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The Political Development of Turkey (Political Science)

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Mar 23rd, 2017
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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. This article is divided into three main parts: the historical setting, the constitutional system, and contemporary Turkish politics. The first part analyzes the Ottoman-Turkish political developments from the start of the reform period to the transition to a competitive party system (1789–1946). Indeed, Turkey offers an interesting combination of elements of change and continuity. On the one hand, the change from the multinational and multireligious Ottoman monarchy to a Westernizing, republican nation-state represents a sharp break with the past. On the other hand, below this surface of radical change one can observe strong elements of continuity, such as an authoritarian and statist political culture that prioritizes the “sublime interests of the state” (raison d’état) over individual rights and liberties. It is also true that the main center-periphery cleavage in contemporary Turkish politics had its roots in the Ottoman past. The center-periphery cleavage in the Turkish context denotes the cleavage between the central military and bureaucratic state elites, on the one hand, and all social segments which remain outside this center, on the other. The second part focuses on the present constitutional system, with references to earlier constitutional developments. It will be observed that none of the Ottoman and the republican constitutions, with the partial exception of that of 1921, were made by a freely elected and broadly representative constituent or legislative assembly, through a process of genuine deliberations and compromises. Consequently, they all lacked sufficient democratic legitimacy. This also explains Turkey’s current search for a truly democratic and liberal constitution. The third part analyzes various aspects of contemporary Turkish politics, from the democratic transition in the mid-1940s up to the present time. One of the most striking facts about contemporary Turkish politics is that, despite nearly seventy years of multi-party competitive politics, Turkey has not yet been able to fully consolidate its democratic system. This part concentrates on this question, referring to such challenges as the rise of political Islam and of Kurdish nationalism, among others.
  4.  
  5. The Historical Setting
  6.  
  7. The works cited in this section are general accounts of the late Ottoman reform period and the transition to a republic. In view of the elements of continuity between the Ottoman past and contemporary Turkey as referred to above, these are all essential readings for understanding modern Turkish politics. In this category, Lewis 1968 is an elegantly written classic. Shaw and Shaw 1977, Ahmad 1993, and Zürcher 2004 also give good accounts of the period. Hanioğlu 2008 focuses on the Young Turk period.
  8.  
  9. Ahmad, Feroz. The Making of Modern Turkey. London and New York: Routledge, 1993.
  10. DOI: 10.4324/9780203418048Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  11. A concise and useful introductory text into the late Ottoman Empire and the Turkish Republic.
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  13. Hanioğlu, Şükrü. A Brief History of the Late Ottoman Empire. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2008.
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  15. A useful account of the reforms and the Young Turk revolution in the late Ottoman Empire.
  16. Find this resource:
  17. Lewis, Bernard. The Emergence of Modern Turkey. London: Oxford University Press, 1968.
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  19. This book remains an elegantly written classic covering the period from the start of the decline of the Ottoman Empire to the establishment of the Kemalist Republic and its immediate aftermath. It also offers valuable insights into various aspects of change, such as community and nation, religion and culture, and elite and class.
  20. Find this resource:
  21. Shaw, Stanford J., and Ezel Kuran Shaw. History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Vol. 2, Reform, Revolution, and Republic: The Rise of Modern Turkey, 1808–1975. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1977.
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  23. This book is a comprehensive and detailed account of the 19th century Ottoman Empire and the establishment and evolution of the Turkish Republic.
  24. Find this resource:
  25. Zürcher, Eric J. Turkey: A Modern History. London and New York: I. B. Tauris, 2004.
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  27. A well-balanced and thoughtful account of the Ottoman reform period and of the establishment and evolution of the Republic up to the 1990s.
  28. Find this resource:
  29. The Ottoman Legacy
  30.  
  31. The differences between the political development trajectories of Western European feudal societies and the Ottoman Empire have been commented upon by a number of classical and modern political theorists. Thus, the Ottoman Empire, with a ruling institution composed mostly of the recruited slaves, no hereditary aristocracy, no independent church organization, no rising bourgeoisie, no tradition of self-governing cities, approached the model of “Oriental despotism.” These characteristics of the Ottoman State had a deep impact on the modernization processes and political developments in the 19th and 20th centuries. In this category Gibb and Bowen 1950–1957 remains a classic. Inalcık 1964 provides an insightful introduction in understanding the nature of the traditional Ottoman society. Mardin 1969 and Anderson 1979 contain useful comparisons between the Ottoman state system and Western European feudalism. Brown 1996 focuses on the Ottoman imprint on the Balkans and the Middle East, while Barkey 2008 perceptively analyzes the Ottoman millet system. İnalcık and Quataert 1994 provide a comprehensive account of the social and economic history of the Empire, and Pamuk 2010 focuses primarily on the impact of European capitalism.
  32.  
