Habib Bourguiba (Islamic Studies)

Introduction

Habib Bourguiba is unique among all Arab leaders of his time not only for his role as a freedom fighter who laid the foundations of modern Tunisia but also for the vast reforms that he later introduced. However, despite the remarkable progress that the country achieved under his presidency, the autocratic system that he established had a stifling effect on its progress. Bourguiba was born in Monastir, Tunisia, on August 3, 1903, to a middle-class family of Libyan origin. He imbibed Western values in the educational institutions that he attended, in both Tunisia and France. After completing his elementary and secondary education, he traveled to France where he enrolled at the College of Sorbonne and obtained a law degree. He married a French woman and sired a son whom he named Habib Bourguiba, Jr. Bourguiba’s political activities began on his return to Tunisia in 1927. The first major task with which he became involved was the need to end the French Protectorate and declare independence. The inevitable collision with the French authorities resulted in long periods of hiding and arrest in exile for him. Unable to stay in the country, Bourguiba sought refuge in Cairo where he recruited supporters for the Tunisian cause. On returning to Tunisia, he began to lay the foundations for the Neo-Destour party in Ksar Hellal on March 2, 1934. Following the party’s formation, Bourguiba declared Tunisia independent and assumed the title of president, thereby bringing the monarchy to an end. Although Tunisia had a constitution and representative political institutions, Bourguiba was the ultimate authority, and these institutions merely rubber-stamped his decisions. The following years saw the introduction of sweeping reforms in many areas. Bourguiba’s main challenges emerged after 1956, when the country became independent and Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser promoted pan-Arab unity. Bourguiba’s peaceful approach put him on a collision course with his Egyptian rival. At the same time, Bourguiba promoted cooperation with the countries of the Maghreb and with the Great Powers, the United States in particular. Despite the faltering economy, the threat posed by the Islamists, and other difficulties, Bourguiba’s presidency was robust. However, the 1980s witnessed numerous problems that the old and ailing president was too weak to handle. It was this state of affairs that eventually brought the collapse of his presidency in November 1987, when Zine al-Abidine Ben Ali took over.

Books Dealing Entirely with Bourguiba (His Early Presidency)

A specific work by Moore 1965 discusses the way in which Bourguiba used the Neo-Destour party to rule effectively, and Duwaji 1967 is a detailed analysis of the country’s economic performance. Bourguiba’s efforts to bring peace to the Arab-Israeli conflict are explained thoroughly in Merlin 1968. Micaud, et al. 1964 analyzes his early attempts at modernization in detail, and Saïd 1970 provides a good analysis of his cultural policy.

Duwaji, Ghazi. Economic Development in Tunisia: The Impact and Course of Government Planning. New York: Praeger, 1967.
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Duwaji provides an analysis of Bourguiba’s efforts to promote economic growth. He assesses the impact of Bourguiba’s measures by providing details regarding the state of the economy during the Protectorate. He also assesses the effectiveness of the measures introduced by the government, such as the creation of a banking system, the confiscation of land held by colonists, the Ten-Year Plan (1962–1971), and so on.
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Merlin, Samuel. The Search for Peace in the Middle East: The Story of President Bourguiba’s Campaign for a Negotiated Peace between Israel and the Arab States. Cranbury, NJ: Thomas Yoseloff, 1968.
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Merlin provides a detailed analysis of Bourguiba’s campaign for peace in the Middle East. He provides a sound analysis of Bourguibism and assesses the impact of the Six-Day War of 1967 on Bourguiba’s peace initiative. He also gives an insight into Bourguiba’s relations with his political rivals, the Great Powers, and the Jews of Tunisia.
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Micaud, Charles A., Leon Brown, and Clement Henry Moore. Tunisia: The Politics of Modernization. New York: Praeger, 1964.
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In this study, the authors assess the effectiveness of Bourguiba’s modernization program. They argue that the program succeeded because of Bourguiba’s charisma, the survival of the efficient colonial administration, the effectiveness of the Neo-Destour party, and the determination of the intellectual elite.
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Moore, Clement Henry. Tunisia since Independence: The Dynamics of One-Party Government. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1965.
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Moore explores Bourguiba’s achievements from a viewpoint of a political scientist, arguing that the changes were made possible largely due to the robust structure of the Neo-Destour mass party, which implemented his reforms. The author contends that Bourguiba had considerable success in maintaining the party separate from the government bureaucracy, thus neutralizing both and allowing him the freedom of action necessary to implement his reforms.
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Saïd, Rafik. Cultural Policy in Tunisia. Paris: UNESCO, 1970.
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This concise monograph analyzes the nature of the various agencies that dealt with the dissemination of Arab and Western culture in Tunisia under Bourguiba, and it assesses the government’s efforts to formulate a long-term cultural policy.
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Books Dealing Entirely with Bourguiba (His Late Presidency and After)

A detailed analysis of Bourguiba’s successes and failures is provided by Toumi 1989, and a solid presentation of his ruling methods is presented by Camau and Geisser 2003. Bourguiba’s views toward Islam are covered in detail in Charfi 1988, and to a lesser extent in Salem 1984. Grimaud 1995 is a detailed discussion of Bourguiba’s search for security.

