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Occupation and Military Government (Military History)

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. According to international law, a territory is under occupation when hostile armed forces assume authority over it. An occupying power exercises executive, legislative, and judicial authority over that territory if and when the legitimate government is absent, unable to perform its functions, or fails to perform its functions. The administration of an enemy’s territory by an occupying power is generally referred to as a “military government,” which may consist of military or civilian personnel, or of a combination of military and civilian personnel. In recent years in the United States, successive administrations have sidestepped the term “military government” as too fraught with negative connotations and have, in effect, replaced it with “reconstruction and stabilization” and “nation building.” While politically expedient and more palatable to a skeptical American electorate, US efforts in Iraq and Afghanistan, in particular, were and are military governments that have engaged in reconstruction and stabilization in combination with attempts at nation building. An occupation, even if it lasts for years, is of limited duration and ends when the occupying power withdraws its occupation forces after returning authority over a territory to a legitimate, sovereign government. To avoid confusing occupation and military government with other forms of military engagements on foreign territory, this definition does not cover cases in which military forces have been stationed in neutral or friendly territory and share with local civil authorities the responsibilities of administration; humanitarian assistance or peacekeeping missions; military interventions; or occupations for the purpose of annexation or colonial exploitation. Other distinctions necessary to aid in the understanding of military governments and occupations are the legal premises. International law as codified in the Hague Convention of 1907 and the Fourth Geneva Convention (1949) provides guidance for military governments and occupations. The relevance of these conventions in specific situations must be distinguished from the use of military law and martial law. Military law is the code that regulates the conduct of members of the armed forces, whereas martial law is the temporary government of a civil population through military forces, and it is invoked only in domestic territory.
  4.  
  5. Disclaimer: The views expressed are those of the author and do not reflect the official policy or position of the US government, the Department of Defense, the Department of the Army, or the US Army Corps of Engineers.
  6.  
  7. General Overviews
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  9. The history of military government and occupation is usually limited to the study of either the occupying power, which may or may not occupy several countries at the same time, or the occupied nation or nations. Treatments that take a broader approach to the topic will generally consist of case studies of individual occupations and military governments, on which the authors base their conclusions about success or failure, philosophy, legal underpinnings, or other aspects. Three of the volumes discussed are the published proceedings of conferences on military government and occupation held in Germany, Canada, and the United States. Prete and Ion 1984, Neumann and Rogge 2006, and US Army Training and Doctrine Command and Combat Studies Institute 2003 provide succinct analyses of a wide array of international occupations and of the most important US experiences with occupation and military government. Dobbins, et al. 2003 and Dobbins, et al. 2005 concentrate on United States and United Nations post–World War II occupations, concluding that the UN generally achieved better results. Edelstein 2010 and Stirk 2009 arrive at conclusions about the inverse relationship of the length of an occupation to its success, while Gannon 2008 focuses on resistance to occupation.
  10.  
  11. Dobbins, James, Seth G. Jones, Keith Crane, et al. The UN’s Role in Nation-Building: From the Congo to Iraq. Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 2005.
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  13. This study complements Dobbins, et al. 2003. It compares and contrasts US and UN approaches to nation-building, with a pronounced bias in favor of UN efforts.
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  15. Dobbins, James, John G. McGinn, Keith Crane, et al. America’s Role in Nation-Building: From Germany to Iraq. Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 2003.
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  17. Good introductory treatment, including “lessons learned,” of post–World War II US-led occupations in Germany, Japan, Somalia, Haiti, Bosnia, Kosovo, Afghanistan, and Iraq.
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  19. Edelstein, David M. Occupational Hazards: Success and Failure in Military Occupation. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2010.
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  21. Very useful overview of twenty-six occupations since 1815, including four recent examples in Bosnia, Kosovo, Afghanistan, and Iraq. Edelstein’s analysis concentrates on the difficulties occupations present for both the occupied and the occupying nation the longer the occupation lasts.
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  23. Gannon, James. Military Occupations in the Age of Self-Determination: The History Neocons Neglected. Westport, CT: Praeger Security International, 2008.
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  25. Despite its provocative title, the book offers a scholarly analysis of the US occupation of Iraq in the context of other post–World War II occupations that met with serious resistance from indigenous insurgent groups.
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  27. Neumann, Markus, and Jörg Rogge, eds. Die besetzte Res publica: zum Verhältnis von ziviler Obrigkeit und militärischer Herrschaft in besetzten Gebieten vom Spätmittelalter bis zum 18. Jahrhundert. Berlin: Lit Verlag, 2006.
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  29. Dutch, French, and German authors explore a diverse array of occupations, from the Mongolian conquest of Bukhara, to the Dutch occupation of Lille, to a Branschweigian garrison in Canada. While most chapters focus on European occupations, they examine different aspects within the context of these occupations, such as occupied populations’ allegiance to their foreign military occupiers and local administrative innovation.
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  31. Prete, Roy A., and A. Hamish Ion. Armies of Occupation. Waterloo, ON: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 1984.
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  33. Collection of seven essays dealing with experiences of different armies of occupation, including the 18th-century British occupation of New France in Canada, the late-19th-century French occupation of Sudan, the German occupation of Poland and Norway in World War II, and the postwar US occupation of Japan.
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  35. Stirk, Peter M. R. The Politics of Military Occupation. Edinburgh, UK: Edinburgh University Press, 2009.
  36. DOI: 10.3366/edinburgh/9780748636716.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  37. Using case studies, the author examines the relationship between occupiers and occupied and draws conclusions about the inverted relation between an occupation’s duration and its success. The longer the occupation lasts, he concludes, the less successful it is.
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  39. US Army Training and Doctrine Command, and Combat Studies Institute. Armed Diplomacy: Two Centuries of American Campaigning; Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, 5–7 August 2003. Fort Leavenworth, KS: Combat Studies Institute Press, 2003.
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  41. This volume presents concise analyses of the most significant US occupation experiences, ranging from the American Civil War to Afghanistan.
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  43. Bibliographies
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  45. The libraries of the US Army War College and the Air University maintain extensive collections of online bibliographies assembled by their reference librarians on a wide range of topics.
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  47. Air University Muir S. Fairchild Research Information Center. Bibliographies.
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  49. The Air University library provides ”Current Bibliographies” and “Archived Bibliographies” on a variety of topics, listed alphabetically.
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  51. US Army War College Library. Bibliographies.
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  53. The Army War College site offers three recent compilations on “Building Partnership Capacity,” “Civil Military Relations,” and “Post Conflict Reconstruction.”
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  55. Data Sources
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  57. There are two data sources that provide information on and links to treaties, conventions, and laws of war relevant to how military governments treat civilian populations, prisoners of war, and private property, among other topics, in English and other languages. The International Committee of the Red Cross and Yale University’s Avalon Project maintain websites with links to documents on the laws of war and a broad range of topics. Together, these websites offer the most comprehensive digital resources on the laws of war.
  58.  
  59. Avalon Project: Documents in Law, History and Diplomacy.
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  61. Provides links to The Hague and Geneva Conventions as well as a broad array of other legal documents through the ages.
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  63. International Committee of the Red Cross.
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  65. The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) website includes databases on international humanitarian law as well as links to information on the Geneva Conventions, weapons and international humanitarian law, and other aspects of war and law.
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  67. Early Modern Period to the French Revolution
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  69. At the height of colonialism, from the 16th until the end of the 18th century, conquering powers employed occupation and military government to subdue native populations and incorporate countries into their empires. As a result, scholarly literature on military governments and occupations during this period mostly focuses on how they served colonial powers to achieve their aims. Notable exceptions are Blanning 1983 and Cruickshank 1971, with their concentration on the military aspects of occupations. Geggus 1982 focuses on the effect of occupation on political developments in an occupied territory, and McCowen 1972 analyzed the operations of the British military administration of Charleston through the Board of Police.
  70.  
  71. Blanning, T. C. W. The French Revolution in Germany: Occupation and Resistance in the Rhineland, 1792–1802. Oxford: Clarendon, 1983.
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  73. A well-researched study of the occupation of western Germany by the armies of the French Revolution in the decade before the French Republic absorbed the left bank of the Rhineland.
