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Local Elites in Ming-Qing China (Chinese Studies)

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. Also known as late imperial China, the Ming-Qing period (1368–1911) has received increasing attention in the late 20th and early 21st centuries as a result of debates over China’s modernization. At issue in the debates is whether China was able to modernize without foreign interventions. For a long time after World War II, China was viewed as politically and socially stagnant. Shaped by the Weberian notion of bureaucracy and the Marxist concept of “the Asiatic mode of production,” scholars argued that the Chinese could not revitalize their political and social systems until external stimuli (such as imperialism) arrived. In stark contrast to this earlier view, the Ming-Qing period is now seen as a turning point when fundamental transformations took place owing to a robust economy, a vibrant society, and strong local leadership. Research shows that before widespread contact with Europeans in the mid-19th century, China had already created a mobile and diverse society. One thing that separates the new view from the old is the definition of local elites. From the 1950s to the 1970s local elites were considered a homogeneous group of scholar-officials who worked for the imperial government after passing the civil service examinations. Commonly known as gentry or literati, scholar-officials were said to have exercised their power as government officials and local leaders. In both capacities their power came directly from the imperial state. In contrast, since the mid-1980s local elites have been understood more broadly as a diverse group of degree holders who might or might not work for the imperial government. This expansion of the meaning of local elites has led to research on various forms of local organization, such as market towns, charity, lineages, and religions. In addition, the expansion of the meaning of local elites calls attention to regional differences, because the structure of local power in the Pearl River delta was significantly different from those in the lower Yangzi River delta and the North China plain. As a result, the power of local elites is traced to a variety of sources, including commerce, landownership, local militia, philanthropy, and rituals. The expanded scope of study of local elites has led to a new perspective on the late Qing (1895–1911). Rather than being the end of the imperial period, the late Qing is now seen as the beginning of a new era when political power was shared between the central government and local leaders. Some scholars contend that this trend of decentralization continued after 1911, when warlords and regional leaders became dominant players in national politics. As such, the late Qing and the early republican periods (1911–1927) are the high point of local power before the rise of the party-state.
  4.  
  5. General Overviews
  6.  
  7. In the 1950s and 1960s the majority of scholarship on local elites was based on the theories of Max Weber and Karl A. Wittfogel. From a sociological perspective, Weber 1951 describes a Chinese society tightly controlled by bureaucrats appointed by the imperial authority. The book supports the argument that local elites in late imperial China were an extension of the imperial state. In particular, the Weberian concept of bureaucracy offers justification for viewing late imperial China as despotic, with decisions made by the central authority. Separately, based on Karl Marx’s notion of “the Asiatic mode of production,” Wittfogel 1957 offers a similar perspective on late imperial China. The book describes the totalitarian rule of Chinese imperial leaders in developing a hydraulic economy. Focusing on economy rather than the political structure, Wittfogel also sees Chinese rulers as despots who controlled all aspects of Chinese life through an army of bureaucrats (see Brook 1989). Chinese despotism remained a dominant view in the academy until the 1970s, when a new generation of scholars viewed Chinese society as an autonomous realm. There were two factors that led to this change. The first was the introduction of Japanese scholarship, which in many ways challenged the notion of Chinese despotism (see Grove and Daniels 1984). The second was the adoption of social science methodologies that highlighted the complexity and fluidity of local society. Two social science methodologies were particularly important in changing the direction of research. One was the Skinner 1964 study of market towns, which put emphasis on local networks of exchange and circulation. The other was the Freedman 1958 study of lineage, which linked local power to systems of identity. Shaped by these two approaches, the study of local elites turned to the multifaceted and contentious relations between the imperial authority and local societies. While not rejecting local elites’ link to the imperial authority, Denis Twitchett was the first scholar who pointed out the importance of viewing local elites as power holders of local society (see Twitchett 1965).
  8.  
  9. Brook, Timothy. “Introduction.” In The Asiatic Mode of Production in China. Edited by Timothy Brook, 3–34. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1989.
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  11. In the introduction Brook discusses the meaning of “the Asiatic mode of production” and traces its influence on East Asian scholars.
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  13. Freedman, Maurice. Lineage Organization in Southeastern Kwangtung. London: Athlone, 1958.
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  15. As an anthropologist, Freedman made a large impact on the study of local elites by focusing on kinship, lineage, and the construction of identities. He and G. William Skinner were instrumental in developing a broader scope to study the structure of local power in rural China.
  16. Find this resource:
  17. Grove, Linda, and Christian Daniels. “Introduction.” In State and Society in China: Japanese Perspectives on Ming-Qing Social and Economic History. Edited by Linda Grove and Christian Daniels, 3–16. Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 1984.
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  19. The introduction by Grove and Daniels summarizes the development of Japanese studies of late imperial China since the 1940s. The summary not only highlights the complexity and fluidity of Chinese local society but also challenges the notion of Asian stagnation. More important, the summary questions whether the Weberian notion of “gentry” is adequate to encapsulate the multiple roles of local elites in late imperial China.
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  21. Skinner, G. William. “Marketing and Social Structure in Rural China.” Journal of Asian Studies 24.1 (1964): 3–43.
  22. DOI: 10.2307/2050412Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  23. Continued in Journal of Asian Studies 24.2 (1965): 195–228 and Journal of Asian Studies 24.3 (1965): 363–399. Skinner’s market town analysis brings a spatial perspective to the study of local elites. Rather than seeing local elites as “gentry” who were the same throughout China, the market town analysis highlights regional differences resulting from economic, social, and cultural uniqueness. Skinner’s argument provided the theoretical foundation for regional studies in the 1980s and 1990s.
  24. Find this resource:
  25. Twitchett, Denis. “A Critique of Some Recent Studies of Modern Chinese Social-Economic History.” Transactions of the Conference of Orientalists in Japan 10 (1965): 28–41.
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  27. In this article Twitchett questions the meaning of “gentry” as an all-encompassing category for local elites. To make his point, he distinguishes two types of gentry: gentry as a subdivision of the bureaucracy and gentry as social class based on inherited wealth and power. While Twitchett does not reject local elites’ link to the imperial authority, he opens the possibility of viewing local elites as power holders in local society.
