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Militarism (Military History)

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. Contemporary critics and scholars alike have associated militarism both with the military’s predominance in foreign policy and with the employment of military force, rhetoric, and symbols in order to ensure elite control of the populace. Two definitions from German scholars illustrate that range. Walter Benjamin’s “Critique of Violence” (Benjamin 1978, cited under Seminal Critiques) holds that militarism is “the compulsory, universal use of violence as a means to the ends of the state” (p. 284). And for Alfred Vagts (A History of Militarism; Vagts 1959, cited under General Overviews), “militarism . . . presents a vast array of customs, interests, prestige, actions, and thought associated with armies and wars and yet transcending true military purposes. . . . It may permeate all society and become dominant over all industry and arts” (p. 13). More recently, Andrew Bacevich (The New American Militarism; Bacevich 2005, cited under Contemporary) has added an intriguing twist to the discussion of American militarism since the end of the Vietnam War: a shift of agency from the state and its military institutions to civil society, which had previously been regarded as a victim or consumer of militarism and not as one of its originators. As a practical matter, modern militarism evolved from the upheaval of the social, political, and industrial revolutions of the 18th and 19th centuries in Western countries and in Japan. Industrialization and the rise of the lower classes threatened reactionary elites, the emergence of mass society forced the state to educate and indoctrinate its citizens, and technological advances made war more lethal and required both specialization of military functions and mass mobilization of society and economy. Proponents of the Sonderweg thesis argue that these developments were felt most intensely in Germany, where the modern nation-state was forged in war and where civil society was overtaken by nationalism and military culture. In public imagination, the two world wars firmly established Germany as the ideal type of modern militarism, in the sense of both aggression toward its neighbors and the predominance of military culture at home.
  4.  
  5. General Overviews
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  7. In the 19th century, militarism was an opposition concept that provided a rallying point for otherwise disparate groups of regime critics in Germany and elsewhere in Europe. Only in the context of the world wars did it also become a scholarly category. The most thorough scholarly study of militarism as a historical phenomenon remains Vagts 1959, originally written against the backdrop of the rise of the dictatorships and the re-emergence of an aggressively militaristic Germany. Berghahn 1981 and Berghahn 2006 deepen the sense of modern militarism in 19th- and 20th-century European history but also point at its defeat and disappearance, while Carlton 2001 offers a longer historical perspective that transcends the divide between premodern and modern forms of militarism. Huntington 1957, Finer 1988, and Perlmutter 1977 each focus on civil-military relations and the roles of professional soldiers in modern states.
  8.  
  9. Berghahn, Volker R. Militarism: The History of an International Debate, 1861–1979. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1984.
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  11. Traces the evolution of European thought, which focuses on the militarization of society, and Anglo-American thought, which emphasizes civil-military relations and the question of civilian control of the military. Originally published in 1981.
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  13. Berghahn, Volker R. Europe in the Era of the Two World Wars: From Militarism and Genocide to Civil Society, 1900–1950. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006.
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  15. This an extended essay that summarizes Berghahn’s career work on militarism and the world wars. Argues that in 1900, militarism and antimilitarism were both prevalent and the turn to the world wars was not historically predetermined, concluding that the destruction of the world wars and an American vision of a world order based on commerce and prosperity combined to serve as antidote to militarism after 1945.
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  17. Carlton, Eric. Militarism: Rule Without Law. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2001.
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  19. Considers the causes and conditions of militarism from antiquity to the present. Carlton, a former paratrooper, an ordained minister, and a sociologist, sees militarism as a way of life in which military values become an end in themselves, and he considers a wide range of rulers that used militarism as the primary basis for their power.
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  21. Finer, Samuel E. The Man on Horseback: The Role of the Military in Politics. 2d ed. Boulder, CO: Westview, 1988.
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  23. Classic discussion of the global phenomenon of military takeover of civilian governments in the Cold War era, particularly in developing states lacking the civilian administrative apparatus. Concludes that government needs to keep the military in check to ensure sound civil-military relations. Originally published in 1962; this is a revised and updated edition.
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  25. Huntington, Samuel P. The Soldier and the State: The Theory and Politics of Civil-Military Relations. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1957.
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  27. One of the most influential works on civil-military relations and a book that remains a must-read for graduate students and a foil for political scientists and historians alike. Unlike Finer 1988, this work assumes that the professionalism of the officer corps will serve as an effective obstacle to military intervention in governance or even takeover of the state.
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  29. Perlmutter, Amos. The Military and Politics in Modern Times: On Professionals, Praetorians, and Revolutionary Soldiers. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1977.
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  31. Concludes that civil-military relations in any modern society can be understood in terms of some combination of the three kinds of soldiers depicted in the subtitle.
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  33. Vagts, Alfred. A History of Militarism: Romance and Realities of a Profession. New York: Meridian, 1959.
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  35. Highly recommended as introduction to the problem throughout modern history. Vagts, a former German army officer turned émigré scholar in the United States, considers the professional officer corps under civilian oversight as an antidote to social militarization but also shows that in a militarized culture, the military itself loses its position of influence. Originally published in 1937.
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  37. Seminal Critiques
  38.  
  39. These critiques by political philosophers have shaped our understanding of militarism since the late 19th century. Some, like Benjamin 1978 and Lasswell 1997, warn of the unrestrained power of the modern state and raise the question of who controls the government, while pacifistic critiques like James 1911 struggle with the need to organize and mobilize modern mass society and the recognition that war releases the energies of the nation like no other activity. Other pacifists, notably the authors of Quidde 1977 (a collection of essays written from the 1890s to the 1920s) and Suttner 1889, offer an outright rejection of war and of militarism. Liebknecht 1907 presents the Marxist critique of militarism in Germany.
  40.  
  41. Benjamin, Walter. “Critique of Violence.” In Reflections: Essays, Aphorisms, Autobiographical Writings. Edited by Peter Demetz, 277–300. New York: Schocken, 1978.
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  43. Originally published in 1921. Succinctly defines militarism as the orientation of all national potential toward the interests of the state and discusses the odds of overcoming violence as a baseline human condition.
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  45. James, William. “The Moral Equivalent of War.” In Memories and Studies. Edited by Henry James Jr., 265–296. New York: Longmans, Green, 1911.
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  47. Considers war and militarization as forces that can unlock and focus the energy of a nation. James approaches the subject as a pacifist, but he expresses both fear and fascination with war and militarism.
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  49. Lasswell, Harold. Essays on the Garrison State. Edited by Jay Stanley. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1997.
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  51. Presents Lasswell’s quintessential discussions of the garrison state, run by soldiers, as the most threatening political system in the future. Written in the context of the rise of the dictatorships in the 1930s—the premier articles in 1937 and 1939—and revised at the height of the Cold War.
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  53. Liebknecht, Karl. Militarismus und Antimilitarismus unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der internationalen Jugendbewegung. Leipzig: Leipziger Buchdruckerei, 1907.
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  55. A rising leader of the Socialist movement, Liebknecht offers an impassioned plea to inculcate a peaceful spirit in Germany’s youth to counter the assumption that every citizen had the duty to defend the nation and to undo the obedience toward the military and the positive conception of war in German society.
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  57. Quidde, Ludwig. Caligula: Schriften über Militarismus und Pazifismus. Edited by Hans-Ulrich Wehler. Frankfurt: Syndikat, 1977.
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  59. A manifesto of liberal antiwar and antimilitarist sentiments in imperial Germany. Quidde was a member of parliament and leader of the antiwar movement before and after World War I and was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1927.
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  61. Suttner, Bertha von. Die Waffen Nieder! Dresden, Germany: Verlag Edgar Pierson, 1889.
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  63. Novel that offers an impassioned plea to end the arms races that have defined modern European history. One of the best representations of the antimilitarist position of the antiwar movement. Available in English as Lay Down Your Arms (translated by T. Holmes; London: Longmans, Green, 1894).
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  65. Journals
  66.  
  67. Militarism is a diffuse subject that continues to draw interest from several disciplines in the humanities and social sciences. Armed Forces and Society, the Journal of Military History, the Journal of Military and Political Sociology, War and Society, and War in History all offer frequent contributions on militarism from historical and sociological perspectives.
  68.  
  69. Armed Forces and Society. 1974–.
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  71. This is an interdisciplinary journal that focuses primarily on military institutions, civil-military relations, and the armed forces in society.
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  73. Journal of Military and Political Sociology. 1973–.
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  75. This is an interdisciplinary journal that focuses on civil-military relations, political sociology, and political science.
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  77. Journal of Military History. 1937–.
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  79. This is a leading journal for military history with a wide range of topics from antiquity to the present.
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  81. War and Society. 1983–.
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  83. This is a historical journal that publishes articles on the relationship of warfare and society from ancient times to the present.
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  85. War in History. 1994–.
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  87. This is a historical journal that publishes articles on war that consider a wide range of political, economic, social, cultural, and military issues.
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  89. Country and Regional Studies
  90.  
  91. This section introduces the critical literature on militarism in defined countries and regions. The focus for the 19th and early 20th century is on Germany, although studies on France, Great Britain, Russia, and other countries have revealed a wider European militarism. With World War II, the militarism of Japan, i.e., the army’s and navy’s influence in and control of government and war policies, came into sharper focus and has since then garnered a great deal of scholarly attention. The world wars, the Cold War, and their role in the unsettled global environment of the 21st century have earned the moniker of a warfare state for the United States and in the eyes of some critical scholars also that of militarism. Finally, this section will introduce some of the literature on militarism outside of Europe, North America, and Japan.
