawayh 1385/1966, p. 135; Amir-Moezzi 1994, p. 30). Imam Jaʿfar al-Sadiq commented on this verse of the Qurʾan (II: 37): “And Adam received words from His Lord. . . .God was, and nothing of His creation existed; then He created five creatures from the Light of His Glory (Nur ʿAzamatihi) and He assigned to each of them a name derived from His own Names. Being the Praised One, He called His Prophet Muhammad; being The Most High, He called the prince of believers ʿAli; being the Creator of the heavens and the earth, He created the name of Fatima; possessing the most beautiful Names (al-Asmaʾ al‑husna), He forged the names of al-Hasan and al-Husayn; then He placed these Names to the right side of His Throne . . . These were the fives names that Adam received from his Lord” (Amir-Moezzi 1994, p. 30). As Henry Corbin explains, this is the same light that is manifested in Muhammad, ʿAli, Fatima, Hasan, Husayn, and the direct descendants of Husayn (Corbin 1971, Vol. 1, p. 205, no. 166).

Amir-Moezzi, Mohammad Ali. The Divine Guide in Early Shiʿism: The Sources of Esotericism in Islam. Translated by David Streight. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1994.
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Amir-Moezzi quotes and discusses many traditions that are particularly significant for understanding the importance of the people of the mantle for Shiʿites.
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Corbin, Henry. En Islam iranien. 4 vols. Paris: Gallimard, 1971.
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This monumental work, written in French, develops every aspect of the Shiʿi doctrine.
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Ibn Babawayh, Muhammad ibn ʿAli. ʿIlal al-Sharāʾiʿ wa al-Aḥkām. Najaf, Iraq, 1385/1966.
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Ibn Babawayh (d. 381/991), a Shiʿi theologian, became renowned for his compilation of many Shiʿi traditions.
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Shiʿi Biblical Exegesis concerning Hasan

Shiʿites have done some biblical exegesis to prove their theory of imama. There were Shiʿi imams existing previously to the time of ʿAli, but they were not explicitly manifested during the prophetic cycle. It was only at the time of ʿAli that the imam became explicitly manifested in order to inaugurate the cycle of imama. During the time of Moses, Aaron was an imam, and he had two sons, Shabar and Shubayr. Aaron is therefore compared by Shiʿites to ʿAli, Shabar to Hasan, and Shubayr to Husayn (see Amir-Moezzi 1994, p. 170, no. 211).

Amir-Moezzi, Mohammad Ali. The Divine Guide in Early Shiʿism: The Sources of Esotericism in Islam. Translated by David Streight. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1994.
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Amir-Moezzi gives important references on where Shiʿites link Hasan to Shabar.
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Miracles of Hasan

Many stories of miracles are reported about Hasan, as outlined in Pelly 1879. One states that he ascended into heaven and came back three days later; one that he brought a dead person back to life; and one that, while in the desert, he made water spout upward from the ground for his friends who were thirsty (Donaldson 1933, pp. 74–75).

Donaldson, Dwight M. The Shiʿite Religion: A History of Islam in Persia and Irak. London: Luzac, 1933.
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Donaldson describes six miracles out of sixteen attributed to Hasan.
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Pelly, Lewis. The Miracle Play of Hasan and Husain. London: Allen, 1879.
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A compilation of oral traditions relating the miracles attributed to Hasan.
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Nizari Ismaʿili Viewpoint on Hasan

The Nizari Ismaʿilis consider Hasan as a temporary (mustawdaʿ) imam, inheritor of the prophetic light (nur al-nubuwwa), while the real and permanent (mustaqarr) Imam was Husayn, the inheritor of the light of imama (nur al-imama) (Khayr-Khwah-i Harati 1922, original primary text on p. 4). The prophetic light after Hasan was transferred from hujja to hujja (proof), also called pir (sage). The hujja (pir) is the second most important dignitary after the Imam in the spiritual hierarchy. The Imam designates him; if the Imam does not appoint a hujja (pir) during his lifetime, he himself will assume this position. The light of imama continues in the direct lineage of Husayn until the present living Imam, the Aga Khan. Both lights, eternal and consubstantial, are always present on earth. The Nizari Ismaʿili Abu Ishaq-i Quhistani explains that during the time of Abraham, Ishmael, called Malik al‑salam, was the mustaqarr Imam, while Isaac was imam-i mustawdaʿ. A parallel therefore is made between Hasan and Isaac, on one hand, and between Husayn and Ishmael, on the other (Abu Ishaq-i Quhistani 1959, p. 22).

Abu Ishaq-i Quhistani. Ḥaft Bāb. Edited and translated from Persian by Wladimir Ivanow. Leiden, The Netherlands: E.J. Brill, 1959.
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Abu Ishaq-i Quhistani, a Nizari Ismaʿili, lived in Iran at the end of the 9th/15th century and the beginning of the 10th/16th century. The only work we have from him is the Ḥaft Bāb, which covers Ismaʿili theosophy.
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Khayr-Khwah-i Harati. Faṣl dar Bayān Shinākht-i Imām wa Ḥujjat. Edited and translated from Persian by Wladimir Ivanow. Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of Bengal 8.1 (1922): 13–45.
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Khayr-Khwah-i Harati, a Nizari Ismaʿili missionary (daʿi) of Afghanistan, was born at the end of the 9th/15th century, and he wrote many books of Ismaʿili theosophy.