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  75. Cruickshank, Charles G. The English Occupation of Tournai, 1513–1519. Oxford: Clarendon, 1971.
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  77. Detailed account of the military aspects of the five-year occupation of Tournai by Henry VIII’s forces.
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  79. Geggus, David Patrick. Slavery, War, and Revolution: The British Occupation of Saint Domingue, 1793–1798. Oxford: Clarendon, 1982.
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  81. This well-researched study explores the role of the British occupation of Saint Domingue in the state’s transformation from a wealthy colony to a republic.
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  83. McCowen, George Smith, Jr. The British Occupation of Charleston, 1780–82. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1972.
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  85. This book examines the rarely studied occupation of Charleston during the Revolutionary War. Its emphasis is on the British administrative organ, the Board of Police, and its operations.
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  87. Napoleonic Wars
  88.  
  89. Compared to the large number of scholarly accounts of Napoleon’s campaign and battles, the literature on Napoleonic and post-Napoleonic occupations is modest. Fortunately for the study of Napoleon Bonaparte’s expedition to Egypt, exhaustive treatments such as Herold 1962 and Strathern 2007 include extensive accounts of the French forces’ interactions with civilians, as well as Bonaparte’s social, political, and scientific goals for the country. Jabarti 1993 is a contemporary account of the French occupation of Egypt. Overall histories the Napoleonic Wars generally focus exclusively on campaigns and diplomacy, so that the researcher has to rely on case studies of individual occupations. While Rowe 2003 examines the Rhineland under French occupation, Jewsbury 1977, Uffindell 2009, and Veve 1992 explore how French citizens fared under Allied occupation.
  90.  
  91. Herold, J. Christopher. Bonaparte in Egypt. New York: Harper & Row, 1962.
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  93. Based on official documents, Arabic chronicles, and memoirs and diaries of generals, officers, simple soldiers, artists, engineers, and physicians, this book is an exhaustive study of General Bonaparte’s expedition and his goals in Egypt.
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  95. Jabarti, Abd al-Rahman. Napoleon in Egypt: Al-Jabarti’s Chronicle of the French Occupation, 1798. Edited and translated by Shmuel Moreh. Princeton, NJ: M. Wiener, 1993.
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  97. Abd al-Rahman al-Jabarti is best known as the foremost Egyptian Muslim chronicler of Napoléon Bonaparte’s invasion and occupation of Egypt from 1798 to 1801. His histories are generally acknowledged as the best contemporary account of the French invasion from an Egyptian or Arab perspective.
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  99. Jewsbury, George F. “The Allied Military Occupation of Meurthe-et-Moselle: January–April 1814.” Military Affairs 41.1 (February 1977): 38–41.
  100. DOI: 10.2307/1987095Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  101. With Napoleon’s armies retreating and Allied forces advancing onto French territory, the cities along the marching route came under foreign occupation. This case study of the occupation of Nancy is a good introduction to the topic.
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  103. Rowe, Michael. From Reich to State: The Rhineland in the Revolutionary Age, 1780–1830. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
  104. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511496875Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  105. Based on extensive German and French archival sources, this book places the Napoleonic episode in the Rhineland within a broader chronological context. It analyzes politics, culture, identity, religion, society, institutions, and economics.
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  107. Strathern, Paul. Napoleon in Egypt. New York: Bantam, 2007.
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  109. A well-written account of General Bonaparte’s expedition into Egypt. Though the author is on occasion sloppy when quoting sources, it does not take away from the value of the study for the researcher.
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  111. Uffindell, Andrew. Napoleon 1814: The Defence of France. Barnsley, UK: Pen & Sword, 2009.
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  113. In addition to a fresh look at Napoleon’s campaign in 1814, this book also provides new insights into the effects of the war on the civilian population and the political and diplomatic conditions.
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  115. Veve, Thomas Dwight. The Duke of Wellington and the British Army of Occupation in France, 1815–1818. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1992.
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  117. This in-depth study of Wellington’s occupation of France provides a solid base for further research on post-Napoleonic occupations.
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  119. Mexican War
  120.  
  121. The Mexican War was America’s first experience invading a foreign country and occupying its territory while waging a prolonged war. Smith 1919 is the most extensively documented history of the Mexican War. Curtis 1994 is a detailed firsthand account of a volunteer who served in the military administration of Matamoros, Mexico, and later, for a short period, as military governor of Saltillo. Carney 2006 provides a useful short introduction to the topic.
  122.  
  123. Carney, Stephen A. The Occupation of Mexico, May 1846–July 1848. Washington, DC: US Army Center for Military History, 2006.
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  125. Quick overview and introduction to the first American occupation, with a short list of suggested further reading.
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  127. Curtis, Samuel Ryan. Mexico Under Fire: Being the Diary of Samuel Ryan Curtis, 3rd Ohio Volunteer Regiment During the American Military Occupation of Northern Mexico, 1846–1848. Edited by Joseph E. Chance. Fort Worth: Texas Christian University Press, 1994.
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  129. Detailed first-hand account of one of the first American experiences with military administration.
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  131. Smith, Justin H. The War with Mexico. 2 vols. New York: Macmillan, 1919.
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  133. Based on original documents and personal travel, this is an extensively documented history of the war with Mexico.
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  135. American Civil War
  136.  
  137. Scholarly literature about the American Civil War tends to concentrate on its causes, generals, battles, and contributions to technological and tactical innovations. Only since the 1970s have Union army occupations of Confederate states received more attention. Maslowski 1978 is one of the earliest book-length treatments. Ash 1995 is a well-researched study on the impact of the occupation on Southerners. Grimsley 1995 is a thoughtful and comprehensive history of the occupation of the South, and it set the gold standard for future endeavors, such as DiMarco 2007 and Browning 2011. Dawson 1982 and Sefton 1967 analyze the US Army’s role during Reconstruction.
  138.  
  139. Ash, Stephen V. When the Yankees Came: Conflict and Chaos in the Occupied South, 1861–1865. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995.
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  141. This is a well-researched study of the occupied South. The invasion and occupation of the South during the Civil War affected the postwar mentality of Southerners. Topics explored include civilian resistance, class conflicts, and the impact of occupation on families and communities.
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  143. Browning, Judkin. Shifting Loyalties: The Union Occupation of Eastern North Carolina. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2011.
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  145. A well-written scholarly book about an occupation complicated by mistrust, prejudice, racism, and rebellion.
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  147. Dawson, Joseph G. Army Generals and Reconstruction: Louisiana, 1862–1877. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1982.
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  149. Based on a close examination of archival sources, this book is a history and a detailed analysis of the army’s responsibilities, accomplishments, and failures in Reconstruction Louisiana. Dawson describes how the Union generals who commanded Louisiana met with varying degrees of success in their attempts to enforce the constantly evolving Reconstruction policies of three administrations on a people who openly despised their conquerors.
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  151. DiMarco, Louis A. Anatomy of a Failed Occupation: The U.S. Army in the Former Confederate States, 1865 to 1877. Arlington, VA: Institute of Land Warfare, Association of the United States Army, 2007.
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  153. A short but incisive analysis of the reasons for the failure of Union forces to achieve the objectives of the occupation, namely to transform the social and political environment in the occupied states.
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  155. Grimsley, Mark. The Hard Hand of War: Union Military Policy Toward Southern Civilians, 1861–1865. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
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  157. This book set the standard for studying Union occupations during the Civil War. Through in-depth study of the evolution of the Union army’s policy of destructive attacks upon Southern property and civilian morale, it dispelled notions of “total war” by proving that Union soldiers exercised restraint even as they made war against Confederate civilians.
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  159. Maslowski, Peter. Treason Must Be Made Odious: Military Occupation and Wartime Reconstruction in Nashville, Tennessee, 1862–65. Millwood, NY: KTO Press, 1978.
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  161. A well-written and thoroughly researched study of Andrew Johnson’s failed attempt at reconstructing a loyal and popular government in Tennessee.
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  163. Sefton, James E. The United States Army and Reconstruction, 1865–1877. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1967.