  28. Find this resource:
  29. Weber, Max. The Religion of China: Confucianism and Taoism. New York: New Press, 1951.
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  31. This book examines the sociological roots of Chinese despotism. Since the book highlights the link between power and culture (especially the examination system and Confucian orthodoxy), it provides the theoretical foundation for the argument that local elites were an extension of the imperial authority. The discussion of the literati in the book is often cited in discussions of the roles of gentry in local society.
  32. Find this resource:
  33. Wittfogel, Karl A. Oriental Despotism: A Comparative Study of Total Power. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1957.
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  35. This book examines the economic roots of Chinese despotism. Building on Karl Marx’s notion of “the Asiastic mode of production,” Wittfogel develops the concept of “Oriental despotism” to describe the totalistic power of Chinese imperial rulers in building a hydraulic economy.
  36. Find this resource:
  37. Guides to Sources
  38.  
  39. Since local elites in late imperial China were both members of the bureaucracy and leaders of local society, official and unofficial documents have to be consulted to fully understand their multiple roles. Although the number of documents seems overwhelming, they are concerned with three main issues: (1) the structure of the imperial state that gave power to local elites, (2) the socioeconomic networks that made local elites influential in local society, and (3) the process of accumulating cultural and social capital that allowed local elites to stay in power.
  40.  
  41. Archives
  42.  
  43. The Number One Historical Archives in Beijing and the Number Two Historical Archives in Nanjing are indispensable to studying local elites. The Number One Historical Archives is especially important because of its huge collection of official documents from the Ming and Qing governments. The Number Two Historical Archives is important for its collection of documents from the late Qing to the republican periods. There are some local government archives that are open to researchers.
  44.  
  45. Number One Historical Archives.
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  47. The documents include the records of imperial correspondence and officials’ memorials. The website lists documents available at the archive.
  48. Find this resource:
  49. Number Two Historical Archives.
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  51. This archive is especially useful for the research on the self-identities of local elites in the early 20th century. For information about the collection, visit the website.
  52. Find this resource:
  53. Government Documents
  54.  
  55. The standard published collections of official documents (e.g., Long 1956; Hu, et al. 1962–1966; Yi, et al. 1991; Zhao, et al. 1976–1977; Yong 1986) provide basic information about the political, social, and economic systems of the Ming-Qing period. They are essential to understanding the sociopolitical context that empowered local elites.
  56.  
  57. Hu Guang 胡廣 et al., eds. Ming shilu (明實錄). Nangang, China: Zhongyang yanjiusuo lishi yuyan yanjiusuo, 1962–1966.
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  59. This is a collection of documents on the Ming dynasty. Divided by the reigns of the emperors, this collection provides an array of sources on the political, social, and economic structure of the Ming.
  60. Find this resource:
  61. Long Wenbiao 龍文彪, ed. Ming huiyao (明會要). Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1956.
  62. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  63. This is a collection of sources on the political, social, and economic systems of the Ming dynasty.
  64. Find this resource:
  65. Yi Sana 伊桑阿 et al., eds. Da Qing huidian (大清會典). Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1991.
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  67. This is a collection of documents on the political, social, and economic institutions of five Qing emperors.
  68. Find this resource:
  69. Yong Rong 永瑢, et al., eds. Siku quanshu (四庫全書). Taibei: Taiwan shangwu yinshu, 1986.
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  71. This massive collection of writings covers classical studies, historical writings, essays, and poetry from ancient times to the mid-Qing period. The collection contains large amounts of sources on the Ming-Qing period. The collection was reprinted in 1999 (Shanghai: Shanghai guji chubanshe). Electronic version is available online by subscription.
  72. Find this resource:
  73. Zhao Erxun 趙爾巽 et al., eds. Qingshi gao (清史稿). Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1976–1977.
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  75. Although there are doubts about its accuracy, this multivolume collection contains valuable information on the political, social, and economic systems of the Qing dynasty.
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  77. Other Primary Sources
  78.  
  79. In addition to documents collected by the central government, gazettes (方志) compiled by local officials are valuable sources for studying local elites (see Jin and Hu 2000, Wilkinson 2012, and Xu, et al. 1991). Since large numbers of counties, towns, and villages had compiled gazettes, researchers must focus on a particular place or region in research. The writings by local elites are available in the forms of collected works (quanji 全集) and collected writings (wenji 文集). Such writings are available in collections such as Wang 1936, Shanghai guji chubanshe 2007, and Xu 1920. Information about local leaders is in their family genealogies (jiapu 家譜), chronologies (nianpu 年譜), diaries (riji 日記), and funerary inscriptions (muzhiming 墓誌銘). In some cities and towns stelae in temples and public places are records of major civic events. They are important documents for studying local politics and local identities (see Suzhou bowuguan 1981 and Wang and Tang 1998).
  80.  
  81. Jin Ehhui 金恩辉, and Hu Shuzhao 胡述兆, eds. Zhongguo difangzhi zongmu tiyao (中国地方志总目提要). Beijing: Guoji guanggao chubanshe, 2000.
  82. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  83. This is an annotated bibliography of published gazettes. It provides essential information for the research of local gentry and local society.
  84. Find this resource:
  85. Shanghai guji chubanshe 上海古籍出版社, ed. Qingdai biji xiaoshuo daguan (清代笔记小说大观). 6 vols. Shanghai: Shanghai guji chubanshe, 2007.
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  87. This collection of notes and essays provides a glimpse of the complexity of Qing society. Many of the materials in the collection reveal the changing identity of local elites when facing social and economic changes.
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  89. Suzhou bowuguan 苏州博物馆, ed. Ming-Qing Suzhou gongshang ye beike ji (明清苏州工商业碑刻集). Suzhou, China: Suzhou renmin chubanshe, 1981.
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  91. This collection of stela inscriptions demonstrates the overlapping networks between merchants and degree holders. The collection provides evidence for the hybrid category of merchant literati (shangshi 商士).
