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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. The Hittites are a civilization that ruled in Anatolia (the peninsula now occupied by the modern nation of Turkey) in the Late Bronze Age (c. 1670–1180 BCE). In the 14th and 13th centuries, the Hittite kings controlled an empire that extended from the western coast of Anatolia to northern Syria, making them one of the superpowers of the ancient Near Eastern world. Speakers of the earliest attested Indo-European language, their libraries and archives have preserved thousands of documents—recorded on clay tablets using the cuneiform script—of political, historical, and religious significance. After the collapse of the Hittite state, small kingdoms in southern Anatolia and northern Syria that were once subject to the Hittite kings continued many of their traditions. Because of this legacy, these independent Iron Age kingdoms continued to be referred to as “Hittite” by their neighbors; in scholarly literature they are referred to as “Neo-Hittites.” Prior to their rediscovery at the beginning of the 20th century, the Hittites were known only through biblical references, which, among other things, listed them among the Canaanite tribes of Palestine. The nature of the connection of these biblical “Hittites” with the Bronze Age Hittite Empire and its Iron Age descendants has attracted the attention of biblical scholars. In addition, the numerous parallels between biblical and Hittite practices, beliefs, and traditions have underscored the importance of the Hittites for illuminating the prehistory of the Israelites.
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  5. General Overviews
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  7. Recent years have seen the appearance of a number of important books that present cutting-edge research on Hittite Anatolia. Bryce 2005 and Klengel 1999 are comprehensive in their coverage of Hittite history and the problems of interpretation of the written sources that for so long hindered attempts at a historical reconstruction. Collins 2007 and Klinger 2007 give more succinct accounts of the history and include discussions of other aspects of Hittite society. As such, they are better suited to use in classes in which the Hittites are not necessarily the main focus. Popko 2008 provides a useful overview of all the ethnic groups who populated the world of the Hittites, with a particular focus on the languages, while Melchert 2003 is an excellent entrée into the world of the Luwians, who comprised the largest component of the population of Anatolia during Hittite rule. The exhibit catalogue Art and Exhibition Hall of Federal Republic of Germany 2002 offers an up-to-date overview of all areas of Hittite studies supplemented by lavish illustrations that offer an unparalleled visual dimension.
  8.  
  9. Art and Exhibition Hall of Federal Republic of Germany. Die Hethiter und ihr Reich: Das Volk der 1000 Götter. Stuttgart: Theiss, 2002.
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  11. The catalogue to the exhibition of the same name that took place in Bonn, Germany, in 2002. It contains contributions by prominent scholars on all aspects of Hittite studies, from history to archaeology to the place of the Hittites in the world of the Late Bronze Age. The lavish full-color illustrations make this an irreplaceable reference work.
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  13. Bryce, Trevor. The Kingdom of the Hittites. Rev. ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.
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  15. A detailed and fascinating account of the history of the Hittite kingdom. The author is especially skilled at infusing the historical sources with life, rendering the people who populate those sources three-dimensional and the events they describe dynamic and compelling.
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  17. Collins, Billie Jean. The Hittites and Their World. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2007.
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  19. An accessible introduction to the Hittites with chapters on discovery and decipherment, political history, society, and religion. Additionally, it surveys the contributions of Hittite studies to biblical interpretation, presenting the cumulative work on the subject. A final chapter is devoted to the question of who where the Hittites in the Bible.
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  21. Klengel, Horst. Geschichte des hethitischen Reiches. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1999.
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  23. No longer state of the field, this book nevertheless remains a fundamental reference work on Hittite history, particularly to specialists and researchers desiring direct access to the primary sources. Includes a chapter by Fiorella Imparati on the organization of the state.
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  25. Klinger, Jörg. Die Hethiter. Munich: Beck, 2007.
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  27. A compact introduction to the Hittites. Chapters covering the emergence of the kingdom and the period from its zenith to its end are separated by a chapter considering aspects of Hittite culture, including political, social, and economic structures. Offers many fresh insights into Hittite history.
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  29. Melchert, H. Craig. The Luwians. Handbuch der Orientalistik 1/68. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2003.
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  31. Evidence for the Luwians is embedded in the material and textual sources belonging to the Hittite realm, making a volume devoted to isolating the world of the Luwians as remarkable as it is needed. A rich and valuable resource covering history, language and script, religion, and art and architecture.
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  33. Popko, Maciej. Völker und Sprachen Altanatoliens. Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz, 2008.
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  35. An overview of Anatolia’s ethnic groups in the second millennium BCE, which includes Hattians, Hittites, Palaians, Luwians, Hurrians, Kaskaeans, Greeks, and first-millennium peoples. The presentation is clear, provides a context for the languages, and for the most part reflects current scholarship.
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  37. Reference Works
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  39. The basic resources listed here include a sign list (Rüster and Neu 1989), two dictionaries (Güterbock, et al. 1980–, Friedrich, et al. 1975–), a reference and teaching grammar (Hoffner and Melchert 2008), and a concordance of the primary sources (Košak 2002–). These tools greatly facilitate modern study of the Hittite texts. In addition, there are catalogues of divine names (van Gessel 1998–2001), personal names (Trémouille 2002), and geographical names (del Monte and Tischler 1978), which are indispensable for orienting the researcher.