Camau, Michel, and Vincent Geisser. Le syndrome autoritare: Politique en Tunisie de Bourguiba à Ben Ali. Paris: Presses de Sciences Po, 2003.
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This study about the development of authoritarianism in Tunisia provides a thorough background discussing Bourguiba’s ruling methods. The authors argue that although Bourguiba’s reforms gave the impression that the country was moving toward a democracy, Ben Ali’s rise to power demonstrated the opposite. The book sheds light on Bourguiba’s vision regarding the form of government best suited for Tunisia.
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Charfi, Mohamed. Islam and Liberty: The Historical Misunderstanding. London: Zed Books, 1988.
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This book deals with Tunisia under Bourguiba and discusses his views and attitudes toward Islam. The author’s main argument is that there is no contradiction between Islam and democracy, and he explains the methods by which Bourguiba dealt with religious issues.
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Grimaud, Nicole. La Tunisie à la recherche de a sécurité. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1995.
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Grimaud discusses the means by which Bourguiba sought to enhance Tunisia’s security. These steps included the introduction of Western reforms, military alliances, and loans. The author addresses the difficulties that Bourguiba faced in his relations with his immediate neighbors and his long-standing policy of keeping the army under control.
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Salem, Norma. Habib Bourguiba, Islam and the Creation of Tunisia. London: Croom Helm, 1984.
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Using Bourguiba’ s speeches and statements, Salem explains the linkage between religion and politics in Tunisia. She argues that Islam played an essential role in providing legitimacy to Bourguiba’s regime and provides an account of Bourguiba’s views regarding religion and Tunisia’s national identity, contrasting them with those of his rivals.
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Toumi, Mohsen. La Tunisie de Bourguiba à Ben Ali. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1989.
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Toumi provides an analysis of Bourguiba’s achievements and failures. The author argues that Bourguiba’s last years were marked not only by his deteriorating health condition but also by the failure of his socialist experiment, his assumption of the title “president for life,” and the poor performance of the economy, all of which led many Tunisians to regard his removal from power as a divine salvation.
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General Histories of Tunisia Dealing with Bourguiba in Part

One of the earliest accounts of Bourguiba’s role in Tunisia’s independence movement is Ling 1967. More detailed treatments of that topic can be found in Julien 2002 and Alexander 2010. Camau 1987 provides an in-depth assessment of Bourguiba’s accomplishments by scholars of several disciplines. Owen 2012 is a superb analysis of the “president for life” phenomena in the Middle East and in Tunisia, in particular. Murphy 1999 is a thorough analysis of the way in which Bourguiba formed the ruling Neo-Destour party and created a corporate state. A more general coverage of Bourguiba’s challenges and accomplishments appear in Abadi 2013, Geyer 2003, Perkins 2014, and Borowiec 1998.

Abadi, Jacob. Tunisia since the Arab Conquest: The Saga of a Westernized Muslim State. Reading, UK: Ithaca, 2013.
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In this general survey, Abadi sheds light on Bourguiba’s contribution to the development of the modern Tunisian state. He deals with the main issues that Bourguiba had to face, both domestically and in his relations with the Great Powers. Particularly relevant are chapters 12 through 15, pp. 383–545.
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Alexander, Christopher. Tunisia: Stability and Reform in the Modern Maghreb. New York: Routledge, 2010.
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This concise analysis of Tunisia’s challenges since independence allows the reader to evaluate Bourguiba’s enterprise. Alexander argues that Bourguiba’s ability to build a robust mass movement accounts for much of his success in the early period when Tunisia developed into a highly centralized corporatist state.
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Borowiec, Andrew. Modern Tunisia: A Democratic Apprenticeship. Westport, CT: Praeger, 1998.
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The most relevant part of this book for those seeking to study Bourguiba and Bourguibism are chapters 3 and 4, which provide a sound coverage of Bourguiba’s major accomplishments.
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Camau, Michel, ed. Tunisie au présent. Paris: Editions du CNRS, 1987.
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Authors from several disciplines took part in writing this book, and they provide a panoramic view of Tunisia’s problems during Bourguiba’s last days. They discuss the impact of Bourguibism on Tunisia, explain the people’s reaction to it, and analyze the paradox in which the Tunisians who highly regarded Bourguiba during his presidency demonstrated apathy toward him after his removal from power.
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Geyer, Georgie Anne. Tunisia: A Journey through a Country That Works. London: Stacey International, 2003.
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Geyer provides a highly positive and optimistic view of Tunisia and its leaders, virtually without criticism. The part relevant to Bourguiba and his accomplishments is chapter 3, pp. 69–98.
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Julien, Charles-André. L’Afrique du Nord en marche: Algérie-Tunisie-Maroc 1880–1952. Paris: Omnibus, 2002.
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This scholarly and thorough book traces the origins of the Tunisian nationalist movement and the positive role that Bourguiba played in it. Julien demonstrates how Bourguiba’s exposure to Western thought may have shaped his views regarding Tunisia’s future.
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Ling, Dwight L. Tunisia: From Protectorate to Republic. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1967.
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Ling provides an analysis of Tunisia’s struggle for independence and the role that Bourguiba played in it. He presents a thorough analysis of the challenges that Bourguiba had to deal with in the early days.
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Murphy, Emma C. Economic and Political Change in Tunisia: From Bourguiba to Ben Ali. New York: St Martin’s, 1999.
DOI: 10.1057/9780333983584Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Murphy argues that Bourguiba’s authoritarian ruling style had weakened the Destour party while creating a huge state bureaucracy and that his failed socialist experiment eventually brought the corporatist state to an end. Chapter 2 (pp. 42–79) is the most relevant.
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Owen, Roger. The Rise and Fall of Arab Presidents for Life. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012.
DOI: 10.4159/harvard.9780674065413Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
This astute author looks at numerous autocrats and examines a plethora of factors explaining why the “president for life” phenomenon plays such an important role in Tunisia and other Middle Eastern countries.
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Perkins, Kenneth J. A History of Modern Tunisia. 2d ed. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2014.
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In this survey of modern Tunisia, chapters 3 to 6 (pp. 73–184) are important because these chapters deal directly with Bourguiba or with the most important issues connected with him; they are the most worthwhile consulting. Perkins provides a balanced account of Bourguiba’s performance, achievements, and failures.
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Comparative Works on Bourguiba