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  93. Wang Guoping 王国平, and Tang Lixing 唐力行, eds. Ming-Qing yilai Suzhou shehuishi beike ji (明清以来苏州社会史碑刻集). Suzhou, China: Suzhou daxue, 1998.
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  95. Although focusing on Suzhou, this collection shows the importance of stelae in understanding the complexity and fluidity of local societies.
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  97. Wang Yunwu 王云五, ed. Congshu jicheng chubian (叢書集成初編). Shanghai: Commercial, 1936.
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  99. This is a massive collection of writings by officials, scholars, and writers. The collection offers an array of perspectives on how educated elites viewed their social roles and their identities.
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  101. Wilkinson, Endymion, ed. Chinese History: A New Manual. Harvard-Yenching Institute Monograph 84. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012.
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  103. This is a well-received manual of Chinese history. In this new version Books 10–13 provide essential information on primary sources, including local gazettes.
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  105. Xu Ke 徐珂. Qingbei leichao (清碑類鈔). Shanghai: Commercial, 1920.
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  107. In this collection of notes and short essays, Xu provides snapshots of late Qing economy and society. The collection is a valuable source for studying local elites of the late Qing.
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  109. Xu Zhi 許治, Shen Deqian 沈德潛, and Gu Yilu 顧詒禄, eds. Zhongguo difangzhi jicheng (中国地方志集成). Nanjing, China: Jiangsu guji chubanshi, 1991.
  110. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  111. Based on a huge collection in Suzhou, China, this collection of local gazettes provides sources for studying local power in large numbers of towns, counties, and villages throughout China. The collection is particularly strong in sources on local societies in the lower Yangzi River delta.
  112. Find this resource:
  113. Secondary Sources
  114.  
  115. Since the 1950s the study of local elites of the Ming-Qing period has been carried out separately in mainland China, Japan, Taiwan, and the United States. Thus it is essential to keep abreast of the secondary work published in Chinese, Japanese, and English. For Chinese publications, Chang 2009 is the most comprehensive guide to late-20th- and early 21st-century publications in mainland China and Taiwan. Xu 2011 offers a thoughtful analysis of research trends in mainland China and Taiwan. For Japanese scholarship, Grove and Daniels 1984 offers a succinct summary of the Japanese study of the “gentry rule” since the 1940s. For writings published in European languages as well as Chinese and Japanese, Skinner 1973 remains the most reliable guide for materials that appeared before the early 1970s.
  116.  
  117. Chang Jianhua 常建华, Guo Yufeng 郭玉峰, Sun Liqun 孙立群, and Men Jie 闵杰, eds. Xin shiqi Zhongguo shehuishi yanjiu gaishu (新时期中国社会史研究概述). Tianjian, China: Tianjian guji chubanshe, 2009.
  118. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  119. This survey of more than four hundred pages summarizes late-20th- and early-21st-century publications on Chinese society from ancient times to the present. Chapter 4 (penned by Chang Jiahua) is devoted to recent scholarship on late imperial China. The chapter discusses the various roles of local elites and their sprawling connections with merchants and military leaders.
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  121. Grove, Linda, and Christian Daniels, eds. State and Society in China: Japanese Perspectives on Ming-Qing Social and Economic History. Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 1984.
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  123. This is a translation of major Japanese studies of Chinese economy and society. It includes a translation of Shigeta Atsushi’s article “The Origins and Structure of Gentry Rule.”
  124. Find this resource:
  125. Skinner, G. William, ed. Modern Chinese Society: An Analytical Bibliography. 3 vols. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1973.
  126. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  127. This multivolume work provides bibliographic sources to publications in European as well as Chinese and Japanese languages on Chinese society.
  128. Find this resource:
  129. Xu Hong 徐泓. Ershi shiji Zhongguo de Mingshi yanjiu (二十世紀中國的明史研究). Taibei: National Taiwan University Press, 2011.
  130. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  131. This is a collection of essays by a leading scholar of Ming history in Taiwan. Several chapters in the book (especially chapters 5 and 12) offer insightful analyses of the state of the field in the study of Ming local elites.
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  133. Collections of Source Materials
  134.  
  135. Since the 1980s a large number of collections of source materials have been published in Chinese, such as Zhang 1934 and Hong 1988. These collections offer important historical and bibliographic information on the study of local elites.
  136.  
  137. Hong Huanchun 洪煥椿. Ming-Qing Suzhou nongye jingji ziliao (明清苏州农业资料). Nanjing, China: Jiangsu guji chubanshe, 1988.
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  139. This collection of sources shows changes in the agricultural economy in the Suzhou area. The sources also show how the economic changes led to social changes.
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  141. Zhang Zhongru 章中如. Qingdai kaoshi zhidu ziliao (清代考試制度資料). Shanghai: Liming shuju, 1934.
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  143. Although dated, this book provides essential information on the examination system of the Qing dynasty. Despite different opinions on whether local elites were an extension of the imperial authority, scholars agree that attending or passing the civil service examinations remained the major qualification for being a member of the local elite.
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  145. Collections of Essays
  146.  
  147. New perspectives on Ming-Qing society are in collections of essays (e.g., Elman and Woodside 1994 in English and Ono 1983 in Japanese).
  148.  
  149. Elman, Benjamin, and Alexander Woodside, eds. Education and Society in Late Imperial China, 1600–1900. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994.
  150. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  151. This collection of essays provides detailed studies of how education (especially the examination system) affected society and economy in late imperial China.
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  153. Ono Kazuko 小野和子, ed. Min-Shin jidai no seiji to shakai (明清時代の政治と社會). Kyoto: Kyoto daigaku jimbun kagaku kenkyūjo, 1983.
  154. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  155. This collection of essays by Japanese scholars offers thoughtful analyses of social and political changes in the Ming-Qing period. The essays also provide information on source materials
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  157. Journals
  158.  
  159. Although there is no journal especially devoted to the study of local elites, articles on local elites frequently appear in major journals in China (e.g., Lishi yanjiu and Qingshi yanjiu), Japan (e.g., Mingdaishi kenkyu, Shigaku zasshi, and Tōyōshi kenkyū), and the United States (e.g., Late Imperial China, Ming Studies, and Modern China).
