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Atlantic Creoles

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. Historians of the Atlantic world are indebted to Ira Berlin for the concept of “Atlantic Creoles,” a phrase Berlin first used in a seminal article in the William and Mary Quarterly, and then again in his fine monograph, Many Thousands Gone (Berlin 2000, cited under Atlantic Creoles in North America). Berlin defined Atlantic Creoles as Africans engaged in the evolving Atlantic world who were gifted with “linguistic dexterity, cultural plasticity, and social agility.” The key to this definition was the fluidity Berlin assigned to identity and the various ways in which he measured cultural adaptation. The Portuguese first used the term crioulo in the 15th century to designate Africans who adopted Portuguese language and some elements of European culture. Spaniards called such people ladinos (opposing those to bozales or unacculturated Africans). Spaniards most commonly used the term criollo to mean Spaniards born in the Americas, although they sometimes used all three terms—criollo, bozal, and ladino—to identify the various levels of acculturation of both Native Americans and Africans in the Americas. In the 20th century, a variety of academic disciplines began to use the term creolization. Linguists first used the term to signify changes in European languages produced in the Americas, and in 1972 American anthropologists Sidney Mintz and Richard Price adopted the linguistic model of creolization to argue that African slaves torn from their roots and scattered in the diaspora retained only basic elements of their original languages and cultures. In 1982 sociologist Orlando Patterson took that idea even further, arguing that enslaved Africans experienced a “social death.” Scholars better versed in precolonial Africa, such as Paul Lovejoy and John Thornton, among others, responded that more African culture survived the Middle Passage than the creolization school acknowledged, and they found evidence of African retentions in language, architecture, religious practice, social structure, and patterns of warfare, among other cultural forms. Historians who study Atlantic Creoles reject the older deracinated view of creolized culture as well as attempts to identify some essential and immutable African culture. Instead, they borrow from Mary Louise Pratt’s model of the contact zone: “social spaces where cultures meet, clash, and grapple with each other, often in contexts of highly asymmetrical relations of power.” They argue that despite subordination, Atlantic Creoles living on the African coasts, in Europe, or in the Americas were able to engage in a variety of cultural, political, social, economic, and even religious systems, without an implied loss to their original cultural base. Rather than view culture as a zero-sum game, this school considers the added skill sets and experiences that altered, but did not eradicate, Atlantic Creoles’ original identities. Geopolitics and global economics propelled them through a variety of political regimes, geographies, cultures, languages, and religions that could not have but shaped them in some fashion. And although many of their peregrinations were forced, Atlantic Creoles made choices as well about how they self-identified and what they used of their background in particular situations—much as they probably did when still on the African continent. As merchants, slave traders, linguists, sailors, artisans, musicians, and military figures, Atlantic Creoles interacted with a wide variety of European and indigenous groups and helped shape a new Atlantic world system.
  4.  
  5. General Overviews
  6.  
  7. Among the interesting works on Atlantic Creoles are the narratives of former slaves who became advocates for abolition in the 18th and 19th centuries (see, for example, Sollors 2001). Works on such characters include Curtin 1967, Law and Lovejoy 2001 and Sparks 2004. The concept of the black Atlantic was first discussed by Gilroy 1993, and Scott 1986 was first to discuss the geopolitical role of free black sailors in the Atlantic world.
  8.  
  9. Curtin, Philip. Africa Remembered: Narratives by West Africans in the Era of the Slave Trade. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1967.
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  11. This early work by the eminent Africanist includes narratives of well-known Atlantic Creoles from the 18th and 19th centuries, such as Olaudah Equiano, Philip Quaque, and Samuel Ajayi Crowther. Excellent for both undergraduate and graduate classes.
  12. Find this resource:
  13. Gilroy, Paul. The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double-Consciousness. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993.
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  15. Literary scholar Paul Gilroy coined the term “black Atlantic” in this influential study of the agency and political engagement of persons of African descent who traveled the English North Atlantic after the mid-19th century.
  16. Find this resource:
  17. Law, Robin, and Paul E. Lovejoy. The Biography of Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua: His Passage from Slavery to Freedom in Africa and America. Princeton, NJ: Markus Wiener, 2001.