In this section, Lacouture 1961 and Lacouture 1970 both provide thumbnail sketches of Bourguiba and his achievements compared with other Third World leaders of his time. Bishku 2016 is a thorough analysis comparing Bourguiba to Atatürk. A useful account of Bourguiba’s success as a state-builder is by Anderson 1986, who provides a useful comparison between the state-building process in Tunisia and that of Libya. Willis 2012 is another useful analysis of Bourguiba’s achievements in comparison with those of the leaders of Morocco and Algeria, and Entelis 1975 is an astute analysis of Bourguiba’s socialist experiment compared to that of Pierre Gemayel in Lebanon.

Anderson, Lisa. The State and Social Transformation in Tunisia and Libya, 1830–1980. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986.
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In this incisive book, Anderson argues that Tunisia’s road to independence was smoother than that of Libya, and she attributes this achievement to Bourguiba’s ability not only to establish a robust party with many cells but also to accommodate the country’s middle- and working-classes.
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Bishku, Michael B. “Kemal Atatürk and Habib Bourguiba: Brothers from Different Mothers?” In Kurdish Issues: Essays in Honor of Robert W. Olson. Compiled and edited by Michael M. Gunter, 1–14. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda, 2016.
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In this essay, Bishku compares Bourguiba to Turkey’s former president Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, thereby providing a better understanding of Bourguiba, his worldview, and his accomplishments.
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Entelis, John P. “Reformist Ideology in the Arab World: The Cases of Tunisia and Lebanon.” Review of Politics 37.4 (October 1975): 513–546.
DOI: 10.1017/S0034670500015084Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
This article compares the socialist experiment of Tunisia with that of Lebanon. Entelis argues that, like Pierre Gemayel in Lebanon, Bourguiba was inspired by the French concepts of the Enlightenment and because he sought to introduce a moderate, Fabian-like humanist-liberal system, rather than Soviet-style socialism. The author’s explanation of Destourianism and Bourguibism is revealing as it sheds light on Bourguiba’s thought and practical methods.
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Lacouture, Jean. Cinq hommes et la France. Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1961.
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Lacouture explores the relations between France and five other Third World leaders: Ho Chi Minh, Mohamed V, Sékou Touré, Ferhat Abbas, and Habib Bourguiba. This well-researched analysis provides an opportunity to compare Bourguiba’s skills as a freedom fighter and a negotiator with the other prominent individuals who led the independence movement in their countries.
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Lacouture, Jean. The Demigods: Charismatic Leadership in the Third World. New York: Knopf, 1970.
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In this work dedicated to the study of charismatic leadership, Lacouture provides a sound analysis of Bourguiba whom he presents as a man who had a profound impact on his country’s history, along Gamal Abdul Nasser of Egypt, Norodom Sihanouk of Cambodia, and Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana. Using influential sociologist Max Weber’s definition of “charisma,” Lacouture analyzes the nature of Bourguiba’s leadership style.
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Willis, Michael J. Politics and Power in the Maghreb: Algeria, Tunisia and Morocco from Independence to the Arab Spring. New York: Columbia University Press, 2012.
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In this comparative book, Willis raises interesting points about Bourguiba’s methods and his achievements in light of what the leaders of Algeria and Morocco had achieved and accomplished. The chapters 1 through 3 (pp. 9–119) are particularly relevant.
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Biographies of Bourguiba and Tunisian Figures Who Interacted with Him

A first-hand account of Bourguiba’s life is by Tahar Belkhodja, one of his cabinet members (Belkhodja 1998). Another first-hand account is based on a personal acquaintance with Bourguiba (Essebsi 2009). Tough and not entirely objective, the accounts by Mzali 1987 and Mzali 2004 are worth reading. Cohen 1986 is a thorough scholarly treatment of Bourguiba, his life, accomplishments, and failures based on archival material and interviews with key personalities. Bessis and Belhassan 2012 provides a detailed and balanced account of Bourguiba’s life, accomplishments, and blunders. Garas 1956 is another solid account of his life and his career as a liberator and state-builder. Although it does not cover Bourguiba’s entire life, the book provides a good analysis of his early career. The old account of his early life by Rous 1969 provides a highly praiseworthy portrayal of the Tunisian president. Two concise accounts of his life, accomplishments, and failures are Hopwood 1992 and Pautard 1977.