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  41. del Monte, Giuseppe F., and Johann Tischler. Répertoire Géographique des Textes Cunéiformes 6: Die Orts- und Gewässernamen der hethitischen Texte. Wiesbaden, Germany: Reichert, 1978.
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  43. A listing of the geographical names found in the Hittite sources. Entries include attestations, proposed location, citations in the secondary literature, and data related to the cult, among other useful information. A supplement was published in 1992.
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  45. Friedrich, Johannes, Annelies Kammenhuber, and Inge Hoffman. Hethitisches Wörterbuch. 2d ed. Heidelberg, Germany: Winter, 1975.
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  47. Initiated in 1975 under the auspices of Ludwig-Maximilians Universität, Munich, this dictionary so far comprises nineteen fascicles: Band I, A (1975–1984); Band II, E (1988); and Band III, Ḫ (1991–); the last is incomplete. Gives a complete overview of attestations and an extensive semantic treatment. Note that in the first two volumes, its dating of the primary texts does not follow the scholarly consensus.
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  49. Güterbock, Hans G., Harry A. Hoffner Jr., and Theo P. J. van den Hout. The Hittite Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, 1980– .
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  51. Hittite-English dictionary. To date fascicles have appeared covering words beginning with the letters l, m, n, p, and s. The dictionary begins in the middle of the alphabet to avoid overlap with Friedrich, et al. 1975–. Also available in electronic form allowing searches.
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  53. Hoffner, Harry A., Jr., and H. Craig Melchert. A Grammar of the Hittite Language. 2 vols. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2008.
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  55. Clear, accurate, and detailed presentation of the grammar by two of the foremost philologists in the field. The accompanying tutorial volume facilitates the use of the grammar as a teaching tool. An accompanying CD-ROM contains searchable pdfs of both volumes with hyperlinked cross-references. Part 1: Reference Grammar; Part 2: Tutorial.
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  57. Košak, Silvin. Konkordanz der hethitischen Keilschrifttafeln. 2002–.
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  59. Supported by the Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg and hosted by the Hittite Portal Mainz, this concordance covers all cuneiform fragments of the excavations at Boğazköy until today and is constantly supplemented and expanded. Offers a variety of search options; the search results give the inventory number, text edition, CTH number, findspot, date of composition based on paleography, and a bibliography of citations in the secondary literature after 1971, as well as links to photos of the tablets. For earlier literature, see Emmanuel Laroche’s Catalogue des textes hittites (Paris: Klincksieck, 1971). Printed volumes available.
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  61. Rüster, Christel, and Erich Neu. Hethitisches Zeichenlexikon: Inventar und Interpretation der Keilschriftzeichen aus den Bogazköy-Texten. Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz, 1989.
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  63. Provides an exhaustive sign list for Hittite cuneiform, including Sumerograms and Akkadograms, reflecting the newest readings. Each entry shows the variation in the sign over time. The glossaries of Sumerian and Akkadian words in Hittite texts are a bonus. It continues to be the standard sign list in the field.
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  65. Trémouille, Marie-Claude. Répertoire onomastique. Rome: Istituto di Studi sulle Civiltà dell’Egeo e del Vicino Oriente, 2006.
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  67. A listing of personal names occurring in the Hittite sources, available only in electronic form because it is constantly being updated. Hosted by Hethitologie Portal Mainz. The compiler has deliberately avoided prosopographic interpretation; thus, the catalogue provides raw data only and is useful to specialists with access to the primary sources. This listing only gives the material that came after the original work of E. Laroche, Les noms des Hittites (Paris: Klincksieck, 1966, with a supplement in 1981).
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  69. van Gessel, Ben H. L. Onomasticon of the Hittite Pantheon. 3 vols. Handbuch der Orientalistik 33. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1998–2001.
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  71. A catalogue of the deities of the Hittite pantheon, each entry categorizes information on their epithets, shrines, priests and servants, cult places, attributes, and feasts, and includes a complete list of attestations. However, with minimal interpretative data it remains useful primarily to specialists who have access to the cuneiform texts. An online version, so far lacking, would allow for searches, updates, and augmentation.
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  73. Anthologies
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  75. Anthologies of ancient Near Eastern texts that include Hittite sources are available, as are anthologies focusing on particular genres of Hittite texts. The three-volume The Context of Scripture (Hallo and Younger 1997–2002) replaces the popular but long-outdated Ancient Near Eastern Texts (J. B. Pritchard, Princeton, 1969), although it does not entirely overlap in its coverage. Its mission is to highlight similarities with the biblical text. The historical texts have been collected in Chavalas 2006. The series Writings from the Ancient World has so far produced four volumes devoted to collecting Hittite texts within specific genres (Hoffner 1998, Beckman 1999, Singer 2002, Hoffner 2009). These offer excellent introductions to the genre and minimal philological apparatuses and thus are ideal for classroom use. For the Hittite myths one may also refer to the critical edition of Pecchioli Daddi and Polvani 1990. The Iron Age Luwian inscriptions of the kings of the Hittite successor states are available in the Hawkins 2000 critical edition.