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  165. Well-documented analysis of the role of the US Army during Reconstruction. It offers two valuable appendices, one listing the structure of Army commands and the other providing the numbers and locations of the troops for the South.
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  167. Spanish-American War
  168.  
  169. At the end of the brief Spanish-American War, the United States gained possession of Cuba and the Philippines. In both countries the United States faced resistance by more or less organized groups of “bandits” or insurgents. As Gillette 1973 describes, US governors in Cuba tried to put an end to crime and graft with progressive reforms and, as Pérez 1986 and Pérez 1990 point out, with brutal persecution of bandits by police forces. Millett 1968 treats the second occupation of Cuba from a different angle and draws conclusions for future efforts. Linn 1989 dissects the US Army counterinsurgency in the Philippines, and Linn 2000 is the most comprehensive history of the war and the occupation.
  170.  
  171. Gillette, Howard. The Military Occupation of Cuba, 1899–1902: Workshop for American Progressivism. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1973.
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  173. In-depth study of American Progressive reform efforts in occupied Cuba. This book is out of print and only available in second-hand bookstores.
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  175. Linn, Brian McAllister. The U.S. Army and Counterinsurgency in the Philippine War, 1899–1902. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989.
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  177. This seminal study shows how US field officers developed effective military programs to overcome resistance. These programs included the creation of civil governments, the raising of native auxiliary forces, and the development of intelligence networks as tools of pacification.
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  179. Linn, Brian McAllister. The Philippine War, 1899–1902. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2000.
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  181. A comprehensive study of the Philippine War with extensive treatment of the US occupation.
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  183. Millett, Allan Reed. The Politics of Intervention: The Military Occupation of Cuba, 1906–1909. Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1968.
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  185. Even though dated, Millett’s book is still the most thorough and thought provoking study on the second occupation of Cuba.
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  187. Pérez, Louis A. “The Pursuit of Pacification: Banditry and the United States’ Occupation of Cuba, 1889–1902.” Journal of Latin American Studies 18.2 (November 1986): 313–332.
  188. DOI: 10.1017/S0022216X00012049Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  189. This article critically examines the US governor’s employment of indigenous forces in the fight against bandits.
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  191. Pérez, Louis A. Cuba and the United States: Ties of Singular Intimacy. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 1990.
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  193. Easily the most comprehensive history of US-Cuban relations, this book covers US interventions in and occupations of Cuba.
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  195. World War I
  196.  
  197. During the First World War, Germany occupied countries on the western and eastern fronts. Liulevicius 2000 sheds light on long-overlooked German occupations in eastern Europe, whereas McPhail 1999 details civilian suffering in northern France. After the war, the victorious powers concluded separate peace treaties with Germany and its allies, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria. All nations lost territory, and some had to endure occupation. As punishment, Allied nations occupied the German Rhineland and Constantinople, the capital of the Ottoman Empire. Edmonds 2010 gives an unvarnished account of the British participation in the occupation of Constantinople. Fraenkel 1944 and Pawley 2007 examine the workings of the Inter-Allied Rhineland High Commission and its relationship with the German government and population.
  198.  
  199. Edmonds, James E. Occupation of Constantinople, 1918–1923. Uckfield, UK: Naval & Military Press, 2010.
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  201. Official British history originally written in 1944, but shelved until 2010 because the Foreign Office was concerned about that it might reveal possibly unlawful acts by the occupiers and embarrass the government. Originally published in 1944.
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  203. Fraenkel, Ernst. Military Occupation and the Rule of Law: Occupation Government in the Rhineland, 1918–1923. London and New York: Oxford University Press, 1944.
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  205. Carefully detailed study of the armistice of 1918, the work of the High Commission, and the relations of the occupying powers with Germany.
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  207. Liulevicius, Vejas Gabriel. War Land on the Eastern Front: Culture, National Identity, and German Occupation in World War I. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
  208. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511497186Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  209. Taking advantage of newly released sources in Lithuanian archives, the author presents a thoroughly researched cultural history of German occupiers and the peoples they occupied on the Eastern front.
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  211. McPhail, Helen. The Long Silence: Civilian Life Under the German Occupation of Northern France, 1914–1918. London and New York: I. B. Tauris, 1999.
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  213. Well-documented social history of northern France under German occupation.
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  215. Pawley, Margaret. The Watch on the Rhine: The Military Occupation of the Rhineland, 1918–1930. London: I. B. Tauris, 2007.
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  217. Based largely on the annual reports of the Inter-Allied Rhineland High Commission, this book is a comprehensive history of the contributions of all four occupying forces.
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  219. World War II
  220.  
  221. In the course of pursuing their expansionist goals in World War II, the Axis Powers (Germany, Japan, and Italy) occupied much of Europe, many nations in the Pacific, and northwest and east African countries. When hostilities ended, the victorious wartime Allies divided Germany and Austria into four occupation zones, administered respectively by forces from the United States, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and France—which received territory, carved out of the American and British zones, along its border with Germany. In Japan, the United States occupied the majority of the country, with a British Commonwealth Occupation Force of British, Australian, and New Zealand troops administering the western prefectures of Shimani, Yamaguchi, Tottori, Okayama, Hiroshima, and Shikoku Island.
  222.  
  223. Europe and the Mediterranean
  224.  
  225. In the study of occupations during and after World War II, it is useful to adopt the US War Department’s division of the combat theaters into the European, the Mediterranean, and the Pacific theater of operation. To do justice to the rich literature about German occupations in Europe, these works are subdivided into two sections: German Occupations in Western Europe and German Occupations in Eastern and Southern Europe. The other subheadings here are Italian Occupations, Allied Occupation of Germany, and Soviet Occupations During and After World War II.
  226.  
  227. German Occupations in Western Europe
  228.  
  229. From 1940 until the end of the war in 1945, German forces occupied the country’s neighboring states to the north and west. While Petrow 1974 gives a comprehensive account of the occupations of Denmark and Norway, Giltner 1998 focuses on the “symbiotic” relationship between Denmark and Germany. Lagrou 2000 compares the occupation experiences of Belgium, France, and the Netherlands and examines how occupation changed these societies, whereas Foray 2011 concentrates on the impact of the occupation on Dutch thinking about their own colonies. Hirschfeld 1988 explores Dutch collaboration under the Nazis, and Warmbrunn 1993 describes the complications of the occupation of Belgium. Ousby 1998 is an insightful introductory work on the occupation of France, while Mitchell 2008 explores what kinds of problems arose for the German occupation forces in Paris after a surprisingly fast conquest.
  230.  
  231. Foray, Jennifer L. Visions of Empire in the Nazi-Occupied Netherlands. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011.
  232. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781139059510Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  233. Slightly off the beaten track, this comprehensively documented study examines how the experience of Nazi occupation shaped Dutch thinking about the postwar shape of its own empire.
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  235. Giltner, Philip. In the Friendliest Manner: German-Danish Cooperation During the Nazi Occupation of 1940–1945. New York: P. Lang, 1998.
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  237. Based on extensive research in German and Danish archives, the book explains how the “symbiotic” relationship between the German and the Danish governments resulted in extraordinarily lenient treatment of the Danes during the Nazi occupation.
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  239. Hirschfeld, Gerhard. Nazi Rule and Dutch Collaboration: The Netherlands Under German Occupation, 1940–1945. Translated from German by Louise Willmot. New York: St. Martin’s, 1988.
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  241. The author explores a variety of collaborations, from cooperation with the occupying forces to accommodation of Nazi policies and goals by Dutch authorities and the press. The book is based on thorough archival research in Germany and The Netherlands.
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  243. Lagrou, Pieter. The Legacy of Nazi Occupation: Patriotic Memory and National Recovery in Western Europe, 1945–1965. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
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  245. A well-researched comparative social history of how France, Belgium, and the Netherlands emerged from humiliating occupation experiences.
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  247. Mitchell, Allan. Nazi Paris: The History of an Occupation, 1940–1944. New York: Berghahn, 2008.
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  249. Drawing on French and German archives, this study examines the complexities of occupying Paris after an unexpected and swift military defeat.
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  251. Ousby, Ian. Occupation: The Ordeal of France, 1940–1944. New York: St. Martin’s, 1998.