  160.  
  161. Late Imperial China.
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  163. Founded in 1965 and originally published as Ch’ing-shih wen-t’i, this journal focuses on the political, cultural, social, and economic changes during the Ming-Qing period.
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  165. Lishi yanjiu (历史研究)
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  167. This is a leading journal in the People’s Republic of China that covers all periods of Chinese history. Since the 1980s the journal has published a number of influential articles on the social and economic changes during the Ming-Qing period.
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  169. Mingdaishi kenkyu (明代史研究).
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  171. Published annually in Japan from 1974 to 2005, this journal provided insightful reviews of scholarship published in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean languages on Ming history.
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  173. Ming Studies.
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  175. Published by the Society of Ming Studies in the United States, this includes articles, reviews, and news about current scholarship on the Ming.
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  177. Modern China.
  178. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  179. Despite its title, the journal focuses not only on 20th-century China but also on late imperial China. Based at the University of California, Los Angeles, the journal publishes articles about the socioeconomic changes in the modern and late imperial periods.
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  181. Qingshi yanjiu (清史研究).
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  183. This is a leading journal in the People’s Republic of China that specializes in the study of the Qing dynasty. Since the 1990s the journal has published a number of influential articles on the self-identity of local elites.
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  185. Shigaku zasshi (史学雑誌).
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  187. Published in Japan since 1950, this journal regularly publishes review essays of Japanese studies on Ming and Qing history. The review essays provide important information about the development of Japanese studies of local elites.
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  189. Tōyōshi kenkyū (東洋史研究).
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  191. Published by the Society of Oriental Research in Tokyo, the journal carries articles on all periods of Chinese history. Occasionally the journal publishes articles on the Ming-Qing period.
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  193. Gentry
  194.  
  195. From the 1950s to the 1970s local elites of imperial China were considered to have been a homogeneous group who worked for the imperial government after passing the civil service examinations. Commonly known as gentry (shishen 士紳), scholar-officials exercised their power as government officials and local leaders. This view first appeared in East Asia in the writings of Hu Han and Fei Hsiao-tung (see Wu and Fei 1948) in China and of Shigeta Atsushi in Japan (Shigeta 1975). During the 1960s and 1970s this view became dominant in the US academy through the writings of Chang Chung-li (Chang 1955, Chang 1962), Ch’u T’ung-tsu (Ch’u 1962), Kung-chuan Hsiao (Hsiao 1960), and Ping-ti Ho (Ho 1962). Although not explicitly stated, most of the writings in the 1960s and 1970s were based on the Weberian notion of bureaucracy that tied gentry to the imperial state. At that time there were two gentry-related historiographical disputes. One was concerned with whether the power of the gentry was based on land (Fei 1953) or on high social mobility through the examination system (Ho 1962). The other was concerned with whether the gentry should include the licentiates or Shengyuan (Chang 1955, Ho 1962).
  196.  
  197. Chang, Chung-li. The Chinese Gentry: Studies in Their Role in Nineteenth Century Chinese Society. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1955.
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  199. Along with Fei Hsiao-Tung’s China’s Gentry (Fei 1953), Chang’s book created a field of study in the United States that focused on the roles of local elites in imperial China. Similar to Fei, Chang emphasizes the direct links between local elites and the imperial state. To make his point, he defines gentry as scholar-officials who served in the imperial administration after passing the civil service examinations.
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  201. Chang, Chung-li. The Income of the Chinese Gentry. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1962.
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  203. In a sequel to The Chinese Gentry (Chang 1955), Chang continues to discuss the roles of the gentry as members of the imperial bureaucracy. Focusing on the incomes of the gentry, Chang stresses the roles that the gentry played in Chinese society.
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  205. Ch’u T’ung-tsu. Local Government in China under the Ch’ing. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1962.
  206. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  207. Focusing on the structure of local government in Qing China, Ch’u reiterates the link between local elites and the imperial state. He stresses the importance of the civil service examinations in conferring power to local elites.
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  209. Fei, Hsiao-tung (Fei Xiaotong). China’s Gentry: Essays in Rural-Urban Relations. Revised and edited by Margaret Park Redfield. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1953.
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  211. This is a collection of essays by Fei, an anthropologist trained in Britain. His first three chapters in this book define the parameters of studying Chinese gentry: “The Gentry and the Imperial Power,” “The Scholar Becomes the Official,” and “The Gentry and Technical Knowledge.”
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  213. Ho, Ping-ti. The Ladder of Success in Imperial China: Aspects of Social Mobility, 1368–1911. New York: Columbia University Press, 1962.
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  215. Based on a large number of primary sources, Ho demonstrates how the civil service examinations opened the door to upward social mobility for elite, educated families. Ho shows that as a link between the imperial state and local society, the examination system bestowed power on local elite families.
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  217. Hsiao, Kung-chuan. Rural China: Imperial Control in the Nineteenth Century. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1960.
  218. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  219. Hsiao’s book focuses on the socioeconomic structure of rural China. Emphasizing “imperial control,” Hsiao sees local elites as an extension of the imperial state.
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  221. Shigeta Atsushi 重田徳. Shindai shakai keizaishi kenkyū (清代社会経済史研究). Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1975.
  222. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  223. Based on his careful research on landholding, Shigeta’s study on the social economic history of the Qing period proposes the concept of “gentry rule” to highlight the power of gentry in rural China.
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  225. Wu Han 吳晗 and Fei Xiaotong (Fei Hsiao-tung) 費孝通, eds. Wangquan yu shenquan (王權與紳權). Shanghai: Guancha she, 1948.
  226. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  227. This is a collection of essays on the relationship between the imperial state and local elites. The focus of the collection is not to compare the two forms of power but to show how local elites were in many ways a part of the imperial state.
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  229. Civil Service Examinations
  230.  