Belkhodja, Tahar. Les trois décennies Bourguiba. Paris: Éditions Arcanteres, 1998.
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This is a first-hand account of Bourguiba’s commissions and omissions by one of his cabinet members. Although he praises Bourguiba’s accomplishments, Belkhodja argues that his autocratic style stifled his ability to rule effectively.
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Bessis, Sophie, and Souhayr Belhassan. Bourguiba. Tunis, Tunisia: Elyzad, 2012.
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This is a thorough biography tracing Bourguiba’s career from his upbringing to his role as a freedom fighter and state builder. The authors praise his accomplishments, but they argue that his personality cult had a stifling impact on the country.
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Cohen, Bernard. Habib Bourguiba: Le pouvoir d’un seul. Paris: Flammarion, 1986.
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In this biography of Bourguiba, Cohen provides a vivid portrait based on archival material, thorough research, and interviews with personalities in the president’s inner circle. Attempting to explain Bourguiba’s worldview and idiosyncrasies, he uses a psychoanalytic approach. He describes Bourguiba as a remarkable personality who started as a great combatant who won the war against a great colonial power and a Westerner who eventually was reduced to a tyrant of an insignificant country.
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Essebsi, Beji Caid. Habib Bourguiba: Le bon grain et l’ivraie. Tunis, Tunisia: Sud Éditions, 2009.
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English title: Bourguiba: The Wheat and the Tares. This biography is a personal testimony of the author’s fifty years of acquaintance with Bourguiba. Essebsi, who served in various ministerial capacities, provides a thorough assessment of Bourguiba’s personality, his achievements, and his blunders. Particularly illuminating is his depiction of the court intrigues during Bourguiba’s last days.
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Garas, Félix. Bourguiba et la naissance d’une nation. Paris: Julliard, 1956.
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This partial but detailed biography of Bourguiba sheds light on his upbringing and the crystallization of his thoughts. Garas puts a strong emphasis on the role that Bourguiba played in the Tunisian movement and the formulation of the country’s unique identity.
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Hopwood, Derek. Habib Bourguiba of Tunisia: The Tragedy of Longevity. New York: St. Martin’s, 1992.
DOI: 10.1007/978-1-349-22177-6Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
In this concise biography, Hopwood provides a lively discussion of Bourguiba’s major accomplishments, blunders, and tragic end. He provides a psychological analysis of Bourguiba’s personality by tracing his actions to events and individuals who had an impact on his personality and his worldview.
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Mzali, Mohamed. Lettre ouverte à Habib Bourguiba. Paris: Moreau, 1987.
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Mohamed Mzali, Bourguiba’s former prime minister, explains his predicament of being in exile, unable to return to his country. He expresses his bitterness against many of his rivals whom he accused of conspiring against him and his devotion to his country and its president.
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Mzali, Mohamed. Un premier ministre de Bourguiba temoigne. Paris: Édition J. Picollec, 2004.
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Mzali provides a much more detailed account of his bitter experience as prime minister. He blames Bourguiba for curtailing his freedom of action and his relatives for conspiring against him. Although somewhat biased, this book is indispensable for understanding Bourguiba’s relationships with colleagues and subordinates.
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Pautard, André. Bourguiba. Paris: Éditions Média, 1977.
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This short biography describes Bourguiba’s main achievements and failures as a leader of a Third World country whose liberation he had achieved. Like other astute observers, such as Jean Lacouture and Bernard Cohen, Pautard provides an objective portrayal of the leader.
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Rous, Jean. Habib Bourguiba: L’homme d’action de l’Afrique. Paris: John Didier, 1969.
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Written by his liberal-socialist journalist and friend, this biography describes Bourguiba as an indomitable leader who not only ruled his country firmly but also fought for its liberation and economic independence. Bourguiba’s achievements are described as the perfect manifestation of Tunisia’s destiny. The author seems to concentrate more on Bourguiba’s achievements than his blunders.
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Collections of Documents Concerning Bourguiba’s Reforms and Attitude toward Islam

A rich collection of government documents, speeches, letters, and decrees of Tunisia’s president is available in Bourguiba 1954, Bourguiba 1957, and Bourguiba 1961. His views regarding contemporary issues and ideas such communism, nationalism, decolonization, and the Cold War are found in Bourguiba 1957 and Bourguiba 1961.

Bourguiba, Habib. La Tunisie et la France: Vingt-cinq ans de lutte pour une coopération libre. Paris: Julliard, 1954.
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This book consists of Bourguiba’s letters, discourses, decrees, and other writings portraying Franco-Tunisian relations during the struggle for national liberation and shedding light on his ideas and methods during that time.
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Bourguiba, Habib. “Nationalism: Antidote to Communism.” Foreign Affairs 35.4 (July 1957): 646–654.
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In this article, Bourguiba explains his preference for the West during the Cold War. He argues that Tunisia’s location and its economic needs necessitated reliance on the West and that Tunisian nationalism could only enhance the country’s economic growth and prevent communism from spreading into the African continent.
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Bourguiba, Habib. “The Outlook for Africa.” International Affairs 37.4 (October 1961): 425–431.
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In this article, Bourguiba justifies his support of the decolonization process. He mentions Tunisia’s role in the Cold War and explains his preference for aligning with the West against communism. In addition, he explains his sympathy toward the Algerian war of independence and his desire to cooperate with France.
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Histoire du Movement National: Habib Bourguiba, Articles de presse 1929–1934. Tunis: Centre de Documentation Nationale, Secrétariat d’Etat aux Affaires Culturelles et a l’Information, le 3 Novembre 1967.
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This useful collection of articles provides a panorama of the myriad of issues that had an impact on Tunisia and on Bourguiba’s approach. These articles were published during his journalistic career.
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Histoire du mouvement national tunisien: Le “proces” Bourguiba, Texte integral des interrrogatoires et depositions: Articles de presse et correspondence de Bourguiba. Tunis: Centre de Documentation Nationale, 9 Avril 1938.
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This collection of Bourguiba’s essays and correspondence sheds light on the early period of the struggle for Tunisia’s independence. Provides an insight into Bourguiba’s major challenges, particularly his struggle for national liberation and his reform program.
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Journals

Articles on Bourguiba and Tunisia during his time are available in scholarly journals dealing with North Africa in particular and those dealing with Middle Eastern affairs in general. Such articles are found in historical periodicals and those relating to political science and international relations. Some of the most prominent are the International Journal of Middle East Studies, The Journal of Modern African Studies, The Journal of North African Studies, The Maghreb Review, The Middle East Journal, and Third World Quarterly.