  76.  
  77. Beckman, Gary. Hittite Diplomatic Texts. 2d ed. Writings from the Ancient World 7. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1999.
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  79. A collection of the Hittite treaties in English translation, with the addition of a selection of the diplomatic correspondence and miscellaneous diplomatic texts, most having to do with the Hittites’ north Syrian vassals. The treaties will be of interest to those curious about their connection to the biblical covenant formula.
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  81. Chavalas, Mark, ed. The Ancient Near East: Historical Sources in Translation. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2006.
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  83. Chapters 8 and 9 are devoted to “Hittite Historical Texts” with seven scholars contributing essays and translations. These sixty-five pages on the Hittites include extensive excerpts from fourteen historical texts.
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  85. Hallo, William H., and K. Lawson Younger Jr., eds. The Context of Scripture. 3 vols. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1997–2002.
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  87. The three volumes cover canonical compositions (1), monumental inscriptions (2), and archival documents (3) from the ancient Near East, including Hittite Anatolia. The volumes are designed for those interested in the biblical parallels and include a system of notation that directs the reader to relevant passages in the Bible.
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  89. Hawkins, J. David. Corpus of Hieroglyphic Luwian Inscriptions. Vol. 1, Inscriptions of the Iron Age. In 3 parts. Studies in Indo-European Language and Culture 8. Berlin: de Gruyter, 2000.
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  91. A collection of all known hieroglyphic Luwian inscriptions of the Iron Age (c. 1100–700 BCE). The inscriptions are organized geographically and include transliteration, English translation, critical apparatus, historical background, and photos as well as extensive description and commentary.
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  93. Hoffner, Harry A., Jr. Hittite Myths. 2d ed. Writings from the Ancient World 2. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1998.
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  95. A complete collection of the surviving Hittite myths in English translation. The volume follows the customary division between myths of “Old Anatolian” and Hurrian origin.
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  97. Hoffner, Harry A., Jr. Letters from the Hittite Kingdom. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2009.
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  99. A nonexhaustive collection of the official correspondence of the Hittites in English translation with accompanying Hittite in transliteration. A lengthy introduction provides a detailed context for the letters, which are organized chronologically and then by place of discovery.
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  101. Pecchioli Daddi, Franca, and Anna Maria Polvani. La mitologia ittita. Testi del Vicino Oriente Antico 4; Letterature dell’Asia Minore. Brescia, Italy: Paideia, 1990.
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  103. The Hittite myths in Italian translation, with more critical apparatus than Hoffner 1998. This edition does not include the important, recently discovered Hurrian “Song of Release.”
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  105. Singer, Itamar. Hittite Prayers. Writings from the Ancient World 11. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2002.
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  107. Offers the current consensus of opinion on the background, nature, function, and context of the Hittite personal prayers. The translations are state of the art, and the supplementary commentaries make this a useful classroom resource.
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  109. Bibliographies
  110.  
  111. The only bibliography for Hittite studies is that of Soucek and Siegelová 1996. It is exhaustive through 1995. The entries are grouped by category, making it easier to navigate, but are not annotated. Also valuable are Marazzi and Guzzo’s Kritische Bibliographie der Lexicographie des Hethitischen, which directs users to discussions of particular Hittite words in the secondary literature, and Groddeks Liste der Sekundärliteratur zu Textstellen aus Bogazköy, which does the same with discussions of particular texts.
  112.  
  113. Groddeks Liste der Sekundärliteratur zu Textstellen aus Bogazköy.
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  115. An index of citations of individual texts and passages from the Boghazköy corpus in the secondary literature.
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  117. Marazzi, M., and N. Bolatti Guzzo. Kritische Bibliographie der Lexicographie des Hethitischen.
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  119. The Index Anatolicus offers a current, critical bibliography to the cuneiform Hittite lexicon. The references link to the HPM’s bibliography. It is thorough, though not exhaustive. Plans for a Hieroglyphic Luwian lexicon are also under way.
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  121. Soucek, Vladimir, and Jana Siegelová. Systematische Bibliographie der Hethitologie 1915–1995. 3 vols. Prague, Czech Republic: Národní Muzeum, 1996.
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  123. Also available online through the Hittite Portal Mainz (HPM); this is the place to go for entries after 1995. Entries are grouped into nine categories, including a section on “Hethiter und die Welt der Bible.”
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  125. Political History
  126.  
  127. The fast pace of research into Anatolia’s past that has allowed coherent histories at last to be written is also responsible for rendering them out of date almost as soon as they appear. Nevertheless, histories reflecting for the most part the latest research are available in Bryce 2005 and Klengel 1999. More accessible to students will be the briefer accounts Collins 2007 and Kuhrt 1994. Bryce 2003a approaches the same subject matter from the perspective of the political relations that helped to define the period of the Late Bronze Age. The Luwians, who comprised a significant part of the population of Anatolia, have not been overlooked in recent publications, either. Bryce 2003b is an attempt to reconstruct a history of the Luwians in Anatolia from the available sources. Jasink 1995 represents the first attempt at a book-length history of the Iron Age Neo-Hittite (Luwian) kingdoms.