  33. Anderson, Perry. Lineages of the Absolutist State. London and New York: Verso, 1979.
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  35. Contains useful comparisons between the political development trajectories of the Ottoman Empire and the West European feudal societies.
  36. Find this resource:
  37. Barkey, Karen. Empire of Difference: The Ottoman Empire in Comparative Perspective. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2008.
  38. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511790645Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  39. This book provides an excellent analysis of the Ottoman millet-system, which granted a substantial degree of autonomy to the recognized non-Muslim communities in their communal and religious affairs.
  40. Find this resource:
  41. Brown, L. Carl, ed. Imperial Legacy: The Ottoman Imprint on the Balkans and the Middle East. New York: Columbia University Press, 1996.
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  43. This volume contains a number of good contributions on the imprint of the Ottoman state and society, not only on present-day Turkey, but also on the other successor states in the Balkans and the Middle East.
  44. Find this resource:
  45. Gibb, H. A. R., and Harold Bowen. Islamic Society and the West: A Study of the Impact of Western Civilisation on Moslem Culture in the Near East. Vol. 1, parts 1 and 2. London: Oxford University Press, 1950–1957.
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  47. This is a classical work that aptly describes the characteristics of the traditional culture of Moslem societies with emphasis on the Ottoman Empire.
  48. Find this resource:
  49. Inalcık, Halil. “The Nature of Traditional Society: Turkey.” In Political Modernization in Japan and Turkey. Edited by Robert E. Ward and Dankwart A. Rustow, 42–63. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1964.
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  51. Inalcık, a leading Ottoman-Turkish historian, analyzes the characteristics of the traditional society and culture in the Ottoman Empire, emphasizing the fundamental division between the ruling class (the askerî) and the ruled (the reaya).
  52. Find this resource:
  53. İnalcık, Halil and Donald Quataert. Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, Volume 2, 1600–1914. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
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  55. A comprehensive and insightful treatment of the economic and social history of the Ottoman Empire.
  56. Find this resource:
  57. Mardin, Şerif. “Power, Civil Society, and Culture in the Ottoman Empire.” Comparative Studies in Society and History 11 (1969): 258–281.
  58. DOI: 10.1017/S0010417500005338Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  59. A thoughtful and perceptive analysis of certain political and cultural features of the Ottoman Empire, with comparisons with Western European feudal societies.
  60. Find this resource:
  61. Pamuk, Şevket. The Ottoman Empire and European Capitalism. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
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  63. Pamuk skillfully analyzes the Ottoman Empire’s coming into contact with European capitalism and its consequences on Ottoman social and political life.
  64. Find this resource:
  65. The 19th Century Modernization Reforms
  66.  
  67. The 19th century Ottoman reforms conform to the pattern of “modernization from above,” since they were led by an increasingly powerful group of military and civilian bureaucrats, under the political, economic, and cultural influence of the West. They started with military reforms with the hope of putting an end to the decline of the Empire, but quickly spread to the fields of administration, law, and education. The reform period culminated with the proclamation of the short-lived (1876–1878) constitution, the first in a Moslem-majority country. Ward and Rustow 1964 offers a fascinating comparative analysis of political modernization in Japan and Turkey. Davison 1963 and Devereux 1963 are the best sources on the reform and constitutional periods respectively. Mardin 1962 presents a comprehensive account of the ideas of the Young Ottomans, a small group of intellectuals who were the main driving force behind the proclamation of the first Ottoman Constitution. Berkes 1964 focuses on the development of secularism, a very important component of the Ottoman-Turkish modernization process. Findley 1980 and Findley 1989 provide the best accounts of the major role of the Ottoman bureaucracy in the reform period.
  68.  
  69. Berkes, Niyazi. Development of Secularism in Turkey. Montreal: McGill University Press, 1964.
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  71. This book provides a comprehensive analysis of the late Ottoman and early Republican secularizing reforms.
  72. Find this resource:
  73. Davison, Roderic H. Reform in the Ottoman Empire, 1856–1876. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1963.
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  75. This book is the most comprehensive account of the “reform period” in the Ottoman Empire.
  76. Find this resource:
  77. Devereux, Robert. The First Ottoman Constitutional Period: A Study of the Midhat Constitution and Parliament. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1963.
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  79. Devereux provides a good account of the first Ottoman constitution, the political atmosphere of the period, and the role of Midhat Pasha (a leading Young Ottoman figure) in the process.
  80. Find this resource:
  81. Findley, Carter. Bureaucratic Reform in the Ottoman Empire: The Sublime Port, 1789–1922. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1980.
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  83. Given the prominent role of the bureaucracy in the late Ottoman reform period, Findley’s book is essential for an understanding of the Ottoman modernization process.
  84. Find this resource:
  85. Findley, Carter. Ottoman Civil Officialdom: A Social History. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1989.
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  87. This is a follow-up volume by Findley focusing on the social and cultural characteristics of the Ottoman bureaucracy.