  231. Throughout late imperial China, the civil service examinations were the ladder of success for the educated. Those who passed the examinations (commonly known as the degree holders) were recruited into the imperial bureaucracy and automatically became local elites because of their access to government and local networks. In the study of the history of the examination system, three scholars are especially noteworthy: Benjamin A. Elman (Elman 2000, Elman 1991), Ping-ti Ho (Ho 1962), and Ichisada Miyazaki (Miyazaki 1981, Miyazaki 1987). Their writings have strongly influenced research on local elites. Man-Cheong 2004 sheds new light on the political and social networks of successful examinees.
  232.  
  233. Elman, Benjamin A. “Social, Political, and Cultural Reproduction via Civil Service Examinations in Late Imperial China.” Journal of Asian Studies 51.1 (1991): 7–28.
  234. DOI: 10.2307/2057472Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  235. In this article Elman explains why he sees the examination system as a tool of social, political, and cultural reproduction. With this article he changed the direction of research on the examination system from focusing on social mobility to the state’s control of the cultural field.
  236. Find this resource:
  237. Elman, Benjamin A. A Cultural History of Civil Examinations in Late Imperial China. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000.
  238. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  239. This is a comprehensive English-language study of the examination system. The book traces the changes of the examination system from the 11th century to the late 19th century. It contains a detailed study of the examination questions.
  240. Find this resource:
  241. Ho, Ping-ti. The Ladder of Success in Imperial China: Aspects of Social Mobility, 1368–1911. New York: Columbia University Press, 1962.
  242. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  243. Based on large numbers of primary sources, Ho demonstrates that the civil service examinations opened the door to upward mobility for the educated. Despite criticisms for being overly optimistic about social mobility, Ho shows that the examination system was the ladder of success for the educated.
  244. Find this resource:
  245. Man-Cheong, Iona. The Class of 1761: Examinations, State, and Elites in Eighteenth-Century China. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2004.
  246. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  247. This book traces the complex social and political networks of the successful examinees of 1761, revealing the momentous changes in early Qing.
  248. Find this resource:
  249. Miyazaki, Ichisada. China’s Examination Hell. Translated by Conrad Schiorkauer. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1981.
  250. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  251. This is a short version of Mizayaki’s massive study of the examination system. Although Miyazaki only provides a brief summary of his full argument developed in Kakyoshi (Miyazaki 1987), this short book summarizes his view that the examination system was constantly evolving.
  252. Find this resource:
  253. Miyazaki, Ichisada 宮崎市定. Kakyoshi (科舉史). Tokyo: Heibonsha, 1987.
  254. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  255. Drawing from decades of careful studies, Miyazaki offers a panoramic view of the civil service examination system from its beginning in the Tang to its end in 1905. Focusing on the structure of the examinations, Miyazaki shows how the system evolved in response to different needs. He demonstrates that the examination system was never static.
  256. Find this resource:
  257. Local Society and Elite Activism
  258.  
  259. Since the mid-1980s the focus of the study of local elites has shifted from bureaucracy to the dynamics of local society. The shift began in the study of the late Qing. Based on research on the Chinese city Hankou, Rowe 1984 and Rowe 1989 challenged the Weberian approach and focused attention on the intricate networks of power in local society. Building on William T. Rowe’s critique of the Weberian approach, Esherick and Rankin 1990 announced a new approach that examined the various ways local elites gained influence in local society. According to Esherick and Rankin 1990, the strategy for creating and maintaining elite power in local society included not only passing the examinations but also economic resources, social prestige, personal connections, and lifestyle. Rankin 1986 extends this view in the context of late Qing China. Applying this new approach to studying the Ming period, Brook 1993 emphasizes the “extrabureaucratic services” of local elites whose rise to power came from winning support in local society. Further developing the concept of “extrabureaucratic services,” Brook 2005 coins the term “society-making” to highlight the dynamics in the production of power in local society. Critiquing the Weberian approach from an anthropological perspective, Faure 2002 rejects the notion of bureaucracy and argues that local power was always in local hands.
  260.  
  261. Brook, Timothy. Praying for Power: Buddhism and the Formation of Gentry Society in Late Ming China. Cambridge, MA: Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University, 1993.
  262. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  263. In the introduction to this book, Brook reviews the history of the study of local elites since the 1950s. He coins the term “gentry society” to pay respect to “gentry studies,” on the one hand, and to highlight the importance of local society, on the other.
  264. Find this resource:
  265. Brook, Timothy. The Chinese State in Ming Society. New York: RoutledgeCurzon, 2005.
  266. DOI: 10.4324/9780203311332Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  267. In this book Brook highlights the dynamics of the Ming society. At one point Brook states that “what was distinctive about Ming China was less its state than its society, since it was within society that the effects of demographic growth, expanding communicative networks, rapid commercialization, and new critical thinking were most keenly felt” (p. 8). To underscore the importance of local society, Brook coins the term “society-making,” which mirrors “state making.”
  268. Find this resource:
  269. Esherick, Joseph W., and Mary Backus Rankin, eds. Chinese Local Elites and Patterns of Dominance. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990.
  270. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  271. In the introduction to this collection of essays, Esherick and Rankin offer a review of the Weberian study of gentry. In particular, they point out the limits of the Weberian concepts of wealth, status, and power in a description of the structure of local power. They suggest expanding the scope of the study of local elites to include their economic wealth, social influence, personal connections, and lifestyle.
  272. Find this resource:
  273. Faure, David, “What Weber Did Not Know: Towns and Economic Development in Ming and Qing China.” In Town and Country in China: Identity and Perception. Edited by David Faure and Tao Tao Liu, 58–84. New York: Palgrave, 2002.
  274. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  275. In this essay Faure challenges the Weberian approach by comparing the social history of China and Europe. Emphasizing the importance of lineage in local society, Faure argues that “local power remained essentially in local hands.”
  276. Find this resource:
  277. Rankin, Mary Backus. Elite Activism and Political Transformation in China, Zhejiang Province, 1865–1911. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1986.
  278. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  279. In this book Rankin traces the expansion of the power of local elites after the Taiping Rebellion (1850–1864). She argues that there were “long-term shifts” in the political structure of late Qing China, when increasingly power was delegated to local leaders.
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Rowe, William T. Hankow: Commerce and Society in a Chinese City, 1796–1889. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1984.