  128.  
  129. Bryce, Trevor. “History.” In The Luwians. Edited by H. Craig Melchert, 27–127. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2003a.
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  131. Covers the history of the Luwian-speaking population of Anatolia from their arrival at the end of the third millennium through Roman-period Lycia. Outside of Tabal and Cilicia, the Neo-Hittite kingdoms of the Iron Age are not treated here.
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  133. Bryce, Trevor. Letters of the Great Kings of the Ancient Near East: The Royal Correspondence of the Late Bronze Age. London: Routledge, 2003b.
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  135. An insightful narrative account of the events of the Late Bronze Age through the lens of the diplomatic correspondence that connected the great kingdoms of the period, most especially, the Hittites.
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  137. Bryce, Trevor. The Kingdom of the Hittites. Rev. ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.
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  139. The most up-to-date and detailed account of Hittite history. The author weaves a continuous historical narrative without disregarding alternative interpretations or skirting over complex issues, making this volume ideal for specialist and layperson alike.
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  141. Collins, Billie Jean. “A Political History of the Hittites.” In The Hittites and Their World. By Billie Jean Collins, 21–90. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2007.
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  143. A succinct and readable introduction to one thousand years of Hittite history from the Middle Bronze through the Iron Age.
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  145. Jasink, A. M. Gli stati neo-hittiti: Analisi delle fonti scritte e sintesi storica. SMEA 10. Pavia, Italy: Gianni Iuculano, 1995.
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  147. The only attempt as of the early 21st century at a comprehensive history of the Neo-Hittite states. New archaeological discoveries have increased our understanding of the period exponentially; however, until a new history is written, this remains a key resource for the period.
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  149. Klengel, Horst. Geschichte des hethitischen Reiches. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1999.
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  151. A significant contribution to the reconstruction of Hittite history, this is also a valuable resource for scholars. Klengel usefully lists the primary sources that illuminate the period under discussion and refers back to them where relevant in the course of the narrative. This account ends with the Late Bronze Age.
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  153. Kuhrt, Amelie. “The Hittites.” In The Ancient Near East, c. 3000–330 BC. 2 vols. By Amelie Kuhrt, 225–282. London: Routledge, 1994.
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  155. An excellent overview of Hittite history. Also see “The Neo-Hittite States” (pp. 410–417) for a much briefer treatment of the Neo-Hittite kingdoms. Both are presented in the broader context of the history of the Near East.
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  157. Society, Economy, and Culture
  158.  
  159. The official nature of the Hittite sources and the central role of the king shape and limit our view of Hittite society. The political structures of the kingdom are mapped in Imparati 1999. Because our sources come from the top, we know relatively little about how people lived. Imparati 1995 attempts to shed some light on the lives of the subjects of the Hittite kingdom. Much of what we can know is reconstructed from the Hittite laws, for which the critical edition Hoffner 1997 is essential. Bryce 2002 is the only book devoted entirely to Hittite society. Geared to the lay reader, it is an excellent reconstruction of Hittite life. Collins 2007 offers a brief and accessible broad overview. Bryce 2007 is a popular but accurate look at the Hittite military, and thus appropriate for classroom use. Haas 2006 is the most extensive examination of Hittite literature, useful for research into comparative literature. Beckman 2008 offers a more succinct review of the literary genres found in the Hittite texts.
  160.  
  161. Beckman, Gary. “Hittite Literature.” In From an Antique Land: An Introduction to Ancient Near Eastern Literature. Edited by C. S. Erlich, 215–254. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2008.
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  163. An excellent brief introduction to the background and various genres of Hittite literature. Excerpts are, however, brief, and those desiring a deeper immersion into the material should refer to the works listed under Anthologies.
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  165. Bryce, Trevor. Life and Society in the Hittite World. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.
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  167. An engaging and factual view of Hittite society, beginning with the king and his court and moving to the life of the scribe, farmer, merchant, and warrior. Law and marriage are also treated, as are topics related to religion, in five chapters. The volume concludes with interesting description of the Hittite capital, and an overview of connections with the Greek world.
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  169. Bryce, Trevor. Hittite Warrior. Oxford: Osprey, 2007.
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  171. Disguised in the trappings of a popular book, this small volume is a useful introduction to the practical aspects of Hittite warfare, placed in their historical context. It contains numerous illustrations, some fanciful, some helpful.
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  173. Collins, Billie Jean. “Society.” In The Hittites and Their World. By Billie Jean Collins, 91–155. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2007.
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  175. Discussion of governance, law and daily life, arts, and literature, with reference to biblical parallels. Includes an excursus on the Hittite treaties and the biblical covenant formula.
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  177. Haas, Volkert. Die hethitische Literatur: Texte, Stilistik, Motive. Berlin: de Gruyter, 2006.