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  19. This important work by two eminent historians of Africa follows the Atlantic Creole Baquaqua from Africa to Brazil to New York and traces his transition from enslavement into freedom.
  20. Find this resource:
  21. Scott, Julius. “A Common Wind: Currents of Afro-American Communication in the Era of the American Revolution.” PhD diss., Duke University, 1986.
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  23. Path-breaking dissertation based on research in French, Spanish, and Caribbean archives that first pointed to the important role of sailors of African descent in spreading revolutionary news and ideology through the circum-Caribbean.
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  25. Sollors, Werner, ed. The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the African, Written by Himself. Norton Critical Edition. New York: Norton, 2001.
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  27. A critical edition of the original text by perhaps the most well-known Atlantic Creole, the freed African become abolitionist, with criticism and bibliography.
  28. Find this resource:
  29. Sparks, Randy J. The Two Princes of Calabar: An Eighteenth-Century Atlantic Odyssey. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004.
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  31. This slim volume follows the Atlantic trails of Little Ephraim Robin John and Ancona Robin Robin John, former slave trading “princes” from Calabar who were enslaved in the Caribbean and Virginia and finally restored to freedom. Good for use in both undergraduate and graduate classes.
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  33. Textbooks and Surveys
  34.  
  35. Despite the relatively recent development of the Atlantic Creole concept, a number of good works now focus on Atlantic Creoles and the black Atlantic. These include documentary readers like McKnight and Garofalo 2009 and edited collections such as Mamigonian and Racine 2010, Dubois and Scott 2009, and Landers and Robinson 2006. Two major Atlantic world textbooks, Egerton, et al. 2007 and Benjamin 2009, and Northrup 2002, a survey, also include attention to Atlantic Creoles. Earlier edited collections, such as Andrien 2002, also feature Atlantic Creoles living in Latin America.
  36.  
  37. Andrien, Kenneth J., ed. The Human Tradition in Colonial Latin America. Human Tradition around the World 5. Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 2002.
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  39. This collection of essays features original research by noted scholars. The focus is on actors of indigenous or African descent, many of whom challenged the colonial order. Good for undergraduate classes.
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  41. Benjamin, Thomas. The Atlantic World: Europeans, Africans, Indians and Their Shared History, 1400–1900. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2009.
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  43. Well-written synthesis that features numerous maps, illustrations, and excerpts from primary documents, as well as useful reading lists. Although a general text, it is attentive to Atlantic Creoles.
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  45. Dubois, Laurent, and Julius S. Scott, eds. Origins of the Black Atlantic. Rewriting Histories. London: Routledge, 2009.
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  47. A valuable edited collection.
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  49. Egerton, Douglas R., Alison Games, Jane Landers, Kris Lane, and Donald R. Wright. The Atlantic World: A History, 1400–1888. Wheeling, IL: Harlan Davidson, 2007.
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  51. Coauthored by specialists in African, British American, and Latin American histories, this text features a number of Atlantic Creole characters, a lively text, and good bibliographies for each chapter.
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  53. Landers, Jane, and Barry M. Robinson, eds. Slaves, Subjects, and Subversives: Blacks in Colonial Latin America. Diálogos. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2006.
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  55. This edited collection features original essays by top scholars of Africa and Latin America. Each essay appends a translated document on which it is based, which makes this a useful teaching tool for undergraduate and graduate classes.
  56. Find this resource:
  57. Mamigonian, Beatriz G., and Karen Racine. The Human Tradition in the Black Atlantic, 1500–2000. Human Tradition around the World. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2010.
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  59. A collection of twelve biographical essays on figures ranging from the mulatto leader of a 16th-century maroon community to the 20th-century African-American artist Romare Beardon. Half of the essays focus on the 20th century. Useful for undergraduate classes.
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  61. McKnight, Kathryn Joy, and Leo J. Garofalo. Afro-Latin Voices: Narratives from the Early Modern Ibero-Atlantic World, 1550–1812. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett, 2009.
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  63. A valuable primary-document sourcebook showing the diverse types of evidence available to scholars studying Atlantic Creoles. Sources such as wills, letters, interrogations, court testimonies, and petitions from African, American, and European locales are analyzed by an interdisciplinary group of scholars. Good for graduate and undergraduate classes.