International Journal of Middle East Studies. 1970–.
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Published by Cambridge University Press, this prestigious journal contains articles on all topics relating to the Arab countries and the Muslim world. Excellent articles pertaining to Tunisia in Bourguiba’s period are published occasionally.
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The Journal of Modern African Studies. 1963–.
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This quarterly publishes articles pertaining to African politics and society. It deals with controversial issues, and it often has articles dealing with politics in Tunisia in Bourguiba’s time.
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The Journal of North African Studies.
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Published by Taylor & Francis, this quarterly covers issues pertaining to the entire region and to specific countries and personalities. Articles on Tunisia and Bourguiba often appear in this journal.
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The Maghreb Review. 1976–.
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This is a quarterly journal has been published by Mohamed Ben Madani in London since 1976. It contains articles in both English and French, some of which pertain to Tunisia and Bourguiba.
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The Middle East Journal. 1947–.
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Published by the Middle East Institute, this quarterly has a variety of articles about the Middle East and North Africa in many disciplines. Articles on Tunisia in Bourguiba’s time can often be found.
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Third World Quarterly. 1979–.
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Published by Taylor & Francis, this quarterly publishes articles relating to numerous fields and regions of the Third World, including Tunisia in Bourguiba’s period.
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Bourguiba and France

A concise discussion of Bourguiba’s autonomy agreement with France is discussed in Julien 1951. Morrow 1955 and Prévot 1999 are detailed and useful accounts of the autonomy negotiations. Rainero 1958 is a concise analysis of the challenges that Bourguiba faced during the autonomy negotiations. Ravussin 1954 discusses the domestic issues faced by Bourguiba during the negotiations. Ben Youssef 1954 is a concise and revealing discussion of the differences between the views of Bourguiba and Salah Ben Youssef regarding Tunisia’s war of national liberation. Mezerik 1961 is a solid analysis of the Bizerte crisis, and Ruf 1971 is an astute analysis of the Bizerte crisis and the way in which Bourguiba endeavored to capitalize on it. Novati 2003 provides a thorough coverage of the French bombardment of Sakiet Sidi Youssef. Finally, Pigasse 1969 is a concise discussion of Bourguiba’s achievements and failures as viewed by French observers.

Ben Youssef, Salah. “Tunisia’s Struggle for Independence.” Pakistan Horizon 7.2 (June 1954): 56–61.
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This article by Bourguiba’s main rival Salah Ben Youssef shows the latter’s attitude toward Tunisia’s war of national liberation. While crediting Bourguiba for establishing the Neo-Destour party, the author demonstrates his disagreement with Bourguiba’s approach. Even though he does not assault Bourguiba’s methods directly, he insists that independence ought to come immediately.
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Julien, Charles-André. “Crisis and Reform in French North Africa.” Foreign Affairs 29.3 (April 1951): 445–455.
DOI: 10.2307/20030849Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
In this useful article, Julien discusses Bourguiba’s vision of the autonomy agreement signed with France. He provides details about Bourguiba’s seven-point program, which included the division of responsibilities between the French authorities and the Tunisian nationalists. The plan was adopted, but not without reservations on both sides.
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Mezerik, A. G. “Tunisian-French Dispute: Bizerta, Sahara, UN Action.” International Review Service 7.67 (1961): 62.
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Mezerik provides a concise analysis of the Franco-Tunisian conflict over the Bizerta base and the Sahara desert. He includes a useful and detailed chronological list of all the incidents, which took place in these regions. In addition, he provides some of the letters exchanged between the two sides during the conflict.
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Morrow, John H. “Unrest in North Africa.” Phylon 16.4 (1955): 410–426.
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In this article, Morrow provides an analysis of the negotiations between the Neo-Destour party and the French authorities and the difficulties that Bourguiba faced in his campaign to obtain autonomy for his country. The comparison that the author makes with Morocco and Algeria sheds light on the uniqueness of Bourguiba’s approach and his success in harnessing public support for his plan.
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Novati, Giampaolo Calchi. “I rapporti fra FLN e Tunisia durante la guerra di liberazione: Gli effetti del bombardamento di Sakiet Sidi Youssef.” Quaderni di Oriento Moderno 4 (2003): 23–38.
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Written in Italian, this article discusses the impact of the French aerial bombardment of Sakiet Sidi Youssef, a village near Tunisia’s border with Algeria. Novati discusses the close cooperation between the Neo-Destour and the Algerian FLN (Front de Libération Nationale). He explains how Bourguiba applied his political acumen and exploited the incident in order to force the French to withdraw from Bizerte, declare his country independent, and obtain American support.
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Pigasse, Jean-Paul. “Ombres et lumières sur la Tunisie.” Politique Étrangère 34.5–6 (1969): 615–630.
DOI: 10.3406/polit.1969.6080Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Pigasse discusses Bourguiba’s main achievements and blunders in the early period. He describes most of Bourguiba’s projects as successful, but the main concern, as seen from the French viewpoint, is Bourguiba’s longevity and the uncertainty about the succession.
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Prévot, Maryvonne. “Convergences maghrébines autour a’Alain Savary, secrétaire d’Etat aux affaires marocaines et tunisiennes en 1956.” Revue Historique 301.3 (July–September 1999): 507–536.
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This thorough analysis deals with the negotiations regarding the autonomy accord. Led by the socialist politician Alain Savary, the negotiations team met with Bourguiba who adopted a moderate and gradual approach despite opposition by the militants in the Neo-Destour.
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Rainero, Romain. “La situazione interna della Tunisia dall’indipendenza ad oggi.” Il Politico 23.4 (1958): 697–712.
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Written in Italian, this article provides a thorough summary of Bourguiba’s early domestic and foreign challenges in the first two years after independence. The main themes discussed are the autonomy negotiations, Bourguiba’s attitude toward the West and communism and his modernization plan, economic vision, attitude toward the labor unions, and struggle with Salah Ben Youssef, as well as other issues.
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Ravussin, Ch.-E. “Aout 54 en Tunisie.” Esprit n.s. 219 (October 1954): 509–518.
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In this article, Ravussin describes the conditions in Tunisia during the autonomy negotiations with France. The author sheds light on Bourguiba’s moderate approach and describes the general consensus among the public that embraced his plan.
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Ruf, Werner Klaus. “The Bizerta Crisis: A Bourguibist Attempt to Resolve Tunisia’s Border Problems.” Middle East Journal 25.2 (Spring 1971): 201–211.
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In this incisive article, Ruf explains the reasons for the failure of Bourguiba’s attempt to bring the French to withdraw from Bizerta and to create a linkage between Bizerta and other border issues. He argues that three Bourguibist preconditions were lacking—consensus within the country, harmony between the party and the opposition, and the existence of a partner sensitive to what Bourguiba believed was a moral argument.
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Bourguiba’s Reforms