  92.  
  93. Germany
  94.  
  95. In the decades following World War II, modern German history, from unification in 1871 to 1945, was commonly associated with the rise and ultimate defeat of Prussian militarism. In recent decades, however, the foundational notions of German militarism have been challenged, particularly the assumptions of a unified military ideology and of a society so thoroughly militarized that it craved and embraced war in 1914. Elias 1996 and Willems 1986 address Prussian and German militarism from sociocultural perspectives and develop the argument that Germany took a special path (Sonderweg) to modernity that resulted in the aggressive wars of the 20th century. Ritter 1969–1973 and Wette 2008 focus on the political culture of militarism, although they disagree in interpretations of chronology and motivations. Craig 1956 and Clark 2006 discuss the significance of the Prussian monarchy and aristocracy and the Prussian army. Manchester 1968 and James 2012 offer detailed narratives of Germany’s primary arms manufacturer.
  96.  
  97. Clark, Christopher. Iron Kingdom: The Rise and Downfall of Prussia, 1600–1947. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006.
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  99. The deepest recent history of Prussia that traces its political history, wars, and political culture. This narrative history should appeal to a general audience as well as to scholars.
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  101. Craig, Gordon. The Politics of the Prussian Army, 1640–1945. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1956.
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  103. Classic study of civil-military relations in Prussian and modern German history. Argues that the authoritarian tradition of its officer corps made the Prussian army a reactionary force that upheld aristocracy and the Hohenzollern monarchy and impeded the progress of democracy and popular sovereignty.
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  105. Elias, Norbert. The Germans: Power Struggles and the Development of Habitus in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries. Edited by Michael Schröter, translated by Eric Dunning and Stephen Mennell. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press, 1996.
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  107. One of the best psychological descriptions of the German Sonderweg. Elias offers a sociological and philosophical perspective on why Germans fell prey to militarism.
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  109. James, Harold. Krupp: The History of a Legendary Firm. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012.
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  111. Even-handed account of two hundred years of the Krupp industrial conglomerate by one of the leading business historians. Traces how Krupp, established in 1811, became the leading arms manufacturer in modern Prussia and Germany and a symbol for German militarism.
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  113. Manchester, William. The Arms of Krupp, 1587–1968. Boston: Little, Brown, 1968.
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  115. The classic narrative history of the arms manufacturers who have become synonymous with the armament of modern Germany. Should be read with Harold James’ recent authorized history of Krupp (James 2012).
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  117. Ritter, Gerhard. The Sword and the Scepter: The Problem of Militarism in Germany. 4 vols. Translated by Heinz Norden. Coral Gables, FL: University of Miami Press, 1969–1973.
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  119. Portrays militarism as a top-down phenomenon that arose among social and political elites only after Otto von Bismarck had been sacked in 1890. Ritter’s argument served as an excuse for German society still eager to deflect blame for the world wars on aristocracy and the officer corps.
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  121. Wette, Wolfram. Militarismus in Deutschland: Geschichte einer kriegerischen Kultur. Frankfurt: S. Fischer Verlag, 2008.
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  123. Cultural and political history of militarism in Germany. Wette has established himself as the leading student of this subject, and it is hoped that this insightful study will be translated into English to reach a broader audience.
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  125. Willems, Emilio. A Way of Life and Death: Three Centuries of Prussian-German Militarism: An Anthropological Approach. Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press, 1986.
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  127. Anthropological and cultural study, by a German émigré scholar, that traces militarism from its antecedents in medieval Prussia (Teutonic Knights) to its culmination in 20th-century Germany.
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  129. 19th Century
  130.  
  131. Wehler 1995 offers a detailed and comprehensive analysis of the failure to establish a liberal German nation-state in the 1848 Revolution. Showalter 2004 presents a concise narrative of the Wars of Unification. Becker 2001, Frevert 2004, and Rohkrämer 1990 explore different aspects of the social, cultural, and political consequences of national unification in war: the imagination of war and nation, identity formation and militarization through conscription, and the significance of veterans’ associations.
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  133. Becker, Frank. Bilder von Krieg und Nation: Die Einigungskriege in der bürgerlichen Öffentlichkeit Deutschlands 1864–1913. Munich: R. Oldenbourg Verlag, 2001.
  134. DOI: 10.1524/9783486596151Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  135. Argues that educated, middle-class Germans embraced militarism in their interpretation of the Wars of Unification and that bourgeoisie and aristocracy crafted a synthetic militarism that had broad appeal.
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  137. Frevert, Ute. A Nation in Barracks: Modern Germany, Military Conscription and Civil Society. Oxford: Berg, 2004.
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  139. Questions the continuity of militarism in Germany and suggests that while the military did serve as a school of the nation, its influence on civil society was less pervasive than we generally assume.
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  141. Rohkrämer, Thomas. Der Militarismus der “kleinen Leute”: Die Kriegervereine im deutschen Kaiserreich 1871–1914. Munich: R. Oldenbourg Verlag, 1990.
  142. DOI: 10.1524/9783486594195Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  143. Sociopolitical history of the membership of military leagues in pre–World War II Germany that argues that local factors, just as much as nationalism and militarism, explain the attractiveness of these associations.
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  145. Showalter, Dennis. The Wars of German Unification. London: Hodder Arnold, 2004.
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  147. Offers an argument for contingency in the Wars of Unification from 1864 to 1871, with particular emphasis on statesmanship and military leadership. Concludes that victory and subsequent identification of the military as a pillar of the nation resulted in militarism.
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  149. Wehler, Hans-Ulrich. Deutsche Gesellschaftsgeschichte. Vol. 3, Von der “Deutschen Doppelrevolution”bis zum Beginn des Ersten Weltkrieges 1849–1914. 4 vols. Munich: C. H. Beck, 1995.
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  151. The most profound recent defense of the Sonderweg argument from a leading social historian. Wehler argues that in the aftermath of the failed liberal revolution of 1848, aristocratic and bourgeois elites conspired in militarizing state and society and led Germany into war.
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  153. Wilhelmine Empire
  154.  
  155. Under the leadership of Emperor Wilhelm II, Germany developed an increasingly aggressive foreign policy and a culture of militarism took hold at home. Hull 2005, Förster 1985, and Stein 2007 consider the role of the army at home and abroad. Kehr 1965, Stargardt 1994, and Ulrich, et al. 2001 trace the culture of militarism and consider its protagonists and critics. Chickering 1975 explores the limited effect of the peace movement in Germany.
  156.  
  157. Chickering, Roger. Imperial Germany and a World Without War: The Peace Movement and German Society, 1892–1914. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975.
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  159. Chickering’s study shows both the presence of a peace movement in pre–World War I Germany and its inability to take deep roots in society during the Wilhelmine Empire.
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  161. Förster, Stig. Der doppelte Militarismus: Die deutsche Heeresrüstungspolitik zwischen Status-Quo Sicherung und Aggression 1890–1913. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1985.
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  163. Argues that there were two competing strands of militarism in the German army: a group of aristocratic and reactionary officers wanted a loyal force to suppress opposition at home, while more forward-looking peers desired a stronger and larger force that could maintain a more powerful empire.
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  165. Hull, Isabel V. Absolute Destruction: Military Culture and the Practices of War in Imperial Germany. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2005.
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  167. Considers the linkage of militarism and imperialism and argues that the insulation of the officer corps from political oversight allowed for genocidal warfare in Southwest Africa. Hull concludes that the mind-sets thus warped were then reimported to Europe and led into the atrocities German soldiers committed in the Great War.
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  169. Kehr, Eckart. Der Primat der Innenpolitik: Gesammelte Aufsätze zur preussisch-deutschen Sozialgeschichte im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert. Edited by Hans-Ulrich Wehler. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1965.
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  171. 1920s critique of the Prussian-German warfare state; Kehr, an early revisionist whose voice was largely ignored by scholars and the general public at the time, argued that domestic considerations outweighed foreign policy in the critical decisions for war in the early 20th century.
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  173. Stargardt, Nicholas. The German Idea of Militarism: Radical and Socialist Critics, 1866–1945. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
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  175. Traces the discourse of militarism in Germany and shows how the arguments changed from an older Enlightenment critique of the state to a range of different interpretations, from pacifist and socialist to liberal and Catholic, in which war took center stage.
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  177. Stein, Oliver. Die deutsche Heeresrüstungspolitik 1890–1914: Das Militär und der Primat der Politik. Paderborn, Germany: Ferdinand Schöningh, 2007.
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  179. Argues that German armaments policy before World War I was determined more by the political leadership than by the general staff and tempers the commonly held view on military predominance.
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  181. Ulrich, Bernd, Jakob Vogel, and Benjamin Ziemann, eds. Untertan in Uniform: Militär und Militarismus im Kaiserreich 1871–1914: Quellen und Dokumente. Frankfurt: Fischer, 2001.
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  183. Collection of documents on civil-military relations in the Wilhelmine Empire. The introductory essay by Ulrich, Vogel, and Ziemann offers a concise survey of the Prussian-German military and its role in state and society.
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  185. World Wars
  186.  
  187. German militarism surged and collapsed in the first half of the 20th century. The literature on the subject is broad and diverse; this section is limited to pathbreaking works. Fischer 1961 and Fischer 1979 shattered the consensus that Germany waged a defensive war and instead posited the revisionist thesis of a bid for world domination in 1914. Geyer 1984 and Geyer 1986 consider German armaments policy broadly but is particularly good on the age of the world wars. Kitchen 1976 and Messerschmidt 2006 address the role of army leadership in war; the former focuses on the de facto dictatorship of Hindenburg and Ludendorff from summer 1916 to the end of World War I, while the latter discusses the military and legal implications of the world wars more broadly. Verhey 2000 and Ziemann 2007 take up the question of enthusiasm for war in 1914 and effectively disprove that contention in a national and a regional study, respectively.