  64. Find this resource:
  65. Northrup, David. Africa’s Discovery of Europe, 1450–1850. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002.
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  67. A brief survey of the encounters between Africans and Europeans written from the African perspective by an eminent historian of Africa. Traces the development of Creole enclaves on the African coast. Appropriate for use in both undergraduate and graduate classes.
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  69. Bibliographies
  70.  
  71. Researchers may find relevant works on Atlantic Creoles in published bibliographies of Latin America, such as The Handbook of Latin American Studies or the Hispanic American Periodicals Index, and León Tello 1979 or in the more global work, Miller 1999. The most important online bibliography of scholarly articles is the Bibliography of Slavery and World Slaving.
  72.  
  73. Bibliography of Slavery and World Slaving.
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  75. A searchable database of more than 25,000 scholarly articles on slaving and slavery maintained at the University of Virginia, which continues the project begun by Joseph Miller’s printed bibliography in 1977, Slavery: A Comparative Teaching Bibliography (Waltham, MA: Crossroads Press, 1977).
  76. Find this resource:
  77. Handbook of Latin American Studies (HLAS).
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  79. Edited by the Hispanic division of the Library of Congress, this is a multidisciplinary bibliography of works selected and annotated by scholars. It alternates annually between the social sciences and the humanities and includes more than 5,000 works per year. Published continuously since 1936.
  80. Find this resource:
  81. Hispanic American Periodicals Index (HAPI)
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  83. References more than 275,000 journal-article citations on Central America, South America, the Caribbean, Mexico, Brazil, and Hispanics/Latinos in the United States. Provides over 60,000 links to full text articles from more than 600 key worldwide social science and humanities journals.
  84. Find this resource:
  85. León Tello, Pilar. Mapas, planos y dibujos de la Sección de Estado en el Archivo Histórico Nacional Madrid: Ministerio de Cultura, 1979.
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  87. Entries of 386 maps, plans, and drawings contained in the collections of the Estado section of the National Historical Archive. Materials are mainly from the 18th and 19th centuries. Some reference military fortifications and ports protected by free black militias across the Spanish Atlantic. Translates into English as “Maps, plans, and illustrations from the state section of the National History Archive.”
  88. Find this resource:
  89. Miller, Joseph C., ed. Slavery and Slaving in World History: A Bibliography. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1999.
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  91. This important work incorporates the annual bibliographies of published and unpublished works on slavery that appeared originally in Slavery & Abolition (cited under Journals). Organized chronologically, geographically, and thematically, and including important work on Atlantic Creoles. Slavery & Abolition continues to print annual bibliographies.
  92. Find this resource:
  93. Databases
  94.  
  95. A number of excellent online resources are available for the study of Atlantic Creoles. One can access additional bibliographies, primary documents, maps and images, and links to other websites on Harvard University’s International Seminar on the History of the Atlantic World, 1500–1825, John Carter Brown Library’s On-Line Resources site at Brown University, and Yale University’s site Gilder Lehrman Center for the Study of Slavery, Resistance, & Abolition. Sacramental and free black brotherhood records for Cuba and Brazil can be found on the Ecclesiastical and Secular Sources for Slave Societies (ESSSS) database at Vanderbilt University. The most important online archive of visual images available for the black Atlantic is The Atlantic Slave Trade and Slave Life in the Americas: A Visual Record. Several major archival databases such as Gale Digital Collections, Portal de Archivos Españoles (PARES), and its subset Mapas, planos y dibujos also contain important materials on Atlantic Creoles, as does Voyages: The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database.
  96.  
  97. Collección Digital de Mapas, Planos y Dibujos del Archivo General de Simancas.
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  99. This website, a subset of PARES (Portal de Archivos Españoles), contains 7,000 images from the diplomatic and military archive of Simancas. Important for the study of Atlantic Creoles are the colored and black and white illustrations of the uniforms of the disciplined free black militia units that Spain created across the Atlantic.