An insightful analysis by Hahn 1962 explains the reasons for the success of Bourguiba’s reforms. Lewis 2009 describes the way in which Bourguiba made use of existing controversies in order to obtain support for his reform program, and Clarke 1969 is a methodical analysis of Bourguiba’s economic development. Ashford 1973 is a critical analysis of Ben Salah’s socialist experiment, and Micaud 1969 provides a positive view of that experiment. Brown 1981 is a good discussion of Bourguiba’s campaign to encourage family planning, in addition to that of Povey and Brown 1968. Grami 2008 analyzes gender equality in detail. Stepan 2012 provides an incisive analysis of Bourguiba’s views about secularization, and Tessler 1971 is a good discussion of Bourguiba’s efforts to change attitudes toward reform and modernization.

Ashford, Douglas E. “Succession and Social Change in Tunisia.” International Journal of Middle East Studies 4.1 (January 1973): 23–39.
DOI: 10.1017/S0020743800027252Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Analyzing the failure of Ben Salah’s socialist experiment, Ashford demonstrates the way in which the cleavages within the ruling elite and the uncertainty over the succession procedures had a negative impact on the success of Ben Salah’s program.
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Brown, K. L. “The Campaign to Encourage Family Planning in Tunisia and Some Responses at the Village Level.” Middle Eastern Studies 17.1 (January 1981): 64–84.
DOI: 10.1080/00263208108700458Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
This article sheds light on Bourguiba’s efforts to introduce family planning not only in the urban areas but also in remote villages. Bourguiba’s methods included counseling, as well as legal assistance, and provided theological arguments explaining that such measures did not contradict the Islamic faith.
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Clarke, John I. “Population Policies and Dynamics in Tunisia.” Journal of Development Areas 4.1 (October 1969): 45–58.
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Clarke provides an analysis of Bourguiba’s plan for economic development by looking at the standards determined by the government’s plan, which became known as Perspective Décennate de Development (1962–1971). In addition, he assesses the impact of factors such as the legislation on female status, family planning, and other methods by which the population growth could be controlled.
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Grami, Amel. “Gender Equality in Tunisia.” British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 35.3 (December 2008): 349–361.
DOI: 10.1080/13530190802525148Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Grami discusses the radical changes that took place in the status of women in Tunisia during Bourguiba’s presidency and after. The author demonstrates how the emancipation of women came as a result of the state’s initiative, rather than as a result of pressure by women. In addition, she discusses the changes that were introduced in the family law and Bourguiba’s struggle with the religious establishment that followed.
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Hahn, Lorna. “Tunisia: Pragmatism and Progress.” Middle East Journal 16.1 (Winter 1962): 18–28.
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Hahn discusses the reforms introduced by Bourguiba, arguing that the reforms were made possible largely due to the flexible nature of his party and his reform plan, as well as that he did not adhere strictly to a certain ideology.
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Lewis, Mary Dewhurst. “Necropoles and Nationality: Land Rights, Burial Rights and the Development of Tunisian National Consciousness in the 1930s.” Past and Present 205 (November 2009): 105–141.
DOI: 10.1093/pastj/gtp035Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
In this unique article, Lewis discusses the protest movement in Tunisia against the Muslim courts’ decree (fatwa), which granted Muslims who became naturalized French citizens the right to be interred in Muslim cemeteries. Convinced that Islam and French nationality were incompatible, Bourguiba used the resentment over this issue to generate popular support for his reform program.
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Micaud, Charles A. “Leadership and Development: The Case of Tunisia.” Comparative Politics 1.4 (July 1969): 468–484.
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Unlike other authors, Micaud regards Bourguiba’s socialist plan, which he entrusted to Ben Salah, mostly in a positive light, arguing that both men shared the same vision and were in agreement regarding the plan and its objectives. Given the early publication date of this article, the author cannot be blamed because he did not foresee the negative results of the plan.
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Povey, Warren G., and George F. Brown. “Tunisia’s Experience in Family Planning.” Demography 5.2 (1968): 620–626.
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This article examines the steps taken by the Bourguiba regime to control the population growth. The authors provide an analysis of the legislative measures taken by the government, such as the setting of minimum age for marriage, removal of the ban on abortions, and the sale of contraceptives. In addition, they discuss the efforts invested by Bourguiba to train counselors, establish clinics, provide incentives to families willing to practice family planning, and so on.
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Stepan, Alfred. “Tunisia’s Transition and the Twin Tolerations.” Journal of Democracy 23.2 (April 2012): 89–103.
DOI: 10.1353/jod.2012.0034Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Stepan provides a unique view of Bourguiba’s secularizing reforms. Starting with the assumption that secularization is not necessarily an essential step toward democracy, he argues that, despite his secular measures, Bourguiba maintained a highly authoritarian political system and thereby stifled the development of a healthy democracy.
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Tessler, Mark A. “Cultural Modernity: Evidence from Tunisia.” Social Science Quarterly 52.2 (September 1971): 290–308.
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Tessler maintains that the level of modernity is determined by factors such as the country’s language, religion, attitude toward gender equality, child rearing, and the professional standards of its inhabitants. He states that, in order to promote the highest level of development, a leader must modify the traditional values and thoughts regarding all these factors. Taking Tunisia as his case study, he evaluates Bourguiba’s contribution to the change that took place in the public’s attitude toward these issues.
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Bourguiba and the Maghreb States