  282. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  283. This is the first of Rowe’s two studies of the Chinese city Hankou (Hankow). Located in the mid–Yangzi River region, Hankou was a hub of trade and commerce for centuries. Rowe’s study is significant in revealing the vitality of local groups in the city. Rowe’s introduction to the book is particularly potent as a critique of the Weberian study of gentry.
  284. Find this resource:
  285. Rowe, William T. Hankow: Conflict and Community in a Chinese City, 1796–1895. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1989.
  286. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  287. This is a sequel to Rowe 1984. It completes Rowe’s detailed study of the social history of Hankou. Focusing on conflict and community, the book highlights the dynamics of local groups in maintaining public order and community services for the residents of Hankou.
  288. Find this resource:
  289. Market and Lineage
  290.  
  291. Since the 1980s research on local elites has drawn inspiration from G. William Skinner’s study of market towns (Skinner 1964, cited under General Overviews) and the Freedman 1966 study of lineage. Combining the two approaches, scholars have produced large numbers of books and articles that demonstrate the vitality and fluidity of local society. Beattie 1979 and Ebrey and Watson 1986 provide an overarching framework for discussing changes in lineages in late imperial China. Faure 2007 and Watson 1982 offer concrete evidence to illustrate the complexity of identity creation in the Pearl River delta. Focusing on local politics and local organizations, Liu 1995, Siu 2002, and Siu and Liu 2006 provide a vivid picture of how local elites created and preserved their power in their own districts.
  292.  
  293. Beattie, Hilary J. Land and Lineage in China: A Study of T’ung-ch’eng County, Anhwei, in the Ming and Ch’ing Dynasties. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1979.
  294. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  295. Beattie was the first scholar to discuss the socioeconomic structure of local society. Although focusing on one county, Tongcheng (T’ung-ch’eng) in Anhui (Anhwei) Province, Beattie shows that the power of local elites rested as much on passing the examinations as on the accumulation of land and wealth.
  296. Find this resource:
  297. Ebrey, Patricia, and James L. Watson, eds. Kinship Organization in Late Imperial China, 1000–1940. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986.
  298. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  299. This collection of essays covers various aspects of kinship organization in late imperial China. In the introduction the two editors explain why the anthropological concept of kinship is useful in understanding the dynamics of Chinese local society.
  300. Find this resource:
  301. Faure, David. Emperor and Ancestor: State and Lineages in South China. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2007.
  302. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  303. This book examines the relationships between the imperial state and local lineages in late imperial China. By juxtaposing state and lineage, Faure highlights the dual process of local control: the state bureaucracy that only reached to the xian (county) level and the lineage rule in many rural communities.
  304. Find this resource:
  305. Freedman, Maurice. Chinese Lineage and Society: Fukien and Kwangtung. London: Athlone, 1966.
  306. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  307. This book provides a comparative study of social organizations in local society in Fujian and Guangdong Provinces. It gives concrete examples of how lineages were the cornerstones of local society.
  308. Find this resource:
  309. Liu Zhiwei. “Lineage on the Sands: The Case of Shawan.” In Down to Earth: The Territorial Bond in South China. Edited by David Faure and Helen F. Siu, 21–43. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1995.
  310. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  311. Focusing on “a magnate lineage” in Shawan in the Pearl River delta, Liu proves that local people could establish land ownership and social control through manipulation of cultural symbols. More important, Liu shows that local power relies on both the literati culture of the examination system and the genealogical principles of common ancestors.
  312. Find this resource:
  313. Siu, Helen F. “Redefining the Market Town through Festivals in South China.” In Town and Country in China: Identity and Perception. Edited by David Faure and Tao Tao Liu, 233–249. New York: Palgrave, 2002.
  314. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  315. In this essay Siu compares Skinner’s study of market towns and Maurice Friedman’s concept of lineage. To Siu, Skinner’s study of market town leaves out local communities that are not close to market towns. She argues that by focusing on lineage, researchers are able to look closely at rural communities below the xian (county) level.
  316. Find this resource:
  317. Siu, Helen F., and Liu Zhiwei. “Lineage, Markets, Pirate, and Dan: Ethnicity in the Pearl River Delta of South China.” In Empire at the Margins: Culture, Ethnicity, and Frontier in Early Modern China. Edited by Pamela Kyle Crossley, Helen F. Siu, and Donald S. Sutton, 285–310. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006.
  318. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  319. In this highly stimulating essay, Siu and Liu argue that lineage (for a group of families) and kinship (for a particular family) were two important venues by which local players gained influence in a local community. To highlight the fluidity in creating local identity, Siu and Liu use the concept of “the cultural strategies” to describe the various symbols, rituals, and cultural practices that allow local groups to stay in power.
  320. Find this resource:
  321. Watson, James L. “Chinese Kinship Reconsidered: Anthropological Perspectives on Historical Research.” China Quarterly 92 (1982): 589–622.
  322. DOI: 10.1017/S0305741000000965Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  323. In this article Watson explains how to apply the anthropological concept of “kinship” to studying the social history of late imperial China. As a system of relationships based on bloodline (real or imagined), kinship reveals the intricate human networks that are central to many of the social activities in Chinese towns and villages.
  324. Find this resource:
  325. Merchant and Military Elites
  326.  
  327. Further expanding the scope of the study of local elites, works by economic historians (such as Fu 1982 and Kwan 2001) show that commercialization and urbanization in late imperial China raised the social status of merchants. With plenty of financial and social capital, many merchants became local leaders through marriages, social networks, philanthropy, and civic activities (see Ho 1954, Ma 1995, Mann 1987, Finnane 2004). Focusing on the late Qing and the early republican period, studies by historians, such as Kuhn 1970 and Chen 1979, demonstrate that many military leaders became the de facto leaders in local communities when the central authority disintegrated. During the late Qing, either through wealth or military skills, new local leaders emerged who were not “gentry” in the traditional sense of degree holders (see Wang 1997).
  328.  
  329. Chen, Jerome. The Military-Gentry Coalition: China under the Warlords. Toronto: University of Toronto–York University Joint Center on Modern East Asia, 1979.