  100. Find this resource:
  101. Ecclesiastical and Secular Sources for Slave Societies (ESSSS).
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  103. This unique digital collection is hosted by Vanderbilt University and includes the oldest serial data on Africans in the Atlantic world, dating from the 16th century. Church materials from Cuba and Brazil, and civil records from Colombia, are available online.
  104. Find this resource:
  105. Gale Digital Collections.
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  107. Among the most important of these excellent digital collections for research on Atlantic Creoles are Gale’s Making of the Modern World: The Goldsmiths’ Kress Library of Economic Literature, 1450–1850 and Eighteenth Century Collections Online. The former offers 61,000 books from the period 1450–1850 as well as political pamphlets and broadsides, government publications, proclamations, and ephemera, many of them pertaining to the slave trade and the black Atlantic. The latter covers a broader range of literatures from the humanities and includes thirty-three million pages of text.
  108. Find this resource:
  109. Gilder Lehrman Center for the Study of Slavery, Resistance, & Abolition.
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  111. A key source for important online resources related to slavery, resistance, and abolition. Includes many of the sites referenced here. The majority deal with references from North America, but sites for the British and French Caribbean, Africa, and Europe are also referenced.
  112. Find this resource:
  113. Handler, Jerome S., and Michael L. Tuite Jr. The Atlantic Slave Trade and Slave Life in the Americas: A Visual Record.
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  115. Includes more than 1,235 images arranged in eighteen categories from a diverse set of sources, many of which relate to Atlantic Creoles.
  116. Find this resource:
  117. International Seminar on the History of the Atlantic World, 1500–1825.
  118. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  119. Hosted by Harvard University, this website features an extensive bibliography of published works; websites for texts, maps, and images; abstracts of papers presented at its annual workshops; and dissertations in progress on Atlantic world history, some of which focus on, or are relevant to, the history of Atlantic Creoles.
  120. Find this resource:
  121. John Carter Brown (JCB) Library On-Line Resources.
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  123. This site contains many resources of interest to scholars of Atlantic Creoles, including online exhibitions on “Slavery and Justice,” “Remembering Haiti,” “The Spanish American Revolutions,” and “European Views of the Americas: 1493–1750.” Materials referenced in these exhibits can then be accessed through the Internet digital archive of the JCB Library.
  124. Find this resource:
  125. Portal de Archivos Españoles (PARES).
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  127. The national Internet portal of twelve major archives of Spain and two national centers of documentation. It easily searches them all and provides amazing access to millions of documents, many of them digitized, and many generated by or about Atlantic Creoles.
  128. Find this resource:
  129. Voyages: The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database.
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  131. This database is a key source for the study of Atlantic Creoles. It allows researchers to search for data on more than 35,000 slave voyages and includes essays by noted scholars, maps, illustrations, and useful research tools. Its latest addition is a naming database drawn from British Mixed Commission Reports.
  132. Find this resource:
  133. Document Collections
  134.  
  135. Some of the best primary sources for Atlantic Creoles are found in the impressive collections of African travelogues and records related to the African slave trade, such as Donnan 1930–1935 and Hair and da Mota 1989. Collections on the social and cultural history of the Americas, such as Konetzke 1953–1962 include many documents by or about Atlantic Creoles.
  136.  
  137. Donnan, Elizabeth, ed. Documents Illustrative of the Slave Trade. 4 vols. Carnegie Institution of Washington publication 409. Washington, DC: Carnegie Institution, 1930–1935.
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  139. Organized chronologically and by region, this important English-language collection of primary documents related to the slave trade includes many documents about Atlantic Creoles.
  140. Find this resource:
  141. Hair, P. E. H., and Avelino Teixeira da Mota, eds. Jesuit Documents on the Guinea of Cape Verde and the Cape Verde Islands, 1585–1617. Liverpool, UK: University of Liverpool, Department of History, 1989.
  142. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  143. An important collection of early Jesuit records on the Atlantic islands and West Africa, translated into English.
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  145. Konetzke, Richard, ed. Colección de documentos para la historia de la formación social de Hispanoamérica, 1493–1810. 3 vols. Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, 1953–1962.
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  147. An excellent collection in three volumes and five parts, organized chronologically and by theme. Includes many primary documents in Spanish, generated by or about Atlantic Creoles.