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  179. An exhaustive treatment of Hittite literature, including such categories as curses, historiolae, and even dreams, which are not typically considered in discussions of belles lettres. Descriptions are accompanied by commentary and comparanda, but the volume does not offer connected translations of the compositions.
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  181. Hoffner, Harry A., Jr. The Laws of the Hittites: A Critical Edition. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1997.
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  183. The definitive critical edition of the two hundred Hittite laws, which provide our best insights into society under Hittite rule.
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  185. Imparati, Fiorella. “Private Life Among the Hittites.” In Civilizations of the Ancient Near East. Edited by Jack M. Sasson, 571–586. New York: Scribners, 1995.
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  187. Collects the limited information we have about the lives of average people in the Hittite period, much of it deriving from the Hittite laws.
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  189. Imparati, Fiorella. “Die Organisation des hethitischen Staates.” In Geschichte des hethitischen Reiches. Edited by Horst Klengel, 320–387. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1999.
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  191. A look at governance and the political infrastructure of the Hittite state.
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  193. Religious Life
  194.  
  195. Religious documents dominate the Hittite textual corpus and so it is not surprising that the literature reflects considerable interest in the religious history of Anatolia. The works by Haas (Haas 1994 and Haas 2003) are encyclopedic in scope and thus indispensable; however, they are idiosyncratic and should be considered against Taracha 2009 and Popko 1995. Taracha 2009 is an important volume, but nonspecialists will be put off by the dizzying array of divine names. More accessible to the nonspecialist is the treatment by Bryce 2002. Collins 2007 provides a synthesis with a discussion of the numerous biblical parallels. Because Hittite religion was not a unified system, we have to consider in tandem the religious beliefs and practices of not only the Hittites, but also the Palaians, Hattians, and Luwians, and how they dovetail with Hurrian, Syrian, and Mesopotamian traditions. Both Popko 1995 and Taracha 2009 isolate Luwian and Hurrian beliefs for separate discussion. Hutter 2003 is an excellent reconstruction of Luwian religious practices from the Hittite sources where they are embedded. Klinger 1996 presents an exhaustive treatment of the Hattian religious elements woven into the Hittite sources. Taggar-Cohen 2006 offers a first step toward a comprehensive description of the Hittite priesthood and cult personnel.
  196.  
  197. Bryce, Trevor. Life and Society in the Hittite World. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.
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  199. Five chapters are devoted to religious subjects: “The Gods,” “The Curers of Diseases,” “Death, Burial, and the Afterlife,” Festivals and Rituals,” and “Myths.” An accurate description of Hittite religious practices in an accessible narrative format.
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  201. Collins, Billie Jean. “Religion.” In The Hittites and Their World. By Billie Jean Collins, 157–195. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2007.
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  203. A synthetic overview of Hittite religion, including discussion of numerous biblical parallels.
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  205. Haas, Volkert. Geschichte der hethitischen Religion. Handbuch der Orientalistik 1.15. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1994.
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  207. All the relevant source materials for Hittite religion are catalogued and discussed, thus providing an indispensable starting point for a religious history. Idiosyncratic in its coverage and vulnerable to criticism for interpretations based on questionable parallels, but generally reliable.
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  209. Haas, Volkert. Materia Magica et Medica Hethitica. Ein Beitrag zur Heilkunde im Alten Orient. 2 vols. Berlin: de Gruyter, 2003.
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  211. An encyclopedia of the objects used in Hittite ritual, from animals, plants, human, mineral, and cosmic elements; to daily objects, amulets, textiles, figurines, and a discussion of the rituals in which the objects are used.
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  213. Hutter, Manfred. “Aspects of Luwian Religion.” In The Luwians. Edited by H. Craig Melchert, 211–280. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2003.
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  215. Argues that it is possible to trace Luwian religion as an entity of its own apart from “Hittite religion,” although it is not possible to speak as yet of religion as part of a common Luwian identity. Thus, it approaches the topic regionally, looking at local cults, a fragmentizing approach necessitated by the limited sources.
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  217. Klinger, Jörg. Untersuchungen zur Rekonstruktion der hattischen Kultschicht. Studien zu den Boğazköy-Texten37. Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz, 1996.
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  219. Hattian religious elements dominate the Hittite texts of the Hittite Old Kingdom. Klinger provides an authoritative and meticulous investigation into the Hattian cultic layer within Hittite religion, including editions of the relevant texts. For the more general reader, chapter 3, “Aspekte der hattischen Kultschicht,” will be the most relevant and accessible.
  220. Find this resource:
  221. Popko, Maciej. Religions of Asia Minor. Warsaw: Dialog, 1995.
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  223. A synthesis of the religions of ancient Anatolia, with special focus on the second millennium. Although this treatment predates many recent advancements both archaeologically and historically, it remains a useful introduction.
  224. Find this resource:
  225. Taggar-Cohen, Ada. Hittite Priesthood. Texte der Hethiter 26. Heidelberg, Germany: Winter, 2006.
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  227. An attempt to unravel the complex temple hierarchy of the Hitties. Identifies the major categories of priests and priestesses and their functions, and discusses the priesthood as a characteristic of the Hittite royal family.