  330. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  331. In this book Chen coins the term “the military-gentry coalition” to describe the rise of military elites in the late Qing and early republican period. Specialized in leading military campaigns and managing soldiers, military elites were part of the local structure of power when the central authority disintegrated in the early 20th century. In times of war traditional gentry had no choice but to share power with military elites.
  332. Find this resource:
  333. Finnane, Antonia. Speaking of Yangzhou: A Chinese City, 1550–1850. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center, 2004.
  334. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  335. This is a biography of Yangzhou. It provides valuable information about the city’s merchants.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. Fu Yiling 傅衣凌. Ming-Qing shehui jingjishi lunwenji (明清社会经济史论文集). Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 1982.
  338. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  339. In this book Fu uses his deep knowledge of economic history to discuss the multiple roles of merchants in Chinese society. Focusing on the lower Yangzi River delta, he broadens the study of local elites to include merchants who came to power without passing the civil service examinations.
  340. Find this resource:
  341. Ho, Ping-ti. “The Salt Merchants of Yang-chou.” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 17 (1954): 130–168.
  342. DOI: 10.2307/2718130Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  343. Although dated, this classic work by Ho discusses the web of social networks of the salt merchants of Yangzhou (Yang-chou). Despite their low status in the traditional social hierarchy, salt merchants (and merchants in general) were influential in local affairs.
  344. Find this resource:
  345. Kuhn, Philip A. Rebellion and Its Enemies in Late Imperial China: Militarization and Social Structure, 1796–1864. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1970.
  346. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  347. In this survey of the rise of local militias, Kuhn shows that there was a continuous increase in militarization throughout the mid- and late Qing. This militarization helped create a new type of local leader who specialized in training the army, designing military campaigns, and defending key urban centers. At the end of the book Kuhn links militarization to the breakdown of the imperial state.
  348. Find this resource:
  349. Kwan, Man Bun. The Salt Merchants of Tianjin: State Making and Civil Society in Late Imperial Society. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2001.
  350. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  351. Kwan’s book provides a detailed study of the multiple social roles of the salt merchants in Tianjin. Focusing on legal customs, social norms, and behavior patterns of the salt merchants, Kwan argues that merchants were part of a robust “civil society” by playing active roles in local affairs and local politics.
  352. Find this resource:
  353. Ma Min 马敏. Guanshang zhijian: Shehui jubian zhong de jindai shenshang (官商之间: 社会变中的近代绅商). Tianjin, China: Tianjin renmin chubanshe, 1995.
  354. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  355. This book traces the rise of merchant elites in late imperial China who were able to establish close relations with government officials and local leaders.
  356. Find this resource:
  357. Mann, Susan. Local Merchants and the Chinese Bureaucracy, 1750–1950. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1987.
  358. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  359. In this book Mann shows the central role of merchants in providing public services in local society. Evoking Max Weber, she calls the merchant’s public services a part of “informal liturgical structures of local governance.” Emphasizing the limits of the central government in influencing local affairs, Mann demonstrates how merchants gained power in local societies when the Qing government had to rely on them for tax collection.
  360. Find this resource:
  361. Wang Xianming 王先明. Jindai shenshi: Yige fengjian jieceng de lishi mingyun (近代绅士：个封建阶层的历史命运). Tianjin, China: Tianjin renmin chubanshe, 1997.
  362. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  363. In this book Wang examines the changes in the status of local elites in imperial China. Covering a broad time span, Wang shows the multiple roles of local elites in Chinese society.
  364. Find this resource:
  365. Regional Differences
  366.  
  367. As the scope of the study of local elites has expanded, more attention has been paid to regional differences in the structure of local power. Four regions in particular have been the foci for comparison: the lower Yangzi River delta, the mid-Yangzi River region, the Pearl River delta, and the North China plain. Studies of the lower Yangzi River delta and the mid-Yangzi River region (e.g., Rankin 1986, Rowe 1984, Xu 2004) concentrate on how local elites controlled the commercial networks. Studies of the Pearl River delta (e.g., Faure and Siu 1995, Faure and Liu 2002) focus on how local elites established ownership of the land. Studies of the North China plain (e.g., Huang 1985) concentrate on how local elites served as a buffer between the imperial authority and the peasants. Despite the differences, four groups of scholars see local elites as diverse local players who might or might not pass the civil service examinations.
  368.  
  369. Faure, David, and Tao Tao Liu, eds. Town and Country in China: Identity and Perception. New York: Palgrave, 2002.
  370. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  371. This collection of essays compares the structures of power in rural and urban communities. Based on anthropological research on areas in South China and elsewhere, the essays compare the different structures of power in towns and rural communities.
  372. Find this resource:
  373. Faure, David, and Helen F. Siu, eds. Down to Earth: The Territorial Bond in South China. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1995.
  374. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  375. This collection of essays provides thoughtful studies of the structure of local power in the Pearl River delta. It includes essays about rural communities along the delta (e.g., Liu Zhiwei’s study of Shawan; see Liu 1995, cited under Market and Lineage) and ethnographic studies of the boat people in Hong Kong (e.g., Choi Chi-cheung’s study of Cheung Chau).
  376. Find this resource:
  377. Huang, Philip. The Peasant Economy and Social Change in North China. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1985.
  378. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  379. Based on solid evidence, Huang shows the roles of local elites in negotiating between the central authority and rural communities. He identifies a three-way structure of power in rural communities: state, elite, and peasant.
  380. Find this resource:
  381. Rankin, Mary Backus. Elite Activism and Political Transformation in China, Zhejiang Province, 1865–1911. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1986.
  382. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  383. In her book Rankin traces the expansion of the power of local elites in the lower Yangzi delta after the Taiping Rebellion (1850–1864). She argues that there were “long-term shifts” in the political structure of late Qing China, when power was increasingly delegated to local leaders.
  384. Find this resource:
  385. Rowe, William T. Hankow: Commerce and Society in a Chinese City, 1796–1889. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1984.