  148. Find this resource:
  149. Journals
  150.  
  151. A number of scholarly journals now include important work on Atlantic Creoles. These include Slavery and Abolition, Ethnohistory, the William and Mary Quarterly, the Luso-Brazilian Review and the Hispanic American Historical Review. All are searchable through JSTOR. The best guide to the periodic literature on Latin America is HAPI, The Hispanic American Periodicals Index, cited in Bibliographies.
  152.  
  153. Ethnohistory
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  155. This multidisciplinary journal, launched in 1955, includes articles, review essays, and book reviews and is published by Duke University Press, Durham, North Carolina. In the last decade, it has included more work on the Iberian Atlantic. Available online to subscribers since 2000.
  156. Find this resource:
  157. Hispanic American Historical Review (HAHR)
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  159. The premiere journal in Latin American history and culture was launched in 1918 and is published quarterly by Duke University Press (Durham, North Carolina). Includes essays, review essays, and book reviews with some limited attention to Atlantic Creoles in the Iberian Americas.
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  161. Luso-Brazilian Review
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  163. This interdisciplinary journal is published biannually by the University of Wisconsin Press (Madison, Wisconsin) and includes articles and book reviews on the Portuguese empire, in English and Portuguese, including essays on Atlantic Creoles. Published since 1964.
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  165. Slavery and Abolition: A Journal of Slave and Post-Slave Studies.
  166. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  167. This interdisciplinary journal is published quarterly by Routledge and is the premiere journal for slavery studies in the Atlantic world and beyond. Includes original essays, reviews, and documents on occasion. The journal also publishes special thematic issues. Published since 1980.
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  169. William and Mary Quarterly.
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  171. Published since 1944, now in its third series, this is the premier journal of early American history and culture. Published quarterly by the Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture at the College of William and Mary, it covers the history of colonial North America and the “Atlantic world” from the 15th to the early 19th centuries, including the Caribbean, West Africa, and the Spanish American borderlands, and offers much of interest for scholars of Atlantic Creoles. Online access will be available in 2011 via JSTOR.
  172. Find this resource:
  173. Atlantic Creoles in Africa
  174.  
  175. A growing number of Africanist publications, among them Boulègue 1989, Brooks 2003, Havik and Newitt 2007, Hawthorne 2003, Mark 2002, Rodney 1970, Heywood and Thornton 2007, and Yarak 1989, have examined how diverse African groups interacted with Portuguese, Dutch, English, and French merchants, missionaries, and, on occasion, military figures to create multiracial and multicultural societies along the African coast and up African rivers. The African Creoles they study engaged in the Atlantic world primarily through the slave trade.
  176.  
  177. Boulègue, Jean. Les Luso-Africains de Senegambie, XVIe–XIXe Siècles. Lisbon, Portugal: Instituto de Investigação Científica Tropical, 1989.
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  179. Focuses on Luso-Africans as among the earliest Atlantic Creoles and traces their consolidation as a distinct social group in West Africa.
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  181. Brooks, George E. Eurafricans in Western Africa: Commerce, Social Status, Gender, and Religious Observance from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century. Western African Studies. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 2003.
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  183. Based on Portuguese, Dutch, French, and English accounts, this work illustrates the influential role played by multilingual and multicultural Luso-Africans in creating Atlantic networks of commerce and culture. Shows how these early interactions established patterns that were followed by other groups of mixed-race Atlantic Creoles.
  184. Find this resource:
  185. Havik, Philip, and Malyn Newitt, eds. Creole Societies in the Portuguese Colonial Empire. Lusophone Studies 6. Bristol, UK: University of Bristol, 2007.
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  187. An edited collection honoring the eminent historian of the Portuguese empire, C. R. Boxer (1904–2000). Includes essays on Luso-African families and peoples in West and West-Central Africa.
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  189. Hawthorne, Walter. Planting Rice, Harvesting Slaves: Transformations along the Guinea-Bissau Coast, 1400–1900. Social History of Africa. London: Heinemann, 2003.
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  191. Based on archival and ethnographic research, this work examines how nonstate societies, such as the Balanta of Guinea-Bissau, adapted to the disruption and violence of the slave trade and to the presence of Portuguese and Luso-African traders.