An in-depth comparative discussion of the nationalist movements in Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco is examined in Barbour 1954. Deeb 1989 is a good analysis of Bourguiba’s efforts to bring unity among the Maghreb states, and Hahn 1958 discusses his earliest attempts to achieve unity. Aghrout and Sutton 1990 is a detailed account of Qaddafi’s reaction to Bourguiba’s attempts to bring unity among the Maghreb states. Bahri 1966 is an illuminating discussion of Tunisia’s attitude toward the Palestine question compared with that of Morocco and Algeria.

Aghrout, Ahmed, and Keith Sutton. “Regional Economic Union in the Maghreb.” Journal of Modern African Studies 28.1 (1990): 115–139.
DOI: 10.1017/S0022278X00054252Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
This article sheds light on Bourguiba’s effort to bring unity among the Maghreb states despite reservations, which emanated from public hostility to Qaddafi’s regime in Libya.
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Bahri, Mohammed. “Le conflit israélo-arabe vu du Maghreb.” Revue Française de Science Politique 16.4 (August 1966): 774–785.
DOI: 10.3406/rfsp.1966.392955Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
This essay provides an analysis of the way in which Tunisia, Morocco, and Algeria viewed the Arab–Israeli conflict. He discusses Bourguiba’s attitude toward the Palestinian question, which put him in opposition to Nasser and his followers who advocated an armed solution to the conflict.
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Barbour, Nevill. “Variations of Arab National Feeling in French North Africa.” Middle East Journal 8.3 (Summer 1954): 308–320.
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Barbour compares the national movements in Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia prior to their independence. Bourguiba and his Neo-Destour party are singled out as moderate and willing to obtain whatever they could at that moment, all with a view to achieving the final goal.
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Deeb, Mary-Jane. “Inter-Maghribi Relations since 1969: A Study of the Modalities of Unions and Mergers.” Middle East Journal 43.1 (Winter 1989): 20–33.
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Deeb argues that the alliances forged by Bourguiba since 1969 were based more on pragmatism than on ideology. Bourguiba’s considerations, according to the author, were both political and economic. Apart from his fear of the possibility of unity between Egypt and Libya, he sought to ease the border disputes and to secure markets for labor and products.
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Hahn, Lorna. “Last Chance in North Africa.” Foreign Affairs 36.2 (January 1958): 302–314.
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Hahn sheds light on Bourguiba’s efforts to bring unity among the states of the Maghreb. She argues that Bourguiba sought to achieve such unity in order to bring economic prosperity, combat communism, and contain Egyptian influence in North Africa. She explains how the border issues and the distrust among the leaders kept Bourguiba from achieving his goal.
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Assessment of Bourguiba’s Regime and His Leadership Style

A thorough analysis of Bourguiba’s authoritarian style is discussed in Moore 1967, and the role that the Parti Socialiste Destourien (PSD) played in consolidating Bourguiba’s rule is covered in Moore 1988 and Moore 1962. Alexander 1997 is a solid discussion of the way in which Bourguiba made use of public and civil society to bolster his position. Ashford 1965 is an incisive discussion of the way in which Bourguiba prevented opponents from forming a united front against him. Rupert 1986–1987 is a critical discussion of Bourguiba’s authoritarian rule, and Brown 2001 is a good discussion of the failure of Bourguiba’s charisma to routinize. Ravenel 1987 and Vanderwalle 1988 are detailed discussions of the issues that Bourguiba had to deal with and the way in which he handled them. Vanderwalle 1980 provides a good analysis of Bourguiba’s attempt to fashion an ideology for the state and its partial success.