  228. Find this resource:
  229. Taracha, Piotr. Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia. Dresdner Beiträge zur Hethitologie 27. Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrasowitz, 2009.
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  231. Offering a fresh and comprehensive analysis of religion in Hittite Anatolia, this is the first true religious history of the Hittites, as it traces the evolution of the cult over time. Makes the case for two separate pantheons in the Empire period: one the official state pantheon and one the pantheon of the ruling Hurrian dynasty.
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  233. Language
  234.  
  235. Hittite is the earliest attested Indo-European language, yet its decipherment (1915) and study are not yet a century old. The decoding of its close linguistic cousin, Luwian, is even more recent. Both were spoken widely in Anatolia under Hittite rule. Their place in the history of language has subjected both to much scrutiny by philologists and linguists. Only a handful of works, though, offer a view of the Anatolian languages collectively. Woodard 2008 is a convenient, systematic presentation of the grammars of all the ancient languages of ancient Anatolia. Popko 2008 is the most comprehensive and cohesive resource available to the nonspecialist.
  236.  
  237. Popko, Maciej. Völker und Sprachen Altanatoliens. Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz, 2008.
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  239. A comprehensive treatment of the ancient Anatolian languages. The description of the grammar is not systematic, but it offers the advantage of placing them in their historical and cultural contexts.
  240. Find this resource:
  241. Woodard, Roger D. The Ancient Languages of Asia Minor. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2008.
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  243. Provides concise and accurate grammatical introductions to the languages of ancient Turkey, including Hittite, Luwian, and Palaic. These chapters are contributed by Calvert Watkins (Hittite) and H. Craig Melchert (Luwian and Palaic).
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  245. Hittite
  246.  
  247. Although the Hittite language was deciphered at the beginning of the 20th century, only recently have grammars appeared to replace the outdated and incomplete Hethitisches Elementarbuch of Johannes Friedrich (2d ed., 1960). Rieken 2005 provides a summary description of the grammar. Luraghi 1997 serves as a brief reference grammar, while Hoffner and Melchert 2008 is a complete and detailed grammar for classroom instruction. Dictionaries are also available. Güterbock, et al. 1980– and Friedrich, et al. 1975– are both ongoing projects. The former so far covers the letters l through s and the latter the letters a through h. Of particular use to Indo-Europeanists and Hittitologists alike are the etymological dictionaries Kloekhorst 2008 and Puhvel 1984–.
  248.  
  249. Friedrich, Johannes, Annelies Kammenhuber, and Inge Hoffman. Hethitisches Wörterbuch. 2d ed. Heidelberg, Germany: Winter, 1975–.
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  251. Gives a complete overview of attestations and an extensive semantic treatment of the Hittite lexikon. Note that in the first two volumes its dating of the primary texts does not follow the scholarly consensus.
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  253. Güterbock, Hans G., Harry A. Hoffner Jr., and Theo P. J. van den Hout. The Hittite Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. 1980–.
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  255. Hittite-English dictionary with a complete overview of attestations and excellent semantic treatment of the Hittite lexikon. Also available in electronic form.
  256. Find this resource:
  257. Hoffner, Harry A., Jr., and H. Craig Melchert. A Grammar of the Hittite Language. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2008.
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  259. The authoritative reference grammar for Hittite. A tutorial volume to facilitate use of the grammar for classroom instruction is included as Part 2. (Part 1 is titled Reference Grammar.)
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  261. Kloekhorst, Alwin. Etymological Dictionary of the Hittite Inherited Lexicon. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2008.
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  263. An etymological dictionary of the entire Hittite lexicon of Indo-European origin, which is applied systematically to new advancements in the synchronic and historical linguistics of Hittite to the whole Hittite material.
  264. Find this resource:
  265. Luraghi, Silvia. Hittite. Munich: Lincom Europa, 1997.
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  267. Concise English-language reference grammar of Hittite in the form of a pocketbook.
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  269. Puhvel, Jaan. Hittite Etymological Dictionary. 7 vols. Berlin: Mouton/de Gruyter, 1984–.
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  271. This ongoing work now covers the letters A–N. It is a comprehensive compendium of the vocabulary of Hittite and is important for comparative Indo-European studies. It also provides the inflected forms of words and translations of selected passages, and includes useful semantic discussion.
  272. Find this resource:
  273. Rieken, E. “Hethitisch.” In Sprachen des alten Orients. Edited by Michael P. Streck, 80–127. Darmstadt, Germany: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 2005.
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  275. An accurate grammatical description of Hittite.
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  277. Luwian
  278.  
  279. The study of the Luwian language and script has moved so swiftly over the decades that the standard works have become outdated. The citations included here reflect the latest scholarship with reference to earlier literature. Cuneiform Luwian and hieroglyphic Luwian, named for the distinct scripts in which they were written, are closely related dialects of Luwian. Hawkins 2003 presents a synthesis of the corpus of both forms of Luwian. Melchert 2003 describes the grammar of both forms of Luwian side by side. Melchert 1993 collects the cuneiform Luwian lexicon. Savaş 1998 extracts the personal, divine, and geographic names from the hieroglyphic texts. Payne 2010 offers a compact and affordable primer for hieroglyphic Luwian. Hawkins 2000 is the definitive work on the Iron Age Luwian inscriptions. Yakubovich 2010 delivers a unique and important investigation into the ethnic history of Luwian.