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  193. Heywood, Linda M., and John K. Thornton. Central Africans, Atlantic Creoles and the Foundation of the Americas, 1585–1660. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
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  195. Tracks the development of creole cultures in Central Africa and in the Americas within the context of the transatlantic slave trade and colonial rivalries. Argues for African agency, an early conversion to Catholicism, and Central African cultural continuities in Portuguese, Dutch, and English colonies.
  196. Find this resource:
  197. Mark, Peter. “Portuguese” Style and Luso-African Identity: Precolonial Senegambia, Sixteenth–Nineteenth Centuries. Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 2002.
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  199. Arguing that architecture is an important marker of identity, this work examines the transformation of domestic architectural styles in West Africa, with the rise of Luso-African traders who claimed Portuguese identity.
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  201. Rodney, Walter. A History of the Upper Guinea Coast, 1545–1800. Oxford Studies in African Affairs. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1970.
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  203. This study, dating from 1970, was one of the first to examine Portuguese–African relations from the perspective of West African peoples, with important insights on the long-term impact of the small numbers of Portuguese and mestiço traders on the region’s history.
  204. Find this resource:
  205. Yarak, Larry W. “West African Coastal Slavery in the Nineteenth Century: The Case of the Afro-European Slaveowners of Elmina.” In Special Issue: Ethnohistory and Africa. Edited by Edward I. Steinhart. Ethnohistory 36.1. (Winter 1989): 44–60.
  206. DOI: 10.2307/482740Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  207. Based on Dutch archival sources, this article looks at slaveowners of mixed African and European origins in 19th-century Elmina.
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  209. Atlantic Creoles in Europe
  210.  
  211. Older but important studies of Atlantic Creoles in the early modern Iberian world include Pike 1972 and Saunders 1982.
  212.  
  213. Pike, Ruth. Aristocrats and Traders: Sevillian Society in the Sixteenth Century. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1972.
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  215. Based on notarial and other archival sources from Spain, this early work contains a chapter on free and enslaved blacks in 16th-century Spain, some of whom joined early Spanish explorations of the Americas or conducted trade there.
  216. Find this resource:
  217. Saunders, A. C. de C. M. A Social History of Black Slaves and Freedmen in Portugal, 1441–1555. Cambridge Iberian and Latin American Studies. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1982.
  218. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  219. Practically the only study on slavery in metropolitan Portugal, this book shows that Lisbon was one of the main destinations for African slaves during the first century of the trade and also home to some of the first Atlantic Creoles. A new paperback edition came out in 2010.
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  221. Atlantic Creoles in North America
  222.  
  223. As scholars who studied slavery in North America began to engage more with the literature on Africa and the African slave trade, they produced a number of excellent biographical studies of Atlantic Creoles across the Atlantic. An older but seminal work is Alford 1986. On the life and rise of some black sailors in the Atlantic world, see Bolster 1997. Good works on Atlantic Creoles in the Spanish borderlands include Hall 1992, Hanger 1997, and Landers 1999. More recent works on Atlantic Creoles include Berlin 2000, Schafer 1999, and Schafer 2003.
  224.  
  225. Alford, Terry. Prince among Slaves: The True Story of an African Prince Sold into Slavery in the American South. New York: Oxford University Press, 1986.
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  227. Account of the educated Muslim Abd Rahman Ibrahima, who became an enslaved overseer on a tobacco plantation in Natchez, Mississippi, and with the help of advocates and the US secretary of state, finally returned to Africa as an old man. First published in 1977.
  228. Find this resource:
  229. Berlin, Ira. Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in North America. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000.
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  231. Key work by the eminent historian who coined the term “Atlantic Creoles.” On the basis of an extensive review of the literature, he argues for the foundational significance of a “charter generation” of Atlantic Creoles in North America that was succeeded by a better-known “plantation generation” and, thereafter, a “revolutionary generation.” Originally published in 1931.
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  233. Bolster, W. Jeffrey. Black Jacks: African American Seamen in the Age of Sail. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997.
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  235. This excellent account of free black seamen at home in the Atlantic world is written by a historian who also sails. Good for use in graduate as well as undergraduate classes.