Alexander, Christopher. “Back from the Brink: Authoritarian and Civil Society in Tunisia.” Middle East Report 205 (October–December 1997): 34–38.
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Alexander explores the way in which Tunisia’s presidents managed to bolster their position in power by using Tunisia’s public and civil society to their benefit. By comparing Bourguiba’s methods to those of Ben Ali, the author provides an understanding of Bourguiba’s intricate ruling methods.
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Ashford, Douglas E. “Neo-Destour Leadership and the ‘Confiscated Revolution.’” World Politics 17.2 (January 1965): 215–231.
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Ashford provides an analysis of the evolution of the Neo-Destour party and the challenges that Bourguiba faced during its formative years. He asserts that Bourguiba’s major skill was in discouraging opponents from coalescing.
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Brown, L. Carl. “Bourguiba and Bourguibism Revisited: Reflections and Interpretation.” Middle East Journal 55.1 (Winter 2001): 43–57.
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Brown provides a thumbnail sketch of Bourguiba and the methods by which he obtained his objectives. Using Max Weber’s definition of charisma and its routinization, he argues that Bourguiba’s charisma was not routinized. According to Brown, Bourguiba was more successful as a freedom fighter than as a state builder.
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Moore, Clement Henry. “The Neo-Destour Party of Tunisia: A Structure for Democracy?” World Politics 14.3 (April 1962): 461–482.
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Moore examines the nature and the structure of Bourguiba’s Neo-Destour party, which many regard as a totalitarian apparatus. He argues that the party was far from being totalitarian, that it collaborated with the government in the decision-making process, and that it did not constitute an obstacle to democracy.
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Moore, Clement Henry. “La Tunisie après Bourguiba? Libéralisation ou décadence politique?” Revue Française de Science Politique 17.4 (August 1967): 645–667.
DOI: 10.3406/rfsp.1967.393029Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Moore provides an assessment of Bourguiba’s leadership style. He argues that neither Bourguiba nor the Neo-Destour party that supported him had serious opponents, and he demonstrates how Bourguiba managed to prevail over his three main opposition leaders using Machiavellian methods. His prediction was that the party would be capable of limiting the power of Bourguiba’s successor.
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Moore, Clement Henry. “Tunisia and Bourguibism: Twenty Years of Crisis.” Third World Quarterly 10.1 (January 1988): 176–190.
DOI: 10.1080/01436598808420050Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
In this article, written shortly prior to Bourguiba’s dismissal from office, Moore argues that the PSD experienced a renewal process and that it was still robust despite that its role in the national liberation lost much of its luster. The party, according to Moore, was still capable of confronting the opposition groups.
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Ravenel, Bernard. “Tunisie: Le maillon faible?” Politique Étrangère 52.4 (Winter 1987): 935–950.
DOI: 10.3406/polit.1987.3724Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Ravenel provides a detailed analysis of the hurdles with which the ailing President Bourguiba had to handle in his final years. These included the faltering economy, the Gafsa Affair, the Couscous Revolt, the discord between the government and the civil society, the rise of Islamists and other opposition parties, and the growing unrest in the army.
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Rupert, James. “Tunisia: Testing America’s Third World Diplomacy.” World Policy Journal 4.1 (Winter 1986–1987): 137–157.
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Rupert explains how Bourguiba became incapable of leading the country in an efficient manner during his last years. He argues that the authoritarian system that Bourguiba created was largely responsible for this state of affairs. In addition, Bourguiba’s infirmity and his excessive reliance on close advisors brought paralysis, which he could not overcome.
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Vanderwalle, Dirk. “Bourguiba, Charismatic Leadership and the Tunisian One Party System.” Middle East Journal 34.2 (Spring 1980): 149–159.
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Vanderwalle provides an analysis of Bourguiba’s efforts to fashion an ideology for the state. Bourguiba’s ideology was an amalgamation of elements such as reason, education, and nationalism. However, realizing that ideology was insufficient to guarantee his domination, he intervened to prevail over the opposition. Bourguiba’s methods worked during the 1960s period, but the following period saw apathy among the public and lack of consensus among the political elites.
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Vanderwalle, Dirk. “From the New State to the New Era: Toward a Second Republic in Tunisia.” Middle East Journal 42.4 (Autumn 1988): 602–620.
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Vanderwalle argues that Bourguiba’s early period was marked by considerable success but that three main incidents posed a challenge to which Bourguiba could not effectively respond—the general strike of 1978, the Gafsa incident of 1980, and the bread riots of 1984. Thereafter, more groups opposing the regime emerged, the Tunisian society was less willing to accept the regime, and the government was less inclined to introduce reforms.
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Constitutionalism, Islamism and the Question of Bourguiba’s Succession

The troubled history of Bourguiba’s relations with the Islamists is described in detail in Boulby 1988. Hahn 1972 is an illuminating discussion of the deliberations over Bourguiba’s succession and their meager results. Silvera 1960 is an in-depth analysis of the sources of constitutionalism in Tunisia.

Boulby, Marion. “The Islamic Challenge: Tunisia since Independence.” Third World Quarterly 10.2 (April 1988): 590–614.
DOI: 10.1080/01436598808420073Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Boulby traces the origins of the Islamist movement in Tunisia, arguing that it emerged as a result of the bankruptcy of Bourguiba’s Western vision. He provides a vivid description of the oppressive measures that Bourguiba adopted against the movement and their failure.
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Hahn, Lorna. “Tunisian Political Reform: Procrastination and Progress.” Middle East Journal 26.4 (Autumn 1972): 405–414.
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Hahn analyzes the deliberations regarding Bourguiba’s succession. She shows that the deliberations achieved meager results, which left many legislative and procedural matters unresolved.
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Silvera, Victor. “La régime constitutionnel de la Tunisie.” Revue Française de Science Politique 10.2 (June 1960): 366–394.
DOI: 10.3406/rfsp.1960.392575Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Silvera traces the origins of Tunisia’s constitutional development, and he provides an analysis of the main documents on which Bourguiba’s constitution was based, such as the Fundamental Pact of 1857 and the Constitution of 1861. In addition, he provides an assessment of the constitution and critical remarks.