  88. Find this resource:
  89. Mardin, Şerif. The Genesis of Young Ottoman Thought: A Study in the Modernization of Turkish Political Ideas. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1962.
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  91. Mardin provides an excellent analysis of a rather small but influential group of Ottoman intellectuals, called the Young Ottomans. This group tried to synthesize Western ideas of freedom and constitutionalism with Islamic principles and was the main driving force behind the proclamation of the Constitution of 1876.
  92. Find this resource:
  93. Ward, Robert E., and Dankwart A. Rustow, eds., Political Modernization in Japan and Turkey. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1964.
  94. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  95. This collection of essays provides insightful comparative analyses of various aspects of the modernization process in Japan and Turkey.
  96. Find this resource:
  97. The Young Turks and the Second Constitutional Period
  98.  
  99. The growth of a liberal-constitutionalist opposition (the Young Turks) against the reformist but autocratic sultan Abdülhamid II, and the 1908 revolution that forced him to restore the Constitution marked the beginning of the Second Constitutional period. This period constitutes some of the most dramatic and eventful pages of the late Ottoman history. The Constitution was radically amended in 1909 in a liberal and democratic direction, and for a few years the people enjoyed a freedom of opinion and of association they had never had before. However, starting in 1913, the regime quickly transformed into a de facto single-party rule of the Committee of Union and Progress (the Young Turks). The period also witnessed to the rise of Turkish nationalism at the expense of the 19th-century idea of Ottomanism, which tried to unite various ethnic and religious groups around loyalty to the throne and the state. Ahmad 1969 and Akşin 1987 are the most detailed accounts of the Young Turks period, while Hanioğlu 2001 focuses on the history of this movement prior to the revolution of 1908. Kushner 1977 analyzes the rise of Turkish nationalism, a process strongly associated with the Young Turks movement. Berkes 1959 and Parla 1985 present and analyze the thoughts of Ziya Gökalp, the chief ideologue of the Young Turks. Ahmad 2008 analyzes the economic policies of the Young Turks.
  100.  
  101. Ahmad, Feroz. The Young Turks: The Committee of Union and Progress in Turkish Politics, 1908–1914. Oxford: Clarendon, 1969.
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  103. The most detailed account of the first years of the Union and Progress rule till the outbreak of the World War I.
  104. Find this resource:
  105. Ahmad, Feroz. “Vanguard of a Nascent Bourgeoisie: The Social and Economic Policies of the Young Turks 1908–1918.” In From Empire to Republic: Essays on the Late Ottoman Empire and Early Republic. Edited by Feroz Ahmad, 23–61. İstanbul: İstanbul Bilgi University Press, 2008.
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  107. A good account of the Young Turk governments’ policies with the aim of creating a national bourgeoisie.
  108. Find this resource:
  109. Akşin, Sina. Jön Türkler ve İttihat ve Terakki. İstanbul: Remzi, 1987.
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  111. English title: The young Turks and the union and progress. A comprehensive and detailed account of the Young Turk period.
  112. Find this resource:
  113. Berkes, Niyazi, ed. Gökalp, Turkish Nationalism, and Western Civilization. London: Allen & Unwin, 1959.
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  115. Berkes has translated and edited Ziya Gökalp’s (the leading ideologue of the Young Turk period) writings on Turkish nationalism and Western civilization.
  116. Find this resource:
  117. Hanioğlu, Şükrü. Preparation for a Revolution: The Young Turks, 1902–1908. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.
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  119. A useful study of the Young Turk movement prior to the revolution of 1908.
  120. Find this resource:
  121. Kushner, David. The Rise of Turkish Nationalism, 1876–1908. London: Frank Cass: 1977.
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  123. A useful account of the beginnings of the rise of Turkish nationalism.
  124. Find this resource:
  125. Parla, Taha. The Social and Political Thought of Ziya Gökalp. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1985.
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  127. An excellent analysis of social and political thoughts of Ziya Gökalp.
  128. Find this resource:
  129. The War of Independence and the Establishment of the Republic
  130.  
  131. This brief period (1918–1923) also witnessed dramatic events in Turkish history. With defeat in World War I, the Union and Progress government collapsed, and with the occupation of Istanbul and parts of the country by the Allied forces, a nationalist resistance movement emerged in Anatolia. Events led to the convocation of the Grand National Assembly in Ankara with “extraordinary” (meaning constituent) powers. Shortly after the victory in the War against Greeks, the Republic was proclaimed in 1923. Smith 1959 and Akın 2001 analyze the revolutionary first National Assembly period (1920–1923), while Akşin 1983 and Criss 1999 focus on the policies of the Ottoman governments under the Allied occupation of İstanbul. Finefrock 1979 and Demirel 2011 present accounts of the opposition Second Group in the first Assembly, and Zürcher 1984 describes the role of the ex-Unionists (former Young Turks) in the nationalist movement.
  