  236. Find this resource:
  237. Hall, Gwendolyn Midlo. Africans in Colonial Louisiana: The Development of Afro-Creole Culture in the Eighteenth Century. ACLS Humanities E-Book. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1992.
  238. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  239. This work argues for the significance of a Bambara and Mina charter generation in Louisiana and explores the roles of several Atlantic Creole revolts in Louisiana during Spanish rule. E-book.
  240. Find this resource:
  241. Hanger, Kimberly. Bounded Lives, Bounded Places: Free Black Society in Colonial New Orleans, 1769–1803. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1997.
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  243. Based on extensive archival research in Spain and Louisiana, this book tracks the rise of a free black class of militiamen, artisans, tavern proprietors, and shopkeepers in Spanish Louisiana and their engagement in Atlantic networks.
  244. Find this resource:
  245. Landers, Jane. Black Society in Spanish Florida. Blacks in the New World. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. 1999.
  246. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  247. Based on extensive research in Florida, Spain, Mexico, and Cuba, this book examines a group of Atlantic Creoles who became free via Spain’s religious sanctuary policy and participated actively in Atlantic world geopolitics and economy.
  248. Find this resource:
  249. Schafer, Daniel L. “Family Ties That Bind: Anglo-African Slave Traders in Africa and Florida, John Fraser and His Descendants.” Slavery & Abolition (December 1999).
  250. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  251. Tracks a Scottish trader whose consort ran the family slave trade on the Rio Pongo as he established large rice plantations in Spanish Florida. Follows the fate of Fraser’s mixed-race children who were educated Atlantic Creoles.
  252. Find this resource:
  253. Schafer, Daniel L. Anna Madgigine Jai Kingsley, African Princess, Florida Slave, Plantation Slaveowner. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2003.
  254. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  255. Based on research in Senegal, Florida, and the Dominican Republic, as well as American and English archives, this book traces a Wolof woman from freedom to slavery and back across a number of Atlantic locales and distinct political and cultural worlds.
  256. Find this resource:
  257. Atlantic Creoles in the Spanish and French Caribbean
  258.  
  259. Explorations of slavery in the Iberian Atlantic such as Childs 2006, Díaz 2000, Helg 2004, and Landers 2010 have used the extensive documentation available in a variety of Spanish archives to uncover the role of Atlantic Creoles in the revolts and revolutions of their day. Dubois 2004 does the same using French archives, and Sensbach 2005 used German records to follow the Atlantic career of a freed woman who became an important Moravian evangelist in the Caribbean, Europe, and Africa.
  260.  
  261. Childs, Matt D. The 1812 Aponte Rebellion in Cuba and the Struggle Against Atlantic Slavery. Envisioning Cuba. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006.
  262. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  263. Based on extensive archival research in Cuba, this work explores the history and impact of the failed but significant rebellion against slavery led by the Atlantic Creole José Aponte, a free militiaman of African descent inspired by the Haitian slave revolt. Good for use in both undergraduate and graduate courses.
  264. Find this resource:
  265. Díaz, María Elena. The Virgin, the King, and the Royal Slaves of El Cobre: Negotiating Freedom in Colonial Cuba, 1670–1780. Cultural Sitings. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2000.
  266. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  267. Archival study of a unique group of copper-mining slaves in Cuba who sent a delegation to Spain and used their status as royal slaves to pursue rights during the Bourbon era.
  268. Find this resource:
  269. Dubois, Laurent. Avengers of the New World: The Story of the Haitian Revolution. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004.
  270. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  271. Beautifully written and accessible account of the slave revolt in Saint Domingue, which featured Atlantic Creoles such as Georges Biassou, Jean François, and Toussaint L’Ouverture. Good for use in both undergraduate and graduate courses.
  272. Find this resource:
  273. Helg, Aline. Liberty and Equality in Caribbean Colombia, 1770–1835. Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press, 2004.
  274. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  275. This work focuses on the role of Afro-Colombians from the Caribbean coast of Colombia in securing independence for Colombia, their attempts to achieve freedom and equality, and their challenges to the “Great Liberator,” Simon Bolívar.