  188.  
  189. Fischer, Fritz. Griff nach der Weltmacht; die Kriegszielpolitik des kaiserlichen Deutschland 1914/18. Düsseldorf: Droste Verlag, 1961.
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  191. Fischer’s revisionist study on German foreign policy and war aims in World War I shattered the consensus in German scholarship that the war had been waged primarily for defensive purposes. Fischer argues that Germany aimed at becoming a dominant world power.
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  193. Fischer, Fritz. Bündnis der Eliten: Zur Kontinuität der Machtstrukturen in Deutschland 1871–1945. Düsseldorf: Droste Verlag, 1979.
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  195. Builds on Fischer’s earlier revisionism and considers the continuous militarization of German society from the foundation of the modern German nation-state in the Wars of Unification to the defeat and collapse of the Third Reich.
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  197. Geyer, Michael. Deutsche Rüstungspolitik 1860–1980. Frankfurt: Suhrkamp Verlag, 1984.
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  199. Considers the rise and decline of the military-industrial complex in modern Germany from the Wars of Unification in the 1860s to the Cold War and shows continuities in the two world wars.
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  201. Geyer, Michael. “German Strategy in the Age of Machine Warfare, 1914–1945.” In Makers of Modern Strategy from Machiavelli to the Nuclear Age. Edited by Peter Paret, 527–597. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986.
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  203. Concludes that from 1914 to 1945, Germany was in the hands of a war machine that was directed by managers of violence who lacked a deep strategic vision and substituted destruction and annihilation for attainable political objectives.
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  205. Kitchen, Martin. The Silent Dictatorship: The Politics of German High Command under Hindenburg and Ludendorff, 1916–1918. London: Holmes & Meier, 1976.
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  207. Case study of militarism in action that considers the seizing of political power by the German High Command midway through World War I. Somewhat overstated argument, perhaps, both in light of recent literature and General Ludendorff’s postwar complaints about lack of full mobilization, but still an essential point of departure.
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  209. Messerschmidt, Manfred. Militarismus, Vernichtungskrig, Geschichtspolitik: Zur deutschen Militär- und Rechtsgeschichte. Paderborn, Germany: Ferdinand Schöningh, 2006.
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  211. A collection of long essays from the dean of World War II studies in Germany that link militarism, war of annihilation, and the politics of history and memory.
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  213. Verhey, Jeffrey. The Spirit of 1914: Militarism, Myth and Mobilization in Germany. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
  214. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511497155Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  215. Systematic analysis of German public opinion at the outbreak of the Great War; challenges the myth of the “spirit of 1914” and shows that there was a great deal of anxiety and ambivalence.
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  217. Ziemann, Benjamin. War Experiences in Rural Germany: 1914–1923. Translated by Alex Skinner. Oxford: Berg, 2007.
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  219. Social history, focusing on mentalité of Bavaria’s peasant communities during World War I, both at home and at the front. Offers a significant challenge to those who still see much enthusiasm for war among the German populace.
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  221. France
  222.  
  223. Like Germans, Frenchmen were not enthusiastic for war in 1914, as clearly shown by Becker 1977. But French society of the late 19th and early 20th century was nevertheless deeply militarized, affected by the memory of the defeat of 1870–1871, and attempting to prepare for war in a complex domestic political climate, as discussed by Miller 2002, Chrastil 2010, and Krumeich 1984. Weber 1976 offers a broader perspective on the making of modern French identity in the time period and emphasizes the role of the army in that process. Bredin 1987 and Cerullo 2011 consider the military justice system and the reaction to militarism by French society at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century. Kruse 2003 and Bell 2007 offer intriguing narratives on the antecedents of modern warfare and modern militarism in the French Revolution and Napoleon’s empire.
  224.  
  225. Becker, Jean-Jacques. 1914: Comment les Français sont entrés dans la guerre: Contibution a l’étude de l’opinion publique printemps-été 1914. Paris: Presses de la Fondation nationale des sciences politiques, 1977.
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  227. The earliest and most profound study that challenges the thesis that Frenchmen expressed much enthusiasm for World War I in August 1914.
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  229. Bell, David A. The First Total War: Napoleon’s Europe and the Birth of Warfare as We Know It. New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2007.
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  231. Considers the emergence of modern, total war from the political, social, and especially cultural transformation of the Enlightenment and the French Revolution and concludes that the different strands of modern war were interwoven by Napoleon and his enemies.
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  233. Bredin, Jean-Denis. The Affair: The Case of Alfred Dreyfus. New York: George Braziller, 1987.
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  235. Discusses the case of Alfred Dreyfus, an army officer falsely accused and prosecuted for espionage at the turn of the 20th century, and the political and cultural effects on the French state and society.
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  237. Cerullo, John. Minotaur: French Military Justice and the Aernoult-Rousset Affair. De Kalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2011.
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  239. Considers the response of the French public to militarism in France at the beginning of the 20th century in the aftermath of the Dreyfus affair.
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  241. Chrastil, Rachel. Organizing for War: France, 1870–1914. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2010.
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  243. Discusses the cultural and political significance of veterans and preparedness organizations in the French Third Republic before World War I and traces the politics of commemorating the defeat of 1870–1871.
  244. Find this resource:
  245. Krumeich, Gerd. Armaments and Politics in France on the Eve of the First World War: The Introduction of Three-Year Conscription. Translated by Stephen Conn. Leamington Spa, UK: Berg, 1984.
  246. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  247. Argues that domestic factors, more than the rivalry with Germany, drove French defense policy in the years just before World War I. Read in combination with Chrastil.
  248. Find this resource:
  249. Kruse, Wolfgang. Die Erfindung des modernen Militarismus: Krieg, Militär und bürgerlicher Diskurs der Französischen Revolution 1789–1799. Munich: R. Oldenbourg Verlag, 2003.
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  251. Argues that modern militarism was predefined (vorgeprägt) during the French Revolution, in the interplay of revolution, war, and reorganization of state and society.
  252. Find this resource:
  253. Miller, Paul B. From Revolutionaries to Citizens: Antimilitarism in France, 1870–1914. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2002.
  254. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  255. Considers the depth of antimilitarism in French society and in public discourse before World War I.
  256. Find this resource:
  257. Weber, Eugen. Peasants into Frenchmen: The Modernization of Rural France, 1870–1914. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1976.
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  259. Classic discussion of the modernization of France after its defeat at the hands of Prussia in 1870–1871. Weber demonstrates the importance of national institutions in turning peasants who had a limited understanding of national identity into modern Frenchmen. He considers the role of the army as school of the nation in chapter 17.
  260. Find this resource:
  261. Great Britain
  262.  
  263. Britain may have been the least thoroughly militarized great power in Europe, but as Deslandes 2005 recounts, its educational system, aimed at instilling masculinity in male adolescents, nonetheless compared well (or ill?) with those of its European neighbors. Streets 2004 and MacKenzie 1992 explore aspects of the cultural effects of imperialism on Britons and their subjects, while Hochschild 2011 invokes the powerful antiwar critique of the early 20th century. Myerly 1996, Smith 1996, and Edgerton 2006 consider the relationship of the military to the state, and Edgerton in particular concludes that Britain remained a warfare state into the late 20th century.
  264.  
  265. Deslandes, Paul R. Oxbridge Men: British Masculinity and the Undergraduate Experience, 1850–1920. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2005.
  266. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  267. Discusses the violent form of masculinity that was encouraged in the British higher education system at the height of the empire and suggests linkages to a heavily militarized culture of empire.
  268. Find this resource:
  269. Edgerton, David. Warfare State: Britain, 1920–1970. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
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  271. Argues that Great Britain was at least equal parts warfare and welfare state for most of the 20th century, offers a challenge to the commonly held belief of Britain’s declining power, and instead concludes that the state supported a powerful armaments industry and retained global reach for decades after World War II.
  272. Find this resource:
  273. Hochschild, Adam. To End All Wars: A Story of Loyalty and Rebellion, 1914–1918. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2011.
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  275. In his passionate plea against the madness of war, Hochschild focuses on critics of the Great War in Britain and concludes that dissenters created a great degree of difficulty for the government in its efforts to mobilize the population.
  276. Find this resource:
  277. MacKenzie, John M., ed. Popular Imperialism and the Military, 1850–1950. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1992.
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  279. The chronological focus of the eight chapters in this anthology is primarily on the late 19th and early 20 centuries in Britain; topics range from military parades as seduction, soldiers in music hall songs, juvenile literature, heroic myths of empire, war correspondents and colonial wars, and the representation of officers in battle paintings to air shows.
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Myerly, Scott Hughes. British Military Spectacle: From the Napoleonic Wars Through the Crimea. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996.
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  283. Discusses the importance of uniforms and discipline in frightening enemies in battle and impressing citizens at home, in the sense of both preventing civil unrest and presenting society with a positive image of the army.
  284. Find this resource:
  285. Smith, Paul, ed. Government and the Armed Forces in Britain, 1856–1990. London: Hambledon, 1996.
  286. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  287. Essays consider civil-military relations and the organization of defense in Britain from the Crimean War to the end of the Cold War.