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  253. This insightful study of the nature of the German occupation of France is an excellent introductory work. It offers select bibliographies for further study at the end of each chapter.
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  255. Petrow, Richard. The Bitter Years: The Invasion and Occupation of Denmark and Norway, April 1940–May 1945. New York: Morrow, 1974.
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  257. Extensively documented and well-written study of the German occupations in Denmark and Norway.
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  259. Warmbrunn, Werner. The German Occupation of Belgium 1940–1944. New York: P. Lang, 1993.
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  261. Based on German, Dutch, French, and English sources, this book is the most comprehensive study of the complicated German military occupation of Belgium. It pays special attention to the tensions between the German military commanders and Nazi Party officials, as well as those between Flemings and Walloons.
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  263. German Occupations in Eastern and Southern Europe
  264.  
  265. On 1 September 1939 the Second World War began in Europe with the German invasion of Poland. The Polish military units fought bravely, but they crumbled quickly in the face of the German Wehrmacht’s superior numbers, equipment, and training. Szarota 1985 describes day-to-day life in Warsaw under the German occupation, while Lukas 1986 focuses on the Polish suffering during the occupation. In 1941 the Germans expanded the war to the east and invaded the Soviet Union. Lower 2005 is a regional study of the occupation of Ukraine that sheds light on the broader issues. Dallin 1981 argues that the Germans squandered opportunities for winning the eastern European populations to their side due to the chaotic nature of the occupation policies and their implementation. Mulligan 1988 disputes that notion. Zellhuber 2006 draws conclusions about the failure of German occupation policy in an organizational history of the Reich Ministry for the Occupied Eastern Territories. Concentrating on German occupations in southern Europe, Mazower 1993 details the occupation experience in Greece and the rise of the resistance. Tomasevich 2001 is a full account of the occupation in Yugoslavia.
  266.  
  267. Dallin, Alexander. German Rule in Russia, 1941–1945: A Study of Occupation Policies. London: Macmillan, 1981.
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  269. Exhaustive account of how the chaotic and anarchic nature of the German occupation squandered opportunities to win over the population in the eastern territories.
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  271. Lower, Wendy. Nazi Empire-Building and the Holocaust in Ukraine. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005.
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  273. This book is a regional study of German occupation policies in Ukraine, based on newly available archival documents and oral history interviews. It provides a detailed and nuanced picture of the German occupation in the Zhytomyr region from 1941 to 1944.
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  275. Lukas, Richard C. The Forgotten Holocaust: The Poles Under German Occupation, 1939–1944. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1986.
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  277. In writing his history of the suffering of the Polish population, the author digested the vast number of firsthand accounts and secondary literature on the Holocaust in Poland, and also unearthed new documents in the archives of the London-based Polish government in exile.
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  279. Mazower, Mark. Inside Hitler’s Greece: The Experience of Occupation, 1941–44. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1993.
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  281. Drawing on eyewitness accounts and archival documentation, this study offers a detailed narrative of the German occupation of Greece and the rise of the resistance movement.
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  283. Mulligan, Timothy. The Politics of Illusion and Empire: German Occupation Policy in the Soviet Union, 1942–1943. New York: Praeger, 1988.
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  285. Well-documented study that disputes the notion of Germany’s “missed opportunities” in the occupied eastern territories. It outlines attempts by German military and civilian agencies to adopt a more pragmatic approach to the occupation of eastern territories.
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  287. Szarota, Tomasz. Warschau unter dem Hakenkreuz: Leben und Alltag im besetzten Warschau 1.10.1939 bis 31.7.1944. Translated from Polish by Claudia Makowksi and Ryszrad Makowski. Paderborn, Germany: Ferdinand Schöningh, 1985.
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  289. This extensively sourced study concentrates exclusively on daily life in Nazi-occupied Warsaw. Arranged topically, it details every aspect of life, from work to free time activities and the arts.
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  291. Tomasevich, Jozo. War and Revolution in Yugoslavia, 1941–1945: Occupation and Collaboration. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001.
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  293. Based on military and diplomatic records of all countries involved in the region, this book is the fullest account of the occupation.
  294. Find this resource:
  295. Zellhuber, Andreas. “Unsere Verwaltung treibt einer Katastrophe zu - ”: Das Reichsministerium für die besetzten Ostgebiete und die deutsche Besatzungsherrschaft in der Sowjetunion 1941–1945. Munich: Vogel, 2006.
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  297. This is a well-documented organizational history of the Reich Ministry responsible for administering the eastern territories. The study examines how the Ministry’s attempt to formulate and implement its own policies contributed to its failure.
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  299. Italian Occupations
  300.  
  301. Colonial ambitions of Italy’s Fascist government extended to its neighbors on the Mediterranean, but also to Ethiopia, which was to serve as the Italian version of Lebensraum for surplus population in the mother country. Larebo 1994 examines plans for Ethiopia’s colonization. Rodogno 2006 analyzes the relationship between Italy’s colonial aspirations, racism, and anti-Semitism.
  302.  
  303. Larebo, Haile M. The Building of an Empire: Italian Land Policy and Practice in Ethiopia, 1935–1941. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994.
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  305. A thorough exploration of the records of the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Archive of Colonial Agriculture, and the Central State Archive is the basis for this study of the goals the Italians hoped to accomplish during their nine-year occupation of Ethiopia. The book does not draw on Ethiopian sources or fieldwork, possibly because the author, an expatriot Ethiopian, was not allowed to enter the country.
  306. Find this resource:
  307. Rodogno, Davide. Fascism’s European Empire: Italian Occupation During the Second World War. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
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  309. This thoroughly researched study examines Italy’s relationship with Germany, the forced “Italianization” of the annexed territories, collaboration, and Italian policies toward refugees and Jews. European territories annexed and occupied by Italy between 1940 and 1943 were metropolitan France, Corsica, Slovenia, Croatia, Dalmatia, Montenegro, Albania, Kosovo, Western Macedonia, and mainland and insular Greece.
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  311. Allied Occupation of Germany
  312.  
  313. Consideration of the shape of postwar Germany and Austria began at the Conference of Foreign Ministers in Moscow in October 1943 and ended with the agreements reached at Yalta in February 1945. The Allies decided against dismemberment of Germany and agreed that Germany and Austria should be occupied to prepare the ground for a radical change of regime. At the last wartime conference in Yalta, in early 1945, the “Big Three”—the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union—confirmed the results of the foreign ministers’ conference and signed an agreement on Zones of Occupation in Germany and Austria. Important parts of this agreement were that France should become an occupying power and receive its own zones in Germany and Austria, and that future governments of the Eastern European nations bordering the Soviet Union should be “friendly” to the Soviet regime in return for the Soviet’s pledge to enter the war against Japan. The Potsdam Declaration confirmed the results of the wartime conferences. While Benz 1986 is a comprehensive study on the Allied occupation, Schwarz 1980 concentrates on Allied and German policy development. Zink 1957 describes the US occupation from the vantage point of a participant. Gimbel 1968 concentrates on US policies. Wolfe 1984 is a collection of scholarly articles and reminiscences of a former military governor and high commissioner of Germany about the US occupations in Europe and Asia. Willis 1962 and Koop 2005 examine the French occupation. Turner 1989 explores economic and political reconstruction in the British Zone.
  314.  
  315. Benz, Wolfgang. Von der Besatzungsherrschaft zur Bundesrepublik: Stationen einer Staatsgründung, 1946–1949. Frankfurt am Main: Fischer Taschenbuch, 1986.
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  317. Still the most comprehensive German-language study of the Allied occupation of Germany.
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  319. Gimbel, John. The American Occupation of Germany: Politics and the Military, 1945–1949. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1968.
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  321. Thoroughly researched study of US policy and policy development for the occupation.
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  323. Koop, Volker. Besetzt: Französische Besatzungspolitik in Deutschland. Berlin: Be.bra-Verl, 2005.
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  325. First comprehensive German-language study about the French Zone of Occupation. Based on extensive archival research, though lacking in references, the book details the harsh treatment of the German population, atrocities such as mass rapes, plundering of private properties, and inhumane treatment of German prisoners of war.