  280.  
  281. Hawkins, J. D. Corpus of Hieroglyphic Luwian Inscriptions. Vol. I/1–3, Inscriptions of the Iron Age. Berlin: de Gruyter, 2000.
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  283. A critical edition of most Iron Age inscriptions with full bibliography, photos and drawings, transliteration, translation, and commentary. It will remain the centerpiece for at least another generation.
  284. Find this resource:
  285. Hawkins, J. D. “Scripts and Texts.” In The Luwians. Edited by H. Craig Melchert, 128–169. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2003.
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  287. A description of the cuneiform and hieroglyphic scripts, which were used to write Luwian. Provides a list of all known Bronze and Iron Age hieroglyphic inscriptions.
  288. Find this resource:
  289. Melchert, H. Craig. Cuneiform Luwian Lexicon. Chapel Hill, NC, 1993.
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  291. Exhaustive lexicon of Luwianisms and Luwian loanwords occurring in Hittite cuneiform sources. It includes attestations, but is not a proper dictionary with full critical apparatus. In 2001 the author posted this self-published print version online without charge.
  292. Find this resource:
  293. Melchert, H. Craig. “Language.” In The Luwians. Edited by H. Craig Melchert, 170–210. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2003.
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  295. Presents a unified description of Luwian grammar while acknowledging the differences between the cuneiform and hieroglyphic forms of the language.
  296. Find this resource:
  297. Payne, Annick. Hieroglyphic Luwian. 2d rev. ed. Subsidia et Instrumenta Linguarum Orientis 2. Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz, 2010.
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  299. This second revised edition of the 2004 original publication provides a much-needed introductory primer to Luwian. Designed for self-instruction. Includes a current sign list and sample hieroglyphic texts.
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  301. Savaş, Savaş Orhan. Divine, Personal and Geographic Names in the (Hittite-Luwian) Hieroglyphic Inscriptions. Istanbul: Ege, 1998.
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  303. A catalogue of the divine, personal, and geographic names that occur in the Anatolian hieroglyphic inscriptions. Includes text references and bibliography. Of use primarily to specialists.
  304. Find this resource:
  305. Yakubovich, Ilya. Sociolinguistics of the Luvian Language. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2010.
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  307. Uses sociolinguistics to explore Luwian ethnic history, with an emphasis on the interpretation of contacts between Luwian and its linguistic neighbors. Concludes that Luwian was originally spoken in central Anatolia and migrated south and west as a result of the expansion of the Hittite state. The balance between the socially dominant Hittite and the more widely spoken Luwian eventually shifted in favor of Luwian.
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  309. Art and Archaeology
  310.  
  311. There is a lamentable shortage of current literature that synthesizes the abundant information now available as a result of excavations, both early and modern, of Hittite towns in the heartland. The results of the excavations at Hattuša have meticulously and expeditiously been published in the journal Archaeologischer Anzeiger; however, not until the appearance of Neve 1996 had a synthesis of the archaeology of the Hittite capital been available. For Hattusa as well as the provincial center of Sarissa, the excavation websites (Hauptstadt der Hethiter in Zentralanatolien and Ausgrabungen in einer hethitischen Stadtruine, respectively) are the best resources. Unfortunately, other Hittite sites currently under excavation do not have similarly helpful online resources. The disparate essays collected in Mielke, et al. 2006 represent the most recent review of current archaeological work. The pace of study of Hittite art has lagged behind other areas of research, and we are still reliant on classic works such as Bittel 1976, which remain useful but do not offer an up-to-date treatment of the historical contexts and social meaning of the art. Özyar 2006 is a welcome review of the current state of research into Hittite art. The museum catalogue Art and Exhibition Hall of Federal Republic of Germany 2002 offers the most comprehensive recent treatment of both the art and archaeology of the Hittite period. By far the best treatment of the Luwian art and architecture of the Iron Age Neo-Hittite kingdoms is that of Aro 2003.
  312.  
  313. Aro, Sanna. “Art and Architecture.” In The Luwians. Edited by H. C. Melchert, 281–337. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2003.
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  315. The most current and penetrating overview available of the art and archaeology of the Iron Age successor states of southern Anatolia and northern Syria.
  316. Find this resource:
  317. Art and Exhibition Hall of Federal Republic of Germany. Die Hethiter und ihr Reich: Das Volk der 1000 Götter. Stuttgart: Theiss, 2002.
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  319. Contributions by eighteen scholars on the archaeology of eight Hittite-period cities as well as most aspects of Hittite art and architecture make this large-format exhibit catalogue indispensable. Includes ample full-color illustrations and an extensive bibliography.