  288. Find this resource:
  289. Streets, Heather. Martial Races: The Military, Race and Masculinity in British Imperial Culture, 1857–1914. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 2004.
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  291. Considers the effects of British imperial culture on Highlanders, Sikhs, and Gurkhas, who came to adopt the warrior ethos that was expected of them and that was projected in popular culture.
  292. Find this resource:
  293. Eastern Europe
  294.  
  295. With the exception of Deák 1992, who explores the loyalty of the Habsburg officer corps to Franz Josef II, this section introduces studies of civil-military relations in Russia and the Soviet Union. Taylor 2003 offers a general survey, while Menning 1992 shows the limits of professionalization in the Tsarist officer corps. Sanborn 2003 depicts the continuities in conscription practices from the Tsarist empire to the Bolshevik state. Nichols 1993 surveys the political influence of the officer corps from the Bolshevik Revolution to the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Stone 2000 and Hagen 1990 consider the militarization of Soviet state and society in the 1920s and early 1930s, as Stalinism emerged. Eichler 2012 offers an analysis of the strong remnants of militarism in post-Soviet Russia.
  296.  
  297. Deák, István. Beyond Nationalism: Social and Political History of the Habsburg Officer Corps, 1848–1918. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992.
  298. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  299. Considers the role of the Habsburg officer corps in the Austro-Hungarian Empire and concludes that officers remained loyal to the dynasty long after most other institutions had become indifferent or had begun to pursue autonomous goals.
  300. Find this resource:
  301. Eichler, Maya. Militarizing Men: Gender, Conscription, and War in Post-Soviet Russia. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2012.
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  303. Considers contemporary Russian militarism with emphasis on the wars in the Caucasus since the collapse of the Soviet Union and argues that conscription and masculinity remain critical features of the militarization of Russian society.
  304. Find this resource:
  305. Hagen, Mark von. Soldiers in the Proletarian Dictatorship: The Red Army and the Soviet Socialist State, 1917–1930. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1990.
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  307. Argues that Soviet political culture was dominated by military men and “militarized socialism” from the revolution and through the civil war to the violent establishment of the Stalinist regime.
  308. Find this resource:
  309. Menning, Bruce. Bayonets Before Bullets: The Imperial Russian Army, 1861–1914. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1992.
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  311. Institutional history of the late-imperial Russian army that focuses on attempts to modernize in terms of both technology and mind-sets. Shows the limits of military professionalism in modern Russian history.
  312. Find this resource:
  313. Nichols, Thomas M. The Sacred Cause: Civil-Military Conflict over Soviet National Security, 1917–1992. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1993.
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  315. Focuses mainly on the Cold War era and shows the conflicts between military leaders and party and state leadership in the Soviet Union.
  316. Find this resource:
  317. Sanborn, Joshua A. Drafting the Russian Nation: Military Conscription, Total War, and Mass Politics, 1905–1925. De Kalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2003.
  318. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  319. Considers the administrative effort of mass drafting and concludes that with the emergence of mass armies came new forms of mass politics and that the practical objectives of tsarist administrators and Bolshevik revolutionaries showed a great deal of continuity.
  320. Find this resource:
  321. Stone, David R. Hammer and Rifle: The Militarization of the Soviet Union, 1926–1933. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2000.
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  323. Discusses the depth of militarization of the political economy in the Soviet Union and traces the emergence of a military-industrial complex in the early years of Stalin’s rule.
  324. Find this resource:
  325. Taylor, Brian D. Politics and the Russian Army: Civil-Military Relations, 1689–2000. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
  326. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511615719Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  327. Asks why Russia has not experienced a successful military coup in over two centuries and concludes that the Russian officer corps from tsarist empire through the Soviet Union to the present has subscribed to a professional ethos that abhors the thought of overthrowing a political leader.
  328. Find this resource:
  329. Japan
  330.  
  331. Japanese militarism rose from a combination of particularly aggressive nationalism and industrialization of economy and society after the Meiji Restoration Japan’s militarism found its primary expressions in the expansionist foreign policy leading into Japan’s wars of conquest in China and Southeast Asia and into the Asia-Pacific theater of World War II, as shown in the exhaustive essay collection of Best 2010 and by Causton 2010. But Japanese militarism at home was a function both of the memory of the Russo-Japanese War (Shimazu 2009) and of the powerful and ultimately destructive political control of the army (Drea 2009, Lone 2000, Mimura 2011) and navy (Evans and Peattie 1997) in the 20th century. Japan’s decisive defeat in 1945, the immense destruction caused by the American strategic bombing campaign against the main islands, and the subsequent Cold War that deepened Japan’s close relationship with the United States all led to material and psychological demilitarization (Hook 1996 and Harries and Harries 1987).
  332.  
  333. Best, Antony, ed. Imperial Japan and the World, 1931–1945. 4 vols. Critical Concepts in East Asian Studies. London: Routledge, 2010.
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  335. Essays relate Japan’s militarism to its foreign policy and to domestic politics and political culture.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. Causton, E. E. N. Militarism and Foreign Policy in Japan. London: Routledge, 2010.
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  339. A history of militarism and chauvinism in Japanese foreign policy that concludes the influence exerted by army and navy officers in the 1930s and 1940s was the product of an imbalance in civil-military relations that had defined modern Japanese history.
  340. Find this resource:
  341. Drea, Edward J. Japan’s Imperial Army: Its Rise and Fall, 1853–1945. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2009.
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  343. Authoritative study of the significance of the Japanese army to economic growth and modernization of Japan, but also to its aggressive foreign policy and war in the 19th and 20th centuries.
  344. Find this resource:
  345. Evans, David C., and Mark R. Peattie. Kaigun: Strategy, Tactics, and Technology in the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1887–1941. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute, 1997.
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  347. Perhaps tangential to explaining the militarism of Japan in a narrow definition, but this excellent book offers much insight into the Japanese navy’s politics and its rising influence in state and society.
  348. Find this resource:
  349. Harries, Meirion, and Susie Harries. Sheathing the Sword: The Demilitarization of Japan. New York: Macmillan, 1987.
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  351. Discusses Allied occupation and military policy in post–World War II Japan and considers US influence on contemporary Japan’s antimilitarist political culture.
  352. Find this resource:
  353. Hook, Glenn D. Militarization and Demilitarization in Contemporary Japan. London: Routledge, 1996.
  354. DOI: 10.4324/9780203450284Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  355. Discusses demilitarization and Japan’s culture of antimilitarism in the context of rearmament in the 1980s and the response to the Gulf War in 1991.
  356. Find this resource:
  357. Lone, Stewart. Army, Empire and Politics in Meiji Japan: The Three Careers of General Katsura Taro. New York: St. Martin’s, 2000.
  358. DOI: 10.1057/9781403919632Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  359. Studies civil-military relations, war, empire, and the workings of militarism in Japan in the late 19th and early 20th centuries from the perspectives of a military commander turned prime minister.
  360. Find this resource:
  361. Mimura, Janis. Planning for Empire: Reform Bureaucrats and the Japanese Wartime State. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2011.
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  363. Considers the role of bureaucrats who hoped to run the Japanese state based on “techno-fascism,” in which technocrats were to control military and civilian agencies, but also shows that reactionary elites and military officers retained their power.
  364. Find this resource:
  365. Shimazu, Naoko. Japanese Society at War: Death, Memory, and the Russo-Japanese War. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2009.
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  367. Considers the significance of the memory and commemoration of the Russo-Japanese War in Japan’s political culture and discusses the significance of the wartime experience to national identity formation.
  368. Find this resource:
  369. United States
  370.  
  371. To some readers, American militarism may be an oxymoron, but since the end of the Cold War there has been a proliferation of books on the subject and even during the Cold War there was much contemporary critique. Much of that literature turns on the warfare (or national-security) state and on the military-industrial complex, although recent works raised the specter of empire and militarism. Anderson and Cayton 2005 proposes the provocative thesis that the United States is a country made by war in a sophisticated analysis supported by biographic focus. Karsten 1978 and Karsten 1986 assess the relationship of state, military, and society in American history more systematically. Piehler 1995 addresses the crucial question how Americans have remembered and commemorated their wars. Lutz 2001 offers an anthropological perspective on a local community in the 20th century.
  372.  
  373. Anderson, Fred, and Andrew Cayton. The Dominion of War: Empire and Liberty in North America, 1500–2000. New York: Viking, 2005.
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  375. Anderson and Cayton present eight essays on the significance of war in American history. The introduction, which focuses on the commemoration of war on the National Mall is particularly illustrative of America’s military culture.
  376. Find this resource:
  377. Karsten, Peter. Soldiers and Society: The Effects of Military Service and War on American Life. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1978.
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  379. Sociological study of the consequences of military service and the effects that war and the military have on civil society and political culture.
  380. Find this resource:
  381. Karsten, Peter. ed. The Military in America: From the Colonial Era to the Present. New York: Free Press, 1986.
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  383. Compilation of essays and articles on civil-military relations and on the relationship of the military and society in the United States by leading scholars. Also presents pertinent statistics and primary sources. Revised edition.
  384. Find this resource:
  385. Lutz, Catherine. Homefront: A Military City and the American Twentieth Century. Boston: Beacon, 2001.
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  387. Anthropological study that shows how permanent mobilization and preparation for war has shaped modern America, seen through the lens of the experience of the people of the garrison town of Fayetteville, North Carolina.
  388. Find this resource:
  389. Piehler, G. Kurt. Remembering War the American Way. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1995.
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  391. Considers the battles over how to interpret and commemorate wars from the American Revolution to the present and shows the lasting importance of monuments, cemeteries, holidays, and veterans’ organizations in shaping the ways Americans think about the past.