  326. Find this resource:
  327. Schwarz, Hans-Peter. Vom Reich zur Bundesrepublik: Deutschland im Widerstreit der aussenpolitischen Konzeptionen in den Jahren der Besatzungsherrschaft, 1945–1949. Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1980.
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  329. The book identifies the policy tendencies of the occupying powers, although more detail on US policy is provided. Based on voluminous primary materials, Schwarz separately discusses German politicians, writers, journalists, groups, and organizations that tried to develop a German position within the limitations placed on them by the occupation.
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  331. Turner, Ian D., ed. Reconstruction in Post-War Germany: British Occupation Policy and the Western Zones, 1945–55. New York: St. Martin’s, 1989.
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  333. The central themes of the book’s articles are economic reconstruction and democratization in the British zone of Germany after 1945. All are based on a wide range of primary research in British and German archives.
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  335. Willis, F. Roy. The French in Germany, 1945–1949. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1962.
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  337. Early treatment of French policy toward Germany, the organization of the occupation forces, and the situation in the zone in 1945. The book devotes separate chapters to the problem of reparations, economic policy, and denazification and reeducation.
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  339. Wolfe, Robert. Americans as Proconsuls: United States Military Government in Germany and Japan, 1944–1952. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1984.
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  341. Collection of twenty essays about America’s role as an occupying power in Europe and the Far East. The articles are a unique mixture of reminiscences (such as the reflections of Lucius D. Clay and John J. McCloy, who served, respectively, as military governor and high commissioner of Germany from 1945 to 1952), scholarly papers, and discussions of issues ranging from denazification to economic reconstruction.
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  343. Zink, Harold. The United States in Germany, 1944–1955. Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand, 1957.
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  345. This history was first published in 1947. It relies heavily on the author’s personal experience of a professional staff historian in the Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force G-5—Civil Affairs Division, and later for the Office of Military Government, United States.
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  347. Soviet Occupations During and After World War II
  348.  
  349. The Soviet Union conducted occupations during and after World War II in order to incorporate the occupied countries into its sphere of influence, which later constituted the “Eastern Bloc.” While Foitzik, et al. 2009 is a good introduction to the Soviet Zone of Occupation in Germany, Naimark 1995 is the most complete study of the Soviet occupation. Analyzing documents in newly opened archives in Eastern Europe, Naimark and Gibianskii 1997 reevaluates Soviet goals and policies in Eastern Europe. Pearson 1998 examines Soviet occupations and reoccupations in Eastern Europe as tools of empire.
  350.  
  351. Foitzik, Jan, Horst Möller, Burghard Ciesla, Andreĭ Doronin, et al., eds. Sovetskaia Voennaia Administratsiia v Germanii (SVAG): 1945–1949: Spravochnik. Moscow: Rosspen, 2009.
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  353. This is a good introduction to the history of the Soviet Military Administration in Germany (SWAG) in 1945–1949. It includes chapters on the structure of SWAG in the Soviet Occupation Zone (SOZ); the Soviet occupation structure outside the SWAG; short biographies of the commanders of the SOZ; documents; and a bibliography.
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  355. Naimark, Norman M. The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945–1949. Cambridge, MA: Belknap, 1995.
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  357. This book is considered the landmark study of Soviet policies in the occupation zone and their practical consequences for Germans and Russians alike.
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  359. Naimark, Norman M., and Leonid J. Gibianskii. The Establishment of Communist Regimes in Eastern Europe, 1944–1949. Boulder, CO: Westview, 1997.
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  361. A collaborative effort of scholars from Russia and the United States, this book reevaluates the history of postwar Eastern Europe from 1944 to 1949, incorporating new information gleaned from lately opened archives in Eastern Europe.
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  363. Pearson, Raymond. The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Empire. New York: St. Martin’s, 1998.
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  365. Although not an occupation study, the book deals with occupations, withdrawals, and reoccupations of the countries under Soviet domination. It explains the creation, maintenance, and eventual demise of the Soviet regime across post-1945 Eastern Europe. The crises of 1956, 1968, and 1980 are examined in detail.
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  367. Asia Pacific
  368.  
  369. In the study of occupations during and after World War II, it is useful to adopt the US War Department’s division of the combat theaters into the European, the Mediterranean, and the Pacific theater of operation. Scholarly accounts about occupations in the Asia Pacific region deal with Japanese Occupations in the years leading up to and during World War II and the Allied Occupation of Japan after the war’s end.
  370.  
  371. Japanese Occupations
  372.  
  373. In 1937, in the course of the second Sino-Japanese War, Japan occupied almost the entire Chinese coast. In 1940, when Japan joined the Axis powers, Germany and Italy, it entered into an agreement with the Vichy French government to occupy French Indochina, and later that year Japan captured the oil-rich Dutch East Indies. By the end of 1941, Japan controlled a large territory that expanded to the border of India in the West and New Guinea in the South. Duus, et al. 1996 and Tarling 2001 provide overviews over Japan’s widespread occupations during World War II. Chang 1997 tells the story of the horrific occupation of Nanking, and Henriot and Yeh 2004 examines the effects of the occupation on Shanghai. Akashi and Yoshimura 2008 explores the occupations of Malaya and Singapore. Kratoska 1997 concentrates on the effects of the occupation of Malaya. Ikehata and Jose 1999 scrutinizes the many aspects of the occupation of the Philippines. Tanaka 2003 deals with the thorny issue of Japanese and Korean sexual slavery and the “comfort women.”
  374.  
  375. Akashi Yoji, and Yoshimura Mako, eds. New Perspectives on the Japanese Occupation in Malaya and Singapore, 1941–1945. Singapore: NUS Press, 2008.
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  377. This book covers the Watanabe military administration, Japanese research activities in Malaya, Japan’s economic policies, Malayan Communist Party leaders, the anti-Japanese resistance, and the massacre of Chinese in Singapore.
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  379. Chang, Iris. The Rape of Nanking: The Forgotten Holocaust of World War II. New York: Basic Books, 1997.
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  381. Based on extensive interviews with survivors and archival documents, the book tells the story of the Japanese soldiers who invaded the city, of the Chinese civilians who endured it, and of a group of Europeans and Americans who refused to abandon the city and were able to create a safety zone that saved almost 300,000 Chinese.
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  383. Duus, Peter, Ramon H. Myers, and Mark R. Peattie, eds. The Japanese Wartime Empire, 1931–1945. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996.
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  385. The third of an extensively researched three-volume series on modern Japanese colonialism and imperialism. The volume comprises four sections: “Japan’s Wartime Empire and the Formal Colonies”; “Japan’s Wartime Empire and Northeast Asia”; “Japan’s Wartime Empire and Southeast Asia”; and “Japan’s Wartime Empire in other Perspectives.”
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  387. Henriot, Christian, and Wen-Hsin Yeh, eds. In the Shadow of the Rising Sun: Shanghai Under Japanese Occupation. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004.
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  389. This collection of research papers by American, British, and French historians explores the effects of the occupation on Shanghai’s wartime economy, politics, decolonization, and culture.
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  391. Ikehata Setsuho, and Ricardo Trota Jose, eds. The Philippines Under Japan: Occupation Policy and Reaction. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1999.
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  393. Meticulously researched and clearly written articles by seven Japanese and one Filipino historian explore Japanese occupation policy, Filipino resistance movements, the treatment of Muslims and Christians, and the effects of the occupation on the economy. The book stands out for its use of primary Japanese documents and selected interviews with Japanese personnel directly involved in the Occupation.
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  395. Kratoska, Paul H. The Japanese Occupation of Malaya, 1941–1945: A Socio-Economic History. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1997.
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  397. Based on a wide range of Malayan sources, including local records, memoirs, and oral histories, as well as Allied intelligence reports, postwar investigations, and relevant volumes of the extensive series of war histories compiled by Japanese army officers after 1945, the book examines the official policies themselves and how the population responded to them.
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  399. Tanaka, Toshiyuki. Japan’s Comfort Women: Sexual Slavery and Prostitution During World War II and the US Occupation. New York: Routledge, 2003.