  320. Find this resource:
  321. Bittel, Kurt. Die Hethiter: Der Kunst Anatoliens vom Ende der 3. bis zum Anfang der 1. Jahrtausends v. Chr. Munich: Beck, 1976.
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  323. Classic publication of the most important monuments and objets d’art in black and white and full color.
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  325. . Hattusa: Hauptstadt der Hethiter in Zentralanatolien.
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  327. Includes illustrated reports of recent excavations in the Hittite capital of Hattusa, as well as an extensive bibliography relating to the excavations. For those seeking an introduction to the site, a “city tour” and “city history” are available in German, Turkish, and English. The related printed publication by Jürgen Seeher, Hattusha Guide: A Day in the Hittite Capital (Istanbul: Ege Yayinlari, 2002), is also available in Turkish and German.
  328. Find this resource:
  329. Kusaklı-Sarissa: Ausgrabungen in einer hethitischen Stadtruine.
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  331. The official website for the ongoing excavations at the medium-sized Hittite provincial center of Sarissa (modern Kusaklı), under the auspices of the Philipps-Universität Marburg. The site includes a summary of the excavations and a bibliography.
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  333. Mielke, D. P., U. D. Schoop, and J. Seeher, eds. Strukturierung und Datierung in der hethitischen Archäologie. BYZAS 4. Istanbul: Ege Yayınları, 2006.
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  335. A proceedings volume that includes contributions covering a wide array of subjects, with a focus on issues of chronology in the Hittite material record.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. Neve, Peter. Hattuša: Stadt der Götter und Tempel. Neue Ausgrabungen in der Hauptstadt der Hethiter. Mainz, Germany: von Zabern, 1996.
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  339. New interpretations (especially relating to the chronology of temple construction) have since replaced those of Neve; however, this volume remains an attractive and useful introduction to the archaeology of the Hittite capital and especially the modern excavations there.
  340. Find this resource:
  341. Özyar, Aslı. “A Prospectus of Hittite Art Based on the State of Our Knowledge at the Beginning of the Third Millennium AD. Mielke.” In Strukturierung und Datierung in der hethitischen Archäologie. Edited by D. P. Mielke, U. D. Schoop, and J. Seeher, 125–148. BYZAS 4. Istanbul: Ege Yayınları, 2006.
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  343. A fresh and insightful survey of Hittite artistic forms, setting out the problems of preservation and interpretation, the questions yet to be answered, and offering some future directions.
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  345. Hittites in the Bible
  346.  
  347. There is a considerable literature on the question of who exactly were the Hittites in the Bible and how are they related, if at all, to the Late Bronze Age Hittite Empire. There is an even more considerable literature that investigates the numerous instances of parallel phenomena in Hittite and biblical traditions. Singer 2006 and Collins 2007 offer current but very distinctive theories on the former and excellent surveys of the latter. Both also provide references to previous literature and so collectively are the place to begin any inquiry on the subject. Note also that both Singer and Collins approach the subject from the point of view of Hittitology. Collins 2007 argues that the biblical Hittites are connected to the second-millennium Hittites by means of the merging of threads of literary tradition, and rejects the notion that a group of Hittites might have lived in Palestine in the biblical period. Singer 2006 posits two possible scenarios: in the first, the Hittites in the Bible migrated from Anatolia, adapting to the local culture so thoroughly that the biblical writers disregarded their Anatolian origins. In the second, the biblical writers inherited the use of the term “Hittite” from Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian usage, wherein it served as a synonym for “Canaanite” and “Amorite,” and thus the biblical Hittites have nothing to do with the Anatolian Hittites. Hoffner 2002 offers a brief review of the history of investigation into the subject.
  348.  
  349. Collins, Billie Jean. The Hittites and Their World. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2007.
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  351. In the course of introducing the history and culture of the Hittites, this volume offers a comprehensive survey of the contributions of Hittite studies to biblical interpretation. It represents the first attempt to collect in one place all of the parallels that have been proposed over decades of research. Chapter 5, “Hittites in the Bible,” details the author’s theory as to how “Hittites” came to appear in the Bible.
  352. Find this resource:
  353. Hoffner, Harry A., Jr. “Hittite-Israelite Cultural Parallels.” In The Context of Scripture. Vol. 3, Archival Documents. Edited by William H. Hallo and K. Lawson Younger Jr., xxix–xxxiv. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2002.
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  355. A concise review of the state of the question and the issues involved, from a Hittitologist who has written the most on the subject.
  356. Find this resource:
  357. Singer, Itamar. “The Hittites and the Bible Revisited.” In “I Will Speak the Riddle of Ancient Times”: Archaelogical and Historical Studies in Honor of Amihai Mazar on the Occasion of His Sixtieth Birthday. Edited by Aren M. Maeir and Pierre de Miroschedji, 723–756. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2006.
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  359. A cogent and comprehensive presentation of the problem presented by the biblical references to “Hittites”; discussion of the historical, archaeological, and philological evidence for a Hittite presence in and influence on Palestine; and survey of the most significant parallels between Hittite and Israelite traditions. Includes extensive references to earlier literature.
  360. Find this resource:
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