  392. Find this resource:
  393. To 1914
  394.  
  395. Studies of militarism in the United States before World War I have approached the subject mainly from the perspective of the military-industrial complex and of imperialism at the turn of the 20th century. Cooling 1979 and Hackemer 2001 present the case that a military-industrial complex emerged in the navy in the late 19th century. Hoganson 1998 and McCartney 2006 discuss the relationship of empire and militarized culture, which is reminiscent of the European variant of militarism in the 1890s and early 1900s. Katznelson and Shefter 2002 provides a wider focus on American political development centered on the critical themes of commerce and war throughout the 19th century, while Kohn 1975 and Watts 1987 investigate the role of military values and defense and security in the founding phase of the early republic. Wilson 2006, finally, offers a richly rewarding discussion of the Civil War through the lens of mobilization of the state in the Union. This may be seen as tangential to the question of militarism, but it dovetails with the total war debate that can be traced further through the Comparative Anthologies introduced below.
  396.  
  397. Cooling, B. Franklin. Gray Steel and Blue Water Navy: The Formative Years of America’s Military-Industrial Complex, 1881–1917. Hamden, CT: Archon, 1979.
  398. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  399. Cooling seeks the origins of the American military-industrial complex in the emergence of a modern navy with global reach and concludes that the need to acquire sophisticated ships and armaments tied naval elites very closely to steel manufacturers.
  400. Find this resource:
  401. Hackemer, Kurt. The U.S. Navy and the Origins of the Military-Industrial Complex: 1847–1883. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute, 2001.
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  403. Hackemer also seeks the origins of the military-industrial complex in the US Navy but extends further back in time the seeds of close cooperation of navy and industry. Hackemer concludes that the emergence of ships driven by steam engines drove the development of the military-industrial complex.
  404. Find this resource:
  405. Hoganson, Kristin L. Fighting for American Manhood: How Gender Politics Provoked the Spanish-American and Philippine-American Wars. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1998.
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  407. Argues that cultural and gendered assumption about the redeeming social qualities of war led the United States into the wars against Spain and in the Philippines at the turn of the century.
  408. Find this resource:
  409. Katznelson, Ira, and Martin Shefter, eds. Shaped by War and Trade: International Influences of American Political Development. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002.
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  411. A cast of ten policy historians and political scientists explore how war and international commerce have shaped the role of the United States in the world and its political institutions at home. Excellent introduction to current debates on American political development.
  412. Find this resource:
  413. Kohn, Richard H. Eagle and Sword: The Federalists and the Creation of the Military Establishment in America, 1783–1802. New York: Free Press, 1975.
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  415. Considers why and how leading Federalists made their arguments for a standing military in the early days of the Republic and concludes that their militarism brought the downfall of the Federalists as a political party in power.
  416. Find this resource:
  417. McCartney, Paul T. Power and Progress: American National Identity, the War of 1898, and the Rise of American Imperialism. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2006.
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  419. Explains how the American cultural milieu of 1898 conditioned the thinking of policymakers and led to war and empire.
  420. Find this resource:
  421. Watts, Steven. The Republic Reborn: War and the Making of Liberal America, 1790–1820. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987.
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  423. Watts proposes that the fragmentation of initial republican values that occurred from the 1790s led toward a new consensus, one based on liberal capitalism as the core value of the United States. He suggests that this should be viewed as a liberal revolution and that war played a crucial role in that process.
  424. Find this resource:
  425. Wilson, Mark R. The Business of Civil War: Military Mobilization and the State, 1861–1865. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006.
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  427. Discusses the emergence and power of the military bureaucracy that controlled mobilization and the war effort of the Union and particularly emphasizes the importance of the Quartermaster General.
  428. Find this resource:
  429. World Wars
  430.  
  431. The literature in this section emphasizes the emergence of a powerful federal government as the legitimate purveyor of the monopoly of war and violence that made the United States appear more like a European nation-state (Capozzola 2008, Waddell 2008, Sparrow 2011). Possner 2009 considers the notable relationship of progressivism and militarism, while Keene 2001 traces the role of veterans in American society after World War I. Koistinen 1980 deepens the discussion of the military-industrial complex throughout the 20th century and in his wider work discusses the political economy of the United States at war.
  432.  
  433. Capozzola, Christopher. Uncle Sam Wants You: World War I and the Making of the Modern American Citizen. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.
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  435. Considers the making of modern citizenship during World War I. Argues that the shift from reliance on voluntary associations, which fostered a climate of vigilantism, to state power in guaranteeing law and order turned the United States into a modern state as defined by Max Weber.
  436. Find this resource:
  437. Keene, Jennifer D. Doughboys, the Great War, and the Remaking of America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001.
  438. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  439. Discusses how World War I veterans changed the perception of military service to the nation and helped transform American domestic society and the welfare state.
  440. Find this resource:
  441. Koistinen, Paul A. C. The Military-Industrial Complex: A Historical Perspective. New York: Praeger, 1980.
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  443. Offers succinct historical perspective and a gateway into Koistinen’s thinking on the political economy of American warfare, which he then discusses in depth in his magisterial collection on the subject from colonial beginnings to the end of the present (Modern War Studies series, 5 vols., Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1996–2012.
  444. Find this resource:
  445. Possner, Roger. The Rise of Militarism in the Progressive Era, 1900–1914. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2009.
  446. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  447. Shows how the War Department and army built support for the military and fostered a martial spirit in the American populace on the eve of World War I.
  448. Find this resource:
  449. Sparrow, James T. Warfare State: World War II Americans and the Age of Big Government. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011.
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  451. Considers the making and workings of the warfare state of World War II, defined by military conscription, global alliances, war finance, a mixed economy, and new federal agencies that reached deep into the daily lives of ordinary Americans, building consensus on displays of nationalism and militarism.
  452. Find this resource:
  453. Waddell, Brian. Toward the National Security State: Civil-Military Relations During World War II. Westport, CT: Praeger Security International, 2008.
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  455. Argues that the building blocks of national-security state and militarization were in place during World War II and then ensured the control of a military-industrial complex in the Cold War.
  456. Find this resource:
  457. Cold War Critics
  458.  
  459. Strong antimilitarist sentiments arose in the 1950s and 1960s, a good indicator for the prevalence of the military-industrial complex and the militarization of American politics and society. Coffin 1968 and Cook 1962 offer discussions of the warfare state and militarized society that represent the critique of the 1960s. Ekirch 1956 and Mills 1956 sounded the tocsin earlier and expressed great concern that the American tradition of civilian control of the military was being undermined and that political elites had become more militaristic. Dibble 1968 deepens that concern in his pessimistic assessment of American politics and society at the height of the Vietnam War. Schlesinger 1973, finally, himself once a close adviser to a president, presents the classic indictment of accumulated presidential power at the expense of the checks and balances of the Constitution.
  460.  
  461. Coffin, Tristram. The Armed Society: Militarism in Modern America. Baltimore: Penguin, 1968.
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  463. Polemical essay that accuses military, political class, and scientists and industrialists of militarism, but extends the author’s critique to an American society that has never been peaceful or peace loving. Concludes that American militarism had reached new heights of a global mission to convert those with alien views.
  464. Find this resource:
  465. Cook, Fred J. The Warfare State. New York: Macmillan, 1962.
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  467. Argues that the military-industrial complex has become so powerful in the United States that it dominates the government and offers a pessimistic view of former President Eisenhower’s hope that an educated citizenry and engaged political class could control its machinations.
  468. Find this resource:
  469. Dibble, Vernon K. “The Garrison Society.” In Radical Perspectives on Social Problems: Readings in Critical Sociology. Edited by Frank Lindenfeld, 271–281. New York: Macmillan, 1968.
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  471. Argues that an alliance of the military, government, and the big corporations as well as a general breakdown of traditional boundaries between military and civilian realms has turned the United States into a society in which the principle of civilian control of the military has become meaningless.
  472. Find this resource:
  473. Ekirch, Arthur A., Jr. The Civilian and the Military. New York: Oxford University Press, 1956.
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  475. Considers the political history of the United States in the context of the emergence of the Cold War state and concludes that antimilitarist tradition might be overwhelmed by the prevalence of the armed forces in politics and foreign policy and the general militarization of the state and of American culture.
  476. Find this resource:
  477. Mills, C. Wright. The Power Elite. New York: Oxford University Press, 1956.
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  479. Early Cold War critique of the emergence of a military-political-industrial-academic nexus that has come to dominate American politics and culture and whose presence raises significant questions about the sustainability of civilian control of the military.
  480. Find this resource:
  481. Schlesinger, Arthur, Jr. The Imperial Presidency. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1973.
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  483. Critical history that outlines how US presidents from George Washington to Richard Nixon overstepped the limits of power set by the Constitution in their foreign policies and military interventions.
  484. Find this resource:
  485. Cold War Era
  486.  
  487. Historians and commentators have added to the Cold War critique with the benefit of hindsight. The author of Bacevich 2007, in particular, has emerged as a leading critic of militarized foreign policy, the national-security state, and American militarism (further discussed in the next section). Wills 2010 adds to Schlesinger’s concern about undue presidential powers and traces their origins to the atom bomb. Ledbetter 2011 adds historical perspective to discussions of the Cold War military industrial complex, while Leffler 1992 and Hogan 1998 assess the role of the Truman and Eisenhower administrations in the making of the national-security state. Stuart 2008 approaches the same decade from the perspective of a legal historian with an interest in the impact of the 1947 National Security Act. All of them agree on the emergence of a warfare state of sorts, most boldly expressed in Sherry 1995. The exception is Friedberg 2000, which argues that the United States remained bound by its traditional political system of a contractual relationship between state and society that did not trend toward the garrison state.