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  401. Using a wide range of primary sources, the book tells the story of Japanese, Korean, and other nationals enslaved by Japanese forces as prostitutes. It also details American occupation forces’ involvement in military-controlled prostitution of Japanese women.
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  403. Tarling, Nicholas. A Sudden Rampage: The Japanese Occupation of Southeast Asia, 1941–1945. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2001.
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  405. The book is a synthesis of English-language scholarship on the Japanese occupation of Southeast Asia. The study emphasizes the differences in Japanese aims and approaches in each country or colony.
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  407. Allied Occupation of Japan
  408.  
  409. A series of wartime conferences laid the groundwork for the Allied occupation of a defeated Japan. The Allied powers of Great Britain, the Soviet Union, the Republic of China, and the United States discussed how to disarm Japan, deal with its colonies (especially Korea and Taiwan), stabilize the Japanese economy, and prevent the remilitarization of the state in the future. The Protocol of the Potsdam Conference called for Japan’s unconditional surrender, and by the beginning of September 1945 that objective had been achieved. The United States together with the British Commonwealth Occupation Force (BCOF) occupied and rehabilitated Japan. Dower 1999 tells the story of the transformation of Japan under American occupation after World War II. Reischauer 1965 considers the US occupation as the most important period in American-Japanese relations. Sarantakes 2000 explores how different American government agencies vied for dominance in policymaking. Schaller 1985 examines the occupation in the context of the early years of the Cold War. Molasky 1999 studies Japanese memories of the occupation through analyses of Japanese and Okinawan literature. Archer 2009 is a war diary of an Australian Japanese linguist serving in the British Commonwealth Occupation Force. Brocklebank 1997 and Davies 2001 describe New Zealand’s contribution to the BCOF.
  410.  
  411. Archer, Basil. Interpreting Occupied Japan: The Diary of an Australian Soldier, 1945–1946. Edited by Sandra Wilson. Carlisle, Australia: Hesperian, 2009.
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  413. The personal account of an Australian language officer in the British Commonwealth Occupation Force provides rare insights into the day-to-day work in the early phase of the Allied occupation.
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  415. Brocklebank, Laurie. Jayforce: New Zealand and the Military Occupation of Japan, 1945–48. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.
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  417. Based on official records and personal diaries and recollections, the book traces the reasons for New Zealand’s participation in the military occupation of Japan as part of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force (BCOF).
  418. Find this resource:
  419. Davies, George. The Occupation of Japan: The Rhetoric and the Reality of Anglo-Australasian Relations, 1939–1952. St. Lucia: University of Queensland Press, 2001.
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  421. The well-written book is a thoroughly researched account of the contributions of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force. The work and life of the men and women who made up the BCOF is presented in informative detail, backed by his firsthand experience. Subjects covered include problems of command, living conditions of the troops, the role of women, and health issues.
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  423. Dower, John W. Embracing Defeat: Japan in the Wake of World War II. New York: W. W. Norton, 1999.
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  425. Considered a standard work on the Japanese occupation, this political and social history of postwar Japan discusses how the defeat and American military occupation of Japan after World War II affected each level of Japanese society.
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  427. Molasky, Michael S. The American Occupation of Japan and Okinawa: Literature and Memory. New York: Routledge, 1999.
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  429. The book explores how Japanese and Okinawans remember the occupation through careful study of the literature from mainland Japan and Okinawa. It sheds light on difficult issues of war, violence, prostitution, colonialism, and postcolonialism.
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  431. Reischauer, Edwin O. The United States and Japan. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1965.
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  433. Originally published in 1950, this book focuses on the US occupation of Japan as the most important period in American-Japanese international relations.
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  435. Sarantakes, Nicholas Evan. Keystone: The American Occupation of Okinawa and U.S.-Japanese Relations. College Station: Texas A&M University, 2000.
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  437. Based on material from presidential archives, government repositories, and oral histories, this well-written book is a study on the rivalry among the various American government agencies over the politics of occupation of Okinawa.
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  439. Schaller, Michael. The American Occupation of Japan: The Origins of the Cold War in Asia. New York: Oxford University Press, 1985.
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  441. The author makes good use of government documents and manuscript materials in this narrative of the origins of the Cold War in Asia, with a particular focus on the US occupation of Japan.
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  443. Official Histories of the Occupations of Germany and Japan
  444.  
  445. American and British official histories are important resources for researchers. Coles and Weinberg 1964 tells the story of American occupations in Northwest Africa and Europe in annotated documents. Frederiksen 1953 concentrates on the organization of the US occupation. Ziemke 1975 is the most comprehensive history of the US Army in the first year of the US occupation of Germany. Donnison 1966 and Donnison 1961 describe the British planning effort and implementation during the first year of the occupation. Fisch 1988 deals with the US occupation of Japan.
  446.  
  447. Coles, Harry Lewis, and Albert Katz Weinberg. Civil Affairs: Soldiers Become Governors. Washington, DC: US Army Center of Military History, 1964.
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  449. Official US Army special study. The authors compiled, organized, and put into historical context extracts of archival sources to document US Army civil affairs activities from its first experiences in Northwest Africa to the occupation of Germany.
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  451. Donnison, F. S. V. Civil Affairs and Military Government: North-West Europe, 1944–1946. London: H. M. Stationery Office, 1961.
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  453. This study published in the United Kingdom History of the Second World War military series deals with the occupation of Germany from the British point of view.
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  455. Donnison, F. S. V. Civil Affairs and Military Government: Central Organization and Planning. London: H. M. Stationery Office, 1966.
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  457. This study published in the United Kingdom History of the Second World War military series describes the planning and training for occupations after the end of the war.
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  459. Fisch, Arnold G., Jr. Military Government in the Ryuku Islands, 1945–1950. Army Historical Series. Washington, DC: US Army Center of Military History, 1988.
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  461. Official US Army history of the US occupation of Japan. The book consists of a narrative and an equally long section of selected documents.
  462. Find this resource:
  463. Frederiksen, Oliver J. The American Military Occupation of Germany, 1945–1953. Darmstadt, Germany: Historical Division, US Army Headquarters, Europe, 1953.
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  465. Official history that describes the evolving organization and activities of the occupation forces.
  466. Find this resource:
  467. Ziemke, Earl Frederick. The U.S. Army in the Occupation of Germany, 1944–1946. Washington, DC: US Army Center of Military History, 1975.
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  469. Official US Army history of the occupation. Based on a wide array of archival records, memoirs, official histories, and other materials, this book is the best source for the early phase of the occupation.
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  471. Memoirs and Other Works on the Occupations of Germany and Japan
  472.  
  473. The World War II memoirs of nearly every high-level US or British military and political figure address themselves at some point to the question of postwar Germany or Japan. Those that cover the subject matter and time span most closely are Clay 1950, Hull 1948, MacArthur 1964, Morgan 1950, Murphy 1964, Strang 1956, Stimson and Bundy 1948, and Truman 1955.
  474.  
  475. Clay, Lucius D. Decision in Germany. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1950.
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  477. Clay was deputy military governor of Germany, 1945–1947, and military governor, 1947–1949.
  478. Find this resource:
  479. Hull, Cordell. The Memoirs of Cordell Hull. 2 vols. New York: Macmillan, 1948.
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  481. Hill was the longest-serving US secretary of state (1933–1944). He had to resign because of poor health, but he continued to represent the United States at the 1945 United Nations conference in San Francisco.
  482. Find this resource:
  483. MacArthur, Douglas. Reminiscences. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964.
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  485. MacArthur served as Commander of United States Army Forces in the Far East, July 1941; Supreme Allied Commander, Southwest Pacific Area, 1941–1945; Supreme Allied Commander, Japan, 1945; Commander in Chief, Far East Command, 1947; and Commander, United Nations Command in the Far East, July, 1950–1951.
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  487. Morgan, Frederick. Overture to Overlord. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1950.
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  489. Sir Frederick Morgan was the leading planner of the Allied invasion of Europe in 1944, when he was chief of staff to the Supreme Commander Allied Forces.
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  491. Murphy, Robert D. Diplomat Among Warriors. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1964.