  276. Find this resource:
  277. Landers, Jane. Atlantic Creoles in the Age of Revolutions. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010.
  278. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  279. Based on extensive research in North America as well as Latin American and European archives, this work follows formerly enslaved Atlantic Creoles in the circum-Caribbean, whose geopolitical literacy and engagement helped them become free during the revolutionary 18th and 19th centuries. Good for use in both undergraduate and graduate courses.
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Sensbach, Jon F. Rebecca’s Revival: Creating Black Christianity in the Atlantic World. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005.
  282. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  283. Based on archival research in Danish, German, and West Indian sources, this biography follows the long life of Rebecca Protten, born a slave on St. Thomas, who became free and then an important evangelist for the Moravian Church in Germany and later on the Gold Coast of Africa.
  284. Find this resource:
  285. Atlantic Creoles in the Lusophone Atlantic
  286.  
  287. A number of important works have been published recently on Atlantic Creoles in the Luso-Atlantic world, many of them biographies drawn from Portuguese slave trade and inquisitorial records. Works that link Africa and Brazil include Costa e Silva 2004, Reis 1993, Reis 2008, Soares 2000, Sweet 2003, and Sweet 2011. An innovative study of Afro-Portuguese influence in the circum-Caribbean is Wheat 2009.
  288.  
  289. Costa e Silva, Alberto da. Francisco Félix de Souza, Mercador de Escravos. Rio de Janeiro: Editora Nova Frontera, 2004.
  290. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  291. This is a fascinating Portuguese-language account of an impoverished mixed-race Atlantic Creole from Bahia who became the principal adviser to and slave merchant for the Cha Cha of Ouidah.
  292. Find this resource:
  293. Reis, João José. Slave Rebellion in Brazil: The Muslim Uprising of 1835 in Bahia. Johns Hopkins Studies in Atlantic History and Culture. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993.
  294. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  295. This is a detailed study of an urban revolt led by literate Muslims who were enslaved in a Nigerian jihad and deported to Brazil. Includes information on the multilingual leaders of the revolt and the repression that followed the failure of the revolt.
  296. Find this resource:
  297. Reis, João José. Domingos Sodré, un sacerdote africano: Escravidão, liberdade e candomblé na Bahia do século XIX. São Paulo, Brazil: Companhia das Letras, 2008.
  298. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  299. Detailed archival research produced this Portuguese-language biography of a Nigerian healer transported to Salvador da Bahia in the 19th century, who achieved status through curing, and eventually became a slaveholder himself.
  300. Find this resource:
  301. Soares, Mariza de Carvalho. Devotos da cor: Identidade étnica, religiosidade e escravidão no Rio de Janeiro, século XVIII. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Civilização Brasileira, 2000.
  302. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  303. Based on extensive archival research in religious and civil archives, this work traces the development of black Catholic brotherhoods in Brazil, paying particular attention to ethnicity. It is due to appear in English translation from Duke University Press.
  304. Find this resource:
  305. Sweet, James H. Recreating Africa: Culture, Kinship, and Religion in the African-Portuguese World, 1441–1770. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003.
  306. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  307. Based on archival research in the Inquisition records of Lisbon as well as in secondary works on Africa, Portugal, and Brazil, this work traces cultural connections between Portugal, Lusophone Africa, and Brazil and highlights a number of Atlantic Creoles.
  308. Find this resource:
  309. Sweet, James H. Domingos Álvares, African Healing, and the Intellectual History of the Atlantic World. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2011.
  310. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  311. This is a biographical study of an 18th-century African healer and vodun priest who was transported as a slave to Brasil, where he gained modest fame as a healer, only to be prosecuted by the Inquisition and shipped to Portugal. There he ended his days in obscurity.
  312. Find this resource:
  313. Wheat, John David. “The Afro-Portuguese Maritime World and the Foundations of Spanish Caribbean Society, 1570–1640.” PhD diss., Vanderbilt University, 2009.
  314. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  315. Based on extensive archival research in 16th- and 17th-century records in Spain, Portugal, Cuba, and Colombia, this path-breaking dissertation demonstrates the unrecognized influence of Luso-African and Portuguese slave traders in shaping the contours of Spanish Caribbean society.
  316. Find this resource:
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