  488.  
  489. Bacevich, Andrew, ed. The Long War: A New History of U.S. National Security Policy since World War II. New York: Columbia University Press, 2007.
  490. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  491. This essay collection depicts the continuities in the national-security state since World War II and shows the increasing militarization of American political culture and society.
  492. Find this resource:
  493. Friedberg, Aaron L. In the Shadow of the Garrison State: America’s Anti-Statism and Its Cold War Grand Strategy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000.
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  495. Argues that the United States, as a state and society built on contractual relationships, could sustain its Cold War effort better than the Soviet Union, the quintessential garrison state, and that what we often believe to be a weakness of the American state actually represents its main strength.
  496. Find this resource:
  497. Hogan, Michael J. A Cross of Iron: Harry S. Truman and the Origins of the National Security State, 1945–1954. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
  498. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511664984Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  499. Assesses the domestic ramifications of the national-security state of the Cold War era, but also concludes that Presidents Truman and Eisenhower did not fully buy into the arguments of those who wanted to elevate national security to an ideology and that the result fell short of a garrison state.
  500. Find this resource:
  501. Ledbetter, James. Unwarranted Influence: Dwight D. Eisenhower and the Military-Industrial Complex. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2011.
  502. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  503. Describes the genesis of President Eisenhower’s Farwell Address as well as the intellectual and historical origins of the idea of the military-industrial complex and its evolution since 1961.
  504. Find this resource:
  505. Leffler, Melvyn P. A Preponderance of Power: National Security, the Truman Administration, and the Cold War. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1992.
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  507. Exhaustively researched study on the origins of the Cold War that seeks the beginnings of the national-security state in the Truman administration’s response to the Soviet threat and to domestic political pressures after the end of World War II.
  508. Find this resource:
  509. Sherry, Michael S. In the Shadow of War: The United States since the 1930s. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1995.
  510. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  511. This is the essential history of the United States as a warfare state from the New Deal to the end of the Cold War. Sherry is particularly interested in how representations of war and power have reshaped American culture, though he ends on the optimistic note that with the end of the superpower conflict the warfare state itself may no longer be needed.
  512. Find this resource:
  513. Stuart, Douglas T. Creating the National Security State: A History of the Law That Transformed America. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2008.
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  515. Depicts how the National Security Act of 1947 emerged out of the political fight over universal military training and considers the immediate and long-term implications of the law and of the new institutions and mind-sets that it underwrote.
  516. Find this resource:
  517. Wills, Garry. Bomb Power: The Modern Presidency and the National Security State. New York: Penguin, 2010.
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  519. Argues that the atom bomb created a mode of perennial crisis and fear in which the executive branch of government took on power well beyond the boundaries set in the Constitution.
  520. Find this resource:
  521. Contemporary
  522.  
  523. With wars in Iraq and Afghanistan as theaters of the larger War on Terror, fear once again reigns in US political culture, and some critics and historians have begun to investigate the deeper roots of a contemporary American militarism. The crucial debate is between Bacevich 2005 and Kohn 2009, which disagree as to the depth of militarization of American society, though both concede that a powerful warfare state with an aggressive and perhaps imperialist foreign policy has been retained after the Cold War ended. Hartung 2011 updates the discussion of the military-industrial complex by focusing on Lockheed Martin. Gibson 1994, like Bacevich, sees a fundamental shift in American society after the Vietnam War that led to a greater degree of militarization. Johnson 2004, like Bacevich, has emerged as a leading critic of the imperialist-militarist nexus in US policy and American society. Zelizer 2010 traces the continuities of the national-security state from World War II on into the present. Lewis 2007 and Stahl 2010 consider cultural issues, with the former focusing on the military itself and the latter on the role of the entertainment media in shaping our understanding of war.
  524.  
  525. Bacevich, Andrew. The New American Militarism: How Americans Are Seduced by War. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005.
  526. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  527. The New American Militarism is most closely focused on the makings of militarism at home in the decades after the Vietnam War—propelled by an unlikely confluence of interests of cultural and religious conservatives, religious leaders, military officers, rising politicians, and the entertainment media.
  528. Find this resource:
  529. Gibson, James William. Warrior Dreams: Paramilitary Culture in Post-Vietnam America. New York: Hill and Wang, 1994.
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  531. Argues that the post–Vietnam War crisis in American (male) identity led to the rise of a new war culture and asserts that violence has become a key aspect of American society. Gibson concludes that it is our inability to confront our recent past more fully that keeps us chained to it.
  532. Find this resource:
  533. Hartung, William D. Prophets of War: Lockheed Martin and the Making of the Military-Industrial Complex. New York: Nation Books, 2011.
  534. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  535. Offers an exposé of America’s largest military contractor, Lockheed Martin, that shows the deep roots of the defense industry in politics and society.
  536. Find this resource:
  537. Johnson, Chalmers. The Sorrows of Empire: Militarism, Secrecy, and the End of the Republic. New York: Henry Holt, 2004.
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  539. The second volume of a trilogy on American empire, this book explores the militarism that is transforming the United States and compelling Americans to pick up the burdens of empire. In the process, Johnson uncovers the roots of American empire and militarism far in the nation’s past.
  540. Find this resource:
  541. Kohn, Richard H. “The Danger of Militarization in an Endless ‘War’ on Terrorism.” The Journal of Military History 73.1 (January 2009): 177–208.
  542. DOI: 10.1353/jmh.0.0216Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  543. Offers a careful distinction of militarism and militarization, surveys the literature on America’s militarization since the 1930s, and concludes that while the United States is in the midst of a fundamental struggle over its political culture, political and legal institutions have kept rampant militarization in check and American society has not yet entered into a militaristic mind-set.
  544. Find this resource:
  545. Lewis, Adrian. The American Culture of War: The History of U.S. Military Force from World War II to Operation Iraqi Freedom. New York: Routledge, 2007.
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  547. Depicts the Cold War national-security state in action, considers the cultural implications of perpetual mobilization, and ends with an argument for conscription. A revised edition is forthcoming in 2012.
  548. Find this resource:
  549. Stahl, Roger. Militainment, Inc.: War, Media and Popular Culture. New York: Routledge, 2010.
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  551. Book in media studies about the changing civic experience in war at the turn of the 21st century that links analysis of militarism and entertainment in media and popular culture. Tracks a culture where war and its horrors are transformed into a landscape of entertainment, that is, how recent wars have been produced as media spectacles and processed by audiences as entertainment.
  552. Find this resource:
  553. Zelizer, Julian E. Arsenal of Democracy: The Politics of National Security—From World War II to the War on Terrorism. New York: Basic Books, 2010.
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  555. Exposes the politics of the national-security state from World War II to the present and emphasizes that far from a foreign-policy consensus at any point, confrontation and deal-making underwrote eventual bipartisan consensus in response to any given crisis since 1945.
  556. Find this resource:
  557. World
  558.  
  559. Militarism is primarily a Western phenomenon, since it requires a nation-state based on the European model. However, in the course of the 20th century, as former colonies gained their independence and struggled to define their political identities, the frequency of external and internal wars and forms of military rule and societal militarization have led to a degree of militarism outside of the European and North American regions.
  560.  
  561. Middle East
  562.  
  563. The particular tensions of the region that was kept divided after the fall of the Ottoman Empire, the intensity of the Arab-Israeli conflict, and the prevalence of authoritarian rule have shaped a form of militarism in the Middle East. Ben-Eliezer 1998, Lomsky-Feder and Ben-Ari 1999, and Sheffer and Barak 2010 explore variants of militarization and militarism in Israel, affecting both state and society. Kimmerling 2008 offers a comparative study on Israelis and Palestinians, while Jandora 1997 presents a useful guide to discussions of militarism in Arab states and societies.
  564.  
  565. Ben-Eliezer, Uri. The Making of Israeli Militarism. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1998.
  566. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  567. Considers how military service and wars militarized Israeli political culture in the formative decades of the state, from the mid-1930s to 1956.
  568. Find this resource:
  569. Jandora, John Walter. Militarism in Arab Societies: An Historiographical and Bibliographical Sourcebook. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1997.
  570. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  571. Guide to discussions of Arab militarism in contemporary history and historiography.
  572. Find this resource:
  573. Kimmerling, Baruch. Clash of Identities: Explorations in Israeli and Palestinian Societies. New York: Columbia University Press, 2008.
  574. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  575. Twelve essays by the late Israeli sociologist explore the militancy of Zionism and the militarization of the Israeli state and society as well as the identity politics of Palestinians.
  576. Find this resource:
  577. Lomsky-Feder, Edna, and Eyal Ben-Ari, eds. The Military and Militarism in Israeli Society. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1999.
  578. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  579. Interdisciplinary exploration of the social and cultural representation of the military in contemporary Israel, with particular emphasis on official and collective memory formation, the role and function of the individual, and the importance of gender, voice, and resistance.
  580. Find this resource:
  581. Sheffer, Gabriel, and Oren Barak, eds. Militarism and Israeli Society. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2010.
  582. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  583. Studies the significant impact of the military establishment and national-security culture on Israel’s civil society, politics, economy, education system, and the media from the founding of the state in 1948 to the present.