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  493. Murphy served as consul in Paris and charge d’affaires to the Vichy government in France. Later he participated in the planning of the Allied landings in French North Africa, and subsequently he became a senior political advisor to General Dwight D. Eisenhower. After the war he served in occupied Germany, and in 1952 he was appointed the first US ambassador to Japan.
  494. Find this resource:
  495. Stimson, Henry L., and McGeorge Bundy. On Active Service in Peace and War. New York: Harper, 1948.
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  497. Stimson was US secretary of war, 1940–1945.
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  499. Strang, William. Home and Abroad. London: Andre Deutsch, 1956.
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  501. Strang was a British diplomat who served as a leading advisor to the British government from the 1930s to the 1950s. He was the permanent under-secretary in the Foreign Office from 1949 to 1953.
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  503. Truman, Harry S. Memoirs. 2 vols. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1955.
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  505. Truman was US President, 1945–1952.
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  507. Online Resources for Post–World War II Occupations
  508.  
  509. The history offices of the US Army (U.S. Army in Post World War II Japan, 1945–1952) and the US Navy (Naval History and Heritage Command) provide online resources about the occupations in Europe and Asia. The Library of Congress Federal Research Division (FRD) website includes a database titled “Military Legal Resources,” which offers primary source materials and publications drawn from the holdings of the US Army Judge Advocate General’s Legal Center & School Library. The British Imperial War Museums (War Office Second World War Official Collection) and the Australian War Memorial offer good databases of images. Veterans’ associations maintain the U.S. Army in Germany and the Headquarters, U.S. Forces, Austria websites. These are the best online source for unit histories, locations, patches, maps, and images. The Germany Under Reconstruction site offers a large selection of Office of Military Government, United States (OMGUS) documents, and German political publications.
  510.  
  511. Australian War Memorial.
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  513. The section on War History provides a short overview of Australia’s participation in the occupation of Japan, and it provides a link to an essay by Dr. James Wood titled “The Australian Military Contribution to the Occupation of Japan, 1945–1952.”
  514. Find this resource:
  515. Germany Under Reconstruction. University of Wisconsin Digital Collections.
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  517. The collection, part of the University of Wisconsin Digital Collections, provides a varied selection of publications in both English and German from the period immediately following World War II. Many are publications of the US occupying forces; others are documents that speak to perspectives coming from the British and the Russian zones of occupation or the Germans themselves.
  518. Find this resource:
  519. Headquarters, U.S. Forces, Austria.
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  521. Very good resource for US occupation forces and locations in Austria.
  522. Find this resource:
  523. Military Legal Resources. Library of Congress Federal Research Division.
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  525. The Library of Congress Federal Research Division (FRD) website offers selections from the US Army Judge Advocate General’s Legal Center & School Library collections. Of particular interest are World War II era documents such as “Enactments and Approved Papers of the Control Council and Coordinating Committee Allied Control Authority, Germany (1945–1948)”; “Nuremberg Trials”; and the “Law Reports of Trials of War Criminals.”
  526. Find this resource:
  527. Naval History and Heritage Command.
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  529. Extensive collection of images of the US Navy’s role in the occupations in Germany and Japan.
  530. Find this resource:
  531. U.S. Army in Germany.
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  533. Useful website offering detailed information about units and locations of US occupation forces in Europe.
  534. Find this resource:
  535. U.S. Army in Post World War II Japan, 1945–1952.
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  537. Collection of documents, essays, and images.
  538. Find this resource:
  539. War Office Second World War Official Collection. Imperial War Museums.
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  541. Large collection of images of British occupations during and after World War II.
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  543. Other Allied Occupations in Europe and Asia
  544.  
  545. Similar to their conduct in Germany, the Allies also divided Austria into four national Zones of Occupation. Ableitinger, et al. 1998 examines the occupation in these four zones. Italy, however, received different treatment. In 1943, when the Allies invaded, the Italian government surrendered and agreed to become a cobelligerent in the war against Germany. As a result, the Americans and the British established an Allied Military Government of Occupied Territory (AMGOT) that coexisted and cooperated with “King’s Italy,” an unoccupied enclave in the south of the mainland. At the end of the war, British Commonwealth forces raced against Communist Yugoslav forces to conquer the Adriatic seaport of Trieste, located on the border with Yugoslavia. While Rosignoli 1989 focuses on the campaigns in Italy, with a description of the Allied military government, Bowman 1982 concentrates on the Allied occupation of the Venezia-Giulia. Harris 1957 details the British effort in AMGOT. In Asia, the United States took responsibility for South Korea’s economic and political reconstruction after four decades of Japanese control. Meade 1951 is an early assessment of the occupation of Korea. Oh 2002 and Song 1989 are critical analyses of the long-term effects of the US occupation.
  546.  
  547. Ableitinger, Alfred, Siegfried Beer, and Eduard G. Staudinger, eds. Österreich unter alliierter Besatzung, 1945–1955. Vienna: Böhlau, 1998.
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  549. Contributions by seventeen authors from Austria, the United Kingdom, and the United States examine Austria’s role in the context of Allied decision-making on Europe as well as the national occupations in Austria’s four zones.
  550. Find this resource:
  551. Bowman, Alfred Connor. Zones of Strain: A Memoir of the Early Cold War. Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution, 1982.
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  553. The author describes his years as senior civil affairs officer of the British-American Occupation Zone of Venezia-Giulia, British XIII Corps.
  554. Find this resource:
  555. Harris, Charles Reginald Schiller. Allied Military Administration of Italy, 1943–1945. London: H. M. Stationery Office, 1957.
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  557. Official British history of the occupation in Italy.
  558. Find this resource:
  559. Meade, E. Grant. American Military Government in Korea. New York: King’s Crown, 1951.
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  561. Early assessment of mistakes in the US occupation of Korea by a participant.
  562. Find this resource:
  563. Oh, Bonnie B. C. Korea Under the American Military Government, 1945–1948. Westport, CT: Praeger, 2002.
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  565. Scholarly discussion of previously taboo topics such as the trusteeship debacle, why the moderate coalition failed, and the lasting contribution of the American military government to South Korea.
  566. Find this resource:
  567. Rosignoli, Guido. The Allied Forces in Italy, 1943–45. New York: Sterling, 1989.
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  569. An account of the Italian campaign that includes information on the order of battle, insignia, badges, uniforms, and equipment of the Allies.
  570. Find this resource:
  571. Song, Kwang Sung. The Impact of U.S. Military Occupation (1945–1949) on Korean Liberation, Democratization, and Unification. Seoul, South Korea: Hanol, 1989.
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  573. Analyzes the impact of the US military occupation on the social development of decolonized South Korea, 1945–1949. The book argues that US democratization and anticommunism created a reactionary political and social order.
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  575. Occupations of the Gaza Strip, the West Bank, and East Timor
  576.  
  577. In October 1967, Israeli forces occupied the Gaza Strip and the West Bank during the Six Day War. In 1993, after two decades of uprisings, negotiations, and armed conflicts, Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), headed by Yasser Arafat, agreed during secret negotiations to gradually extend self-government of both regions to the Palestinians. The Israel-PLO Declaration of Principles on Interim Self-Government Arrangements provided for a transitional period of Palestinian self-rule in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. Efrat 2006 examines the political geography of the Gaza Strip and the West Bank. Hupkes 2008 tries to determine “effective control” in the Gaza Strip. Almost as soon as East Timor declared its independence from Portugal in 1975, Indonesian forces invaded the country at the eastern end of the Indonesian archipelago. Aditjondro 1994 is a rare English-language account of the impact of the occupation.
  578.  
  579. Aditjondro, George J. In the Shadow of Mount Ramelau: The Impact of the Occupation of East Timor. Leiden, The Netherlands: INDOC, 1994.
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  581. A highly critical account of the by then nearly twenty-year-long Indonesian occupation of East Timor.
  582. Find this resource:
  583. Efrat, Elisha. The West Bank and Gaza Strip: A Geography of Occupation and Disengagement. London: Routledge, 2006.
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  585. The book examines the contemporary political geography of the West Bank and Gaza Strip. It documents the changes and developments since 1967 right up to the disengagement from Gaza.