  386. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  387. This is the first of Rowe’s two studies of the Chinese city Hankou. Located in the mid-Yangzi River region, Hankou was a hub of trade and commerce for centuries. Rowe’s study is significant not only in highlighting the uniqueness of Hankou but also in revealing the vitality of local groups in the city.
  388. Find this resource:
  389. Xu Maoming 徐茂明. Jiangnan shishen yu jiangnan shehui (1368–1911nian) (江南士绅与江南社会, 1368-1911年). Beijing: Shangwu yinshuguan, 2004.
  390. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  391. In broad strokes Xu traces the changes in local elites in the lower Yangzi River delta during the Ming-Qing period. Highlighting the multiple roles of local elites, Xu argues that the term “local elites” should be understood more broadly as local leaders who linked the local communities to the imperial authority through a web of social and cultural networks.
  392. Find this resource:
  393. State-Society Relationship
  394.  
  395. Whereas the expanded definition of local elites challenges the Weberian approach, it also calls into question of how effectively the imperial state could control local communities. The question was supported by the fact that in late imperial China the power of the imperial state did not reach below the county (xian) level. With little or no presence of government officials, local elites were the de facto rulers in many local communities. Thus for scholars such as Joseph W. Esherick and Mary Backus Rankin (Rankin 1986, Rankin and Esherick 1990), the autonomy of local communities was a fact of life in late imperial China. Focusing on the late Qing when the central government was in disarray, they view local leaders as rulers who protected and preserved local interests. In contrast, in Brook 2005, Faure and Siu 1995, and Kwan 2001 the relationship between state and society is seen as reciprocal and interconnected. Viewing power as both tangible and symbolic, those authors see local leaders as active players in national and local politics who had to balance the competing claims of the central government and local communities. At the heart of this debate is whether the central authority and local communities in late imperial China were antagonistic and mutually exclusive, similar to what historians have found in early modern Europe.
  396.  
  397. Brook, Timothy. The Chinese State in Ming Society. New York: RoutledgeCurzon, 2005.
  398. DOI: 10.4324/9780203311332Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  399. In the introduction Brook discusses the state-society relationship during the Ming period. He argues that there were two parallel processes in creating a unique sociopolitical structure in Ming China: state making and society making. Whereas state making expanded the power of the imperial authority, society making affected how the imperial authority was exercised and presented in local communities. This dual system, Brook argues, produced a complex web of power relationships that was centrally integrated but spatially diffused.
  400. Find this resource:
  401. Faure, David, and Helen F. Siu. “Introduction.” In Down to Earth: The Territorial Bond in South China. Edited by David Faure and Helen F. Siu, 1–20. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1995.
  402. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  403. In their introduction Faure and Siu juxtapose state making with the “local nexus of power.” By local nexus of power, they mean “a repertoire of values and symbolisms that contained multiple voices and agendas” (p. 17). While Faure and Siu emphasize that local politics remained in local hands, they see state making and the local nexus of power as a “dialogue” where local players had to adopt cultural symbols of the imperial state to legitimize their authority. At the same time, in adopting the cultural symbols of the imperial state local players reconstituted and subverted them for local needs.
  404. Find this resource:
  405. Kwan, Man Bun. The Salt Merchants of Tianjin: State Making and Civil Society in Late Imperial China. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2001.
  406. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  407. Similar to Brook 2003, Kwan views state making and society making as two separate but interconnected processes. He argues that the two processes created “a field of action” for negotiation and collaboration. For him, the salt merchants of Tianjin offer concrete examples of how the “field of action” worked in bringing state and society together.
  408. Find this resource:
  409. Rankin, Mary Backus. Elite Activism and Political Transformation in China, Zhejiang Province, 1865–1911. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1986.
  410. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  411. In the introduction Rankin explains the “long-term shifts in relations between the bureaucratic state and social leaders” from the Taiping Rebellion to the 1911 revolution. She argues that as the Qing government lost power because of foreign defeats and failure in reforms, local elites gained influence in local and political affairs. These “corrosive changes,” Rankin suggests, led to the emergence of a public sphere and the rise of oppositional public opinion.
  412. Find this resource:
  413. Rankin, Mary Backus, and Joseph W. Esherick. “Concluding Remarks.” In Chinese Local Elites and Patterns of Dominance. Edited by Joseph W. Esherick and Mary Backus Rankin, 305–345. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990.
  414. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  415. In their conclusion to this collection of essays, Rankin and Esherick emphasize the importance of focusing on the autonomy of local communities. They suggest that rather than through passing the civil service examinations, local elites gained power through “a broad repertoire of strategies” that was determined locally.
  416. Find this resource:
  417. Significance of the Late Qing
  418.  
  419. Late-20th- and early-21st-century studies of local elites in late imperial China have triggered a reinterpretation of the late Qing. Rather than viewing the late Qing as the end of the late imperial period, scholars see it as part of the process of reconstituting Chinese society in the first half of the 20th century (see He 1994). By linking the late Qing to the early decades of the Republic of China, scholars see a pattern of social changes during which local society became increasingly diverse (see Wang 2009).
  420.  
  421. He Yuefu 贺跃夫. Wanqing shishen yu jindai shehui bianqian: Jian yu riben shizu bijiao (晚淸士绅与近代社会変迁: 兼与日本士族比较). Guanzhou, China: Guangdong renmin chubanshe, 1994.
  422. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  423. In this book He traces the changes in local elites from the late Qing to the 1911 revolution. The strength of He’s book is its detail discussion of the multiple roles that local elites assumed, including forming militias, developing commerce, establishing schools, and participating in constitutional government. But the book is weak in comparing the Chinese local elites with the Japanese bushi.
  424. Find this resource:
  425. Wang Xianming 王先明. Biandong shidai de xiangshen: Xiangshen yu xiangcun shehui jiaogou bianqian 1901–1945 (变动时代的乡绅：乡绅与乡村社会结构变迁，1901–1945). Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 2009.
  426. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  427. In this book Wang discusses the relationship between the social change in rural communities and the new roles of rural elites. The book covers events of the first half of the 20th century, directly linking the late Qing to the early republican period.
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