  584. Find this resource:
  585. Asia and Africa
  586.  
  587. Reno 2011 offers a broad survey of Africa’s wars in contemporary history that permits conclusions about the interplay of militarized culture and weak states. Reid 2011 focuses on a distinct region centered on Ethiopia to explore the militancy of borderlands societies in greater depth. Hutchful and Bathily 1998 offers a more direct discussion of military rule and militarism in Africa. In South and East Asia, militarism studies have centered on Japan, which is discussed separately above, but some scholarship has recently appeared on India and China. Schofield 2007 compares military rule and the frequency of wars in South Asia and the Middle East. Roy 2012 explores the relationship of Hinduism and military thought through India’s varied history, while Kundu 1998 offers a study of civil-military relations in contemporary India. Wang 2011 considers the philosophical and premodern underpinnings of modern Chinese strategic thought.
  588.  
  589. Hutchful, Eboe, and Abdoulaye Bathily, eds. The Military and Militarism in Africa. Dakar, Senegal: CODESRIA, 1998.
  590. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  591. Considers the contemporary history of military rule, war, and militarism in sub-Saharan Africa.
  592. Find this resource:
  593. Kundu, Apurba. Militarism in India: The Army and Civil Society in Consensus. London: Tauris Academic Studies, 1998.
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  595. Argues that any state is at heart a body of armed men and thus the military will have tremendous political influence, but concludes that in India a sturdy system of formal and informal boundaries for the military has taken hold and is widely accepted by military men, political leaders, and the public.
  596. Find this resource:
  597. Reid, Richard J. Frontiers of Violence in North-East Africa: Genealogies of Conflict since 1800. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011.
  598. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199211883.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  599. Considers the region comprising Sudan, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia and seeks the roots of modern wars in borderlands societies that developed a particularly militarized culture, which can now be utilized for the purposes of warlords and leaders of states.
  600. Find this resource:
  601. Reno, William. Warfare in Independent Africa. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2011.
  602. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511993428Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  603. Explores the history of warfare in sub-Saharan Africa from decolonization to the present and concludes that most wars resulted from internal divisions and weakness of state structures.
  604. Find this resource:
  605. Roy, Kaushik. Hinduism and the Ethics of Warfare in South Asia: From Antiquity to the Present. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2012.
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  607. Presents a discussion of Hindu military thought from ancient times to the present and argues that Western notions of war and of strategic theory have led us to ignore alternative ideas.
  608. Find this resource:
  609. Schofield, Julian. Militarization and War. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007.
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  611. Studies military-run states and militarized societies in the Middle East and South Asia and suggests that the correlation of militarized regimes and frequent wars is a result of weak political institutions and poor diplomacy more than of glorified visions of war.
  612. Find this resource:
  613. Wang, Yuan-Kang. Harmony and War: Confucian Culture and Chinese Power Politics. New York: Columbia University Press, 2011.
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  615. Considers China’s strategic culture and concludes from deep study of Song and Ming China that expansionist objectives trumped the antimilitarism of Confucian philosophy. Wang suggests that the study of premodern China’s strategic culture helps us understand the aims of present-day foreign and defense policy.
  616. Find this resource:
  617. International, Transnational, and Comparative Studies
  618.  
  619. While perceptions of militarism remain closely tied to nationalism and are often discussed in a specific national context, comparative studies have revealed similar phenomena in different political systems and political cultures. Studies comparing Germany to other European countries have revealed a broader phenomenon of militarization and militarism across the continent. International and transnational studies which consider policies and cultural tropes that transcend borders further underline the diffuse nature of militarism and its presence and prevalence in a wide range of political structures and societies in the 20th century.
  620.  
  621. Europe
  622.  
  623. Comparative studies on militarism and militarized culture in Europe have focused particularly on Germany, France, and Great Britain. Hippler 2008 suggests that in France and Germany the origins of modern citizenship tied to military service rest in the French Revolution. Ingenlath 1998 considers the political and psychological need for an enemy that turned attitudes in France and Germany against their neighbor, while Vogel 1997 studies the impact of public displays of militarism in pre–World War I France and Germany. Bartov 2000 explores the first half of the 20th century through the lens of political and cultural history. Müller 2002 and Rüger 2007 study aspects of militarized nationalism and militarist displays in Germany and Great Britain. Weber 2008 focuses on elite higher education in Britain and Germany and finds that transnational tendencies overlaid militant nationalism. Stromberg 1982 offers a more traditional explanation for the military enthusiasm and desire for war among Europe’s intellectual elite in 1914. Horne 1997 presents an array of essays on various aspects of mobilization and militarization in Western Europe during World War I.
  624.  
  625. Bartov, Omer. Mirrors of Destruction: War, Genocide, and Modern Identity. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000.
  626. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  627. Considers the Holocaust from a cultural perspective and provides insightful interpretations of why militarism in Germany thrived after World War I while pacifism gained much greater prominence in France and Britain and why contemporary Israeli society remains psychologically militarized.
  628. Find this resource:
  629. Hippler, Thomas. Citizens, Soldiers and National Armies: Military Service in France and Germany, 1789–1830. New York: Routledge, 2008.
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  631. Discusses mass conscription in revolutionary France and the Prussian-German response to mass violence and concludes that the early 19th century presents a period of change that reached across borders and one in which armies became a tool of linking mass society to the state.
  632. Find this resource:
  633. Horne, John, ed. State, Society and Mobilization in Europe During the First World War. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1997.
  634. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511562891Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  635. Examines the process of political and cultural mobilization during World War I in Germany, Britain, France, Italy, and Austria-Hungary.
  636. Find this resource:
  637. Ingenlath, Markus. Mentale Aufrüstung: Militarisierungstendenzen in Frankreich und Deutschland vor dem Ersten Weltkrieg. Frankfurt: Campus Verlag, 1998.
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  639. Argues that military service and schools were the twin pillars of the socialization of common people in Germany and France and concludes that militarization of the mind was a critical part of that process.
  640. Find this resource:
  641. Müller, Sven Oliver. Die Nation als Waffe und Vorstellung: Nationalismus in Deutschland und Großbritannien im Ersten Weltkrieg. Göttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2002.
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  643. Considers how nationalism and military symbols served as unifying forces in German and British society, but also shows how the upheavals of war undermined authority.
  644. Find this resource:
  645. Rüger, Jan. The Great Naval Game: Britain and Germany in the Age of Empire. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
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  647. Considers the importance of military symbols and specifically discusses ceremony and pageantry of the German and British fleets to rouse public support.
  648. Find this resource:
  649. Stromberg, Roland N. Redemption by War: The Intellectuals and 1914. Lawrence: Regents Press of Kansas, 1982.
  650. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  651. Shows the enthusiasm for war among the European intellectual elite across the political spectrum and across all borders.
  652. Find this resource:
  653. Vogel, Jakob. Nationen im Gleichschritt: Der Kult der “Nation der Waffen” in Deutschland und Frankreich, 1871–1914. Göttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1997.
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  655. Considers the cult of the nation in arms that developed strongly in both Germany and France after 1871 and contributed both the militarization of society and political culture and to the outbreak of World War I.
  656. Find this resource:
  657. Weber, Thomas. Our Friend “The Enemy”: Elite Education in Britain and Germany Before World War I. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2008.
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  659. Shows that students at universities in Oxford and Heidelberg held fairly similar concepts of European identity that tempered their nationalism and militarism.
  660. Find this resource:
  661. Western and Global
  662.  
  663. Sondhaus 2006 present a broadly conceived discussion of culture and militarism in the Western world and its global effects. Regan 1994 offers a sociological perspective on the same issue. Adams 1990 considers the cultural receptiveness toward war in Edwardian Britain and the United States. Bönker 2012 proposes the thesis that professional naval officers in the United States and in Germany developed comparable kinds of militarism in the late 19th century. Senghaas 1972 posits a representative Cold War–era critique of Western military aid and the arming of new states and militarization of societies in Europe’s former colonies. Dower 2010 takes up the issue of militarized cultures in the United States and Japan in World War II and by the United States and al-Qaeda in the 21st century. By contrast, militarism did not go unchallenged by a sizeable peace movement in Europe and the United States in the century before World War I (Cooper 1991). In the wake of World War II, both Japan and Germany were thoroughly demilitarized (Berger 1998) and Europe developed the civilian state in lieu of the warfare state that had driven political developments and wars since the early modern age (Sheehan 2008).
  664.  
  665. Adams, Michael C. C. The Great Adventure: Male Desire and the Coming of World War I. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990.
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  667. Considers the mentality of the upper classes, including bourgeoisie and rural gentry in Britain and the United States leading into World War I.
  668. Find this resource:
  669. Berger, Thomas U. Cultures of Antimilitarism: National Security in Germany and Japan. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998.
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  671. Explores the ways in which antimilitarism became foundational to post–World War II German and Japanese politics, societies, and cultures, and concludes that their remilitarization after the Cold War was practically impossible.
  672. Find this resource:
  673. Bönker, Dirk. Militarism in a Global Age: Naval Ambitions in Germany and the United States Before World War I. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2012.
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  675. Considers late-19th-century militarism and navalism from a comparative perspective and concludes that militarist tendencies rooted in the professional officer corps should be seen as a transatlantic phenomenon rather than a purely German or wider European one.
  676. Find this resource:
  677. Cooper, Sandi E. Patriotic Pacifism: Waging War on War in Europe, 1815–1914. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991.
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  679. Shows that as arms races increased and militarism became more visible in the late 19th century, antiwar sentiment also found stronger expressions and a greater following.