  586. Find this resource:
  587. Hupkes, S. D. Dikker. What Constitutes Occupation?: Israel as the Occupying Power in the Gaza Strip After the Disengagement. The Hague: E.M. Meijers Instituut, 2008.
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  589. A legal analysis of Israeli and international definitions and perceptions of “effective control” in the Gaza Strip.
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  591. War in Afghanistan
  592.  
  593. Throughout its history, Afghanistan has been occupied by a succession of empires, including Great Britain and the Soviet Union. After terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center in New York City on 11 September 2001, a coalition of North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) states, led by the United States, again occupied the country. Loyn 2009 draws conclusions from two hundred years of attempted occupations of Afghanistan. Amstutz 1986 and Kakar 1995 describe and analyze the events surrounding the Soviet invasion. Cordovez and Harrison 1995 and Feifer 2009 interpret the failure of the Soviets in Afghanistan from two very different vantage points. Kalinovsky 2011 analyzes the political and strategic considerations that prolonged the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan. Wright 2010 is an official US history that focuses on the transition from combat to stability operations.
  594.  
  595. Amstutz, J. Bruce. Afghanistan: The First Five Years of Soviet Occupation. Washington, DC: NDU Press, 1986.
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  597. This book is a firsthand account of the Soviet invasion by the former US chargé d’affaires in Kabul. It analyzes the intervention from political, military, and economic perspectives.
  598. Find this resource:
  599. Cordovez, Diego, and Selig S. Harrison. Out of Afghanistan: The Inside Story of the Soviet Withdrawal. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995.
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  601. Authored by the United Nations mediator who negotiated the Soviet pullout and a leading South Asia expert with four decades of experience in covering Afghanistan, this book provides a vivid account of Soviet blunders that led up to the invasion and the bitter struggles over the withdrawal that raged in the Soviet and Afghan Communist parties and the Reagan administration.
  602. Find this resource:
  603. Feifer, Gregory. The Great Gamble: The Soviet War in Afghanistan. New York: HarperCollins, 2009.
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  605. Based on considerable original research and on Russian-language histories, this account examines the Soviet Union’s 1979 invasion and ten-year occupation of Afghanistan from the perspective of the soldiers on the ground.
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  607. Kakar, M. Hassan. Afghanistan: The Soviet Invasion and the Afghan Response, 1979–1982. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995.
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  609. This a history of recent events in Afghanistan by a native historian trained in London. Well documented, the book describes the events surrounding the Soviet invasion in 1979 and the encounter between the military superpower and the poorly armed Afghans.
  610. Find this resource:
  611. Kalinovsky, Artemy M. A Long Goodbye: The Soviet Withdrawal from Afghanistan. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011.
  612. DOI: 10.4159/harvard.9780674061040Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  613. This account uses recently released archival material, supplemented with interviews of participants, to reconstruct the internal debates that prevented the Soviet elites from ending a demoralizing occupation.
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  615. Loyn, David. In Afghanistan: Two Hundred Years of British, Russian and American Occupation. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009.
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  617. Written by a foreign correspondent who lives in Afghanistan, this book is an analysis of two hundred years of invasions followed by occupations, and of the “lessons” these conflicts have for the present day.
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  619. Wright, Donald P., ed. A Different Kind of War: The US Army in Operation Enduring Freedom, October 2001–September 2005. Leavenworth, KS: Combat Studies Institute, 2010.
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  621. This official history focuses on US Army operations in the larger Joint and Coalition campaign that evolved between October 2001 and September 2005. It analyzes how the campaign evolved after 2002 into a broader effort that included the creation of security and reconstruction programs, and programs to train the Afghan Army.
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  623. War in Iraq
  624.  
  625. In March 2003, a US-led coalition of forces invaded Iraq to deny the country’s dictator, Saddam Hussein, the use or proliferation of weapons of mass destruction (WMD), which the United States believed he possessed, and to affect regime change. The invading forces progressed rapidly, without encountering WMD, and Hussein’s regime fell in April. In May the US government placed a presidential envoy at the head of a Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA) to govern the country. In June 2004 an Interim Iraqi government took over from the CPA. In the meantime, Shiʿite and Sunni insurgent movements formed to oppose the occupiers and each other. The fighting grew increasingly worse until 2007, when a convergence of two developments turned the tide. Former Sunni insurgents, who became known as the Sons of Iraq, began to reconcile with the occupation forces, and, at the same time, the United States decided to “surge” its troop presence in Iraq. Meanwhile, members of the coalition withdrew their forces. The following year the United States and Iraq signed a Security Agreement that stipulated that all US combat forces had to leave by December 2011. In December 2011, the United States withdrew its remaining forces. Gordon and Trainor 2006 and Mahnken and Keaney 2007 are early analyses of the invasion and occupation. Bremer and McConnell 2006 is a memoir by the American head of the CPA, while Rudd 2011 provides an insider’s view of both the Office of Reconstruction and Humanitarian Assistance (ORHA) and the CPA during the early days of the occupation. Allawi 2007 is another personal account by a former finance and defense minister in the first postwar Iraqi government. Bensahel, et al. 2008 and Dobbins, et al. 2009 are RAND Corporation studies that focus on US Army planning for combat and stability operations in Iraq, and on the history of the CPA. Ehrenberg, et al. 2010 is a documentary narrative of the Iraq War.
  626.  
  627. Allawi, Ali A. The Occupation of Iraq: Winning the War, Losing the Peace. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2007.
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  629. In this book, the former minister of defense and finance draws on his personal experience to provide an insider’s account of the nascent Iraqi government following the American invasion.
  630. Find this resource:
  631. Bensahel, Nora, Olga Oliker, Keith Crane, et al. After Saddam: Prewar Planning and the Occupation of Iraq. Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 2008.
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  633. This RAND study was prepared at the request of the US Army. It is an account of planning and execution of combat and stability operations in Iraq and it identifies key issues that affected Army planning.
  634. Find this resource:
  635. Bremer, L. Paul, III, and Malcolm McConnell. My Year in Iraq: The Struggle to Build a Future of Hope. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2006.
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  637. A personal account of the US Presidential Envoy to Iraq and head of the Coalition Provisional Authority from May 2003 to June 2004.
  638. Find this resource:
  639. Dobbins, James, Seth G. Jones, Benjamin Runkle, and Siddharth Mohandas. Occupying Iraq: A History of the Coalition Provisional Authority. Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 2009.
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  641. This book focuses on the activities of the Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA) and its administrator, L. Paul Bremer. It is based on oral history interviews with policymakers and members of the CPA, on the memoirs of American and Iraqi officials, on journalists’ accounts, and on CPA documents.
  642. Find this resource:
  643. Ehrenberg, John, J. Patrice MacSherry, José Ramón Sánchez, and Caroleen Marji Sayej, eds. The Iraq Papers. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010.
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  645. The book uses documents that range from presidential addresses to redacted memos to narrate and interpret the Iraq War.
  646. Find this resource:
  647. Gordon, Michael R., and Bernard E. Trainor. Cobra II: The Inside Story of the Invasion and Occupation of Iraq. New York: Pantheon, 2006.
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  649. An early account of the Iraq War that focuses on high-level decision making and examines the war’s strategy and operations.
  650. Find this resource:
  651. Mahnken, Thomas, and Thomas A. Keaney, eds. War in Iraq: Planning, Combat, and Occupation. London: Routledge, 2007.
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  653. This is collection of insightful essays on the US-led major combat operations to defeat the Baathist regime and the efforts to reconstruct the country and defeat the insurgency. It is the first study that aims to incorporate an understanding of the Iraqi side of the war, based on a systematic analysis of captured Iraqi archives.
  654. Find this resource:
  655. Rudd, Gordon W. Reconstructing Iraq: Regime Change, Jay Garner, and the ORHA Story. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2011.
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  657. Rudd, field historian for both the Office of Reconstruction and Humanitarian Assistance (ORHA) and the Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA), keenly analyzes how a comprehensive plan to remove a despotic leader, unaccompanied by an equally detailed plan for replacing that regime, resulted in an unnecessary loss of lives, treasure, time, and prestige.
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