  680. Find this resource:
  681. Dower, John. Cultures of War: Pearl Harbor/Hiroshima/9–11/Iraq. New York: W. W. Norton, 2010.
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  683. Considers different militarized cultures that are rooted in quasireligious thinking about war. Dower’s argument emerges somewhat hazily from allusions about how Japan, the United States, and al-Qaeda all crafted recognizable cultures of war.
  684. Find this resource:
  685. Regan, Patrick M. Organizing Societies for War: The Process and Consequences of Societal Militarization. Westport, CT: Praeger, 1994.
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  687. Develops a theory of how Western societies have become increasingly militarized throughout contemporary history and concludes that militarization is a sociological process that develops its own dynamic.
  688. Find this resource:
  689. Senghaas, Dieter. Rüstung und Militarismus. Frankfurt: Edition Suhrkamp, 1972.
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  691. Presents a deep discussion and analysis of contemporary militarism in the Third World as a function of Cold War pressures and the ability of strongmen to purchase the most modern armaments.
  692. Find this resource:
  693. Sheehan, James. Where Have All the Soldiers Gone? The Transformation of Modern Europe. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2008.
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  695. The first two-thirds of this erudite book offers a concise history of the militarization of 20th-century Europe. Concludes with the central point: the marginalization of war in post–World War II Europe and the emergence of a civilian state that has replaced the warfare state.
  696. Find this resource:
  697. Sondhaus, Lawrence. Strategic Culture and Ways of War. New York: Routledge, 2006.
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  699. Links two bodies of scholarship that have evolved independently in two allied disciplines: strategic culture (in political science) and national ways of war (in history). Sondhaus shows that national strategy in the 20th century was defined by cultural factors.
  700. Find this resource:
  701. Comparative Anthologies
  702.  
  703. Anthologies continue to present some of the most innovative and intriguing discussions of modern militarism. Those anthologies that relate to specific countries are addressed under Country and Regional Studies; those listed in this section are comparative in nature.
  704.  
  705. Europe
  706.  
  707. These anthologies approach militarism in the 19th and 20th century from the perspective of German scholars, but with an eye on the European nature of militarism. Berghahn 1975 provides a detailed anthology of primary-source discussions of militarism from the mid-19th to the 20th century. Wette 2005 focuses primarily on militarism in Germany from Bismarck’s rule to the defeat of the Third Reich, although some of the chapters are comparative in nature. Jansen 2004 presents discussion of the militarization of European societies in the 19th century, with particular emphasis on the role played by conscript armies. Dülffer and Krumeich 2002 considers the effects of World War I on political culture across Europe.
  708.  
  709. Berghahn, Volker, ed. Militarismus. Cologne: Kiepenheuer & Witsch, 1975.
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  711. Collection of primary-source discussions of militarism in the 19th and 20th centuries.
  712. Find this resource:
  713. Dülffer, Jost, and Gerd Krumeich, eds. Der verlorene Frieden: Politik und Kriegskultur nach 1918. Essen, Germany: Klartext Verlag, 2002.
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  715. Essays explore the aftermath of World War I and analyze how cultures and politics of war arose or reemerged in Germany, Italy, and Russia, while society in France and Great Britain widely rejected any romanticization of war or clamoring for revenge.
  716. Find this resource:
  717. Jansen, Christian, ed. Der Büger als Soldat: Die Militarisierung europäischer Gesellschaften im langen 19. Jahrhundert: Ein internationaler Vergleich. Essen, Germany: Klartext Verlag, 2004.
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  719. Comparative histories of the different degrees of social, economic, political, and psychological militarization of modern citizens in Germany, France, Great Britain, and the United States in the 19th century.
  720. Find this resource:
  721. Wette, Wolfram, ed. Schule der Gewalt: Militarismus in Deutschland 1871 bis 1945. Berlin: Aufbau Taschenbuch Verlag, 2005.
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  723. Wette has assembled an impressive array of scholars, whose essays consider German and European militarism from the late 19th to the mid-20th century. Excellent introduction to the current schools of thought and synopses of the books of individual contributors.
  724. Find this resource:
  725. Transatlantic
  726.  
  727. These anthologies explore the continuities of the experience of war and of militarization in western Europe and North America in the 19th and 20th centuries. Förster and Nagler 1997; Boemeke, et al. 1999; and Chickering and Förster 2000 are all derived from a long-standing project to consider the German and American experience of total war in the 19th and 20th centuries from a comparative perspective. Chickering and Förster 2010 presents a related project on the revolutionary wars of the late 18th and early 19th centuries in Europe and North America. All four volumes offer excellent introductions to the current scholarship. Gillis 1989 offers a historical and historiographic discussion of the militarization of the Western world in the 19th and 20th centuries. Müller and Torp 2011 presents discussions of the scholarship on militarism in modern German history.
  728.  
  729. Boemeke, Manfred F., Roger Chickering, and Stig Förster, eds. Anticipating Total War: The German and American Experiences, 1871–1914. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
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  731. The second of five volumes on the German and American experience in the age of total war. Essays consider a wide range of subjects from strategy and policy to the experience and impact of warfare on individuals and on states and societies in the decades following the American Civil War and the Wars of German Unification.
  732. Find this resource:
  733. Chickering, Roger, and Stig Förster, eds. Great War, Total War: Combat and Mobilization on the Western Front, 1914–1918. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
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  735. The third of five volumes on the German and American experience in the age of total war. Essays consider a wide range of subjects from strategy and policy to the experience and impact of warfare on individuals and on states and societies during World War I.
  736. Find this resource:
  737. Chickering, Roger, and Stig Förster, eds. War in an Age of Revolution, 1775–1815. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
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  739. Prequel to the five volumes on the German and American experience in the age of total war. Essays consider a wide range of subjects from strategy and policy to the experience and impact of warfare on individuals and on states and societies in the American Revolution and the French Revolution and Empire.
  740. Find this resource:
  741. Förster, Stig, and Jörg Nagler, eds. On the Road to Total War: The American Civil War and the German Wars of Unification, 1861–1871. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1997.
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  743. The first of five volumes on the German and American experience in the age of total war. Essays consider a wide range of subjects from strategy and policy to the experience and impact of warfare on individuals and on states and societies during the American Civil War and the Wars of German Unification.
  744. Find this resource:
  745. Gillis, John R., ed. The Militarization of the Western World. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1989.
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  747. Historical and contemporary discussion of militarization as distinct from militarism in European and American history. The essays by John Gillis and Michael Geyer offer foundational critiques of the definition of militarism.
  748. Find this resource:
  749. Müller, Sven-Oliver, and Cornelius Torp, eds. Imperial Germany Revisited: Continuing Debates and New Perspectives. New York: Berghahn, 2011.
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  751. Essays compare the Wilhelmine Empire to other European states and to the United States in a wide range of subjects. Part 3 (War and Violence) addresses critical questions of military culture and militarism.
  752. Find this resource:
  753. Global and Non-Western
  754.  
  755. These anthologies explore global continuities and differences in the experience of modern war and militarism in the 20th century, with emphasis on Western Europe, North America, and East and South Asia. Chickering and Förster 2003 and Chickering, et al. 2005 are derived from the same project introduced in the Transatlantic section above. These two volumes consider the world’s leading powers’ experience of the age of total war in the decades after World War I and during World War II. Epkenhans and Groß 2003 presents discussion of the roles and significance of the military in the modernization of Europe, the United States, and Japan in the late 19th century. Ziemann 2008 considers the impact of peace movements on the political culture in the same regions after World War II. Shigematsu and Camacho 2010 focuses on decolonization in Asia and the Pacific region and on the legacies of militarism.
  756.  
  757. Chickering, Roger, and Stig Förster, eds. The Shadows of Total War: Europe, East Asia, and the United States, 1919–1939. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
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  759. The fourth of five volumes on the German and American experience in the age of total war. Essays consider a wide range of subjects from strategy and policy to the experience and impact of warfare on individuals and on states and societies.
  760. Find this resource:
  761. Chickering, Roger, Stig Förster, and Bernd Greiner, eds. A World at Total War: Global Conflict and the Politics of Destruction, 1937–1945. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
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  763. The last of five volumes on the German and American experience in the age of total war. Essays consider a wide range of subjects from strategy and policy to the experience and impact of warfare on individuals and on states and societies.
  764. Find this resource:
  765. Epkenhans, Michel, and Gerhard P. Groß, eds. Das Militär und der Aufbruch in die Moderne 1860 bis 1890: Armeen, Marinen under Wandel von Politik, Gesellschaft und Wirtschaft in Europa, den USA sowie Japan. Munich: R. Oldenbourg Verlag, 2003.
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  767. Essays show the dramatic changes in state, society, and economy in the late 19th century and assess what this meant for the military in its relationship to state and society in Europe, Japan, and the United States.
  768. Find this resource:
  769. Shigematsu, Setsu, and Keith L. Camacho, eds. Militarized Currents: Toward a Decolonized Future in Asia and the Pacific. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2010.
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  771. Essays consider the social and political legacies of Western and Japanese imperialism and militarism in South and East Asia from local, indigenous, gendered, and feminist perspectives.
  772. Find this resource:
  773. Ziemann, Benjamin, ed. Peace Movements in Western Europe, Japan and the USA During the Cold War. Essen, Germany: Klartext Verlag, 2008.
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  775. Comparative and transnational essays on the peace movement in the Western world in the Cold War era, with particular emphasis on the emergence of antinuclear and anticolonial groups at the core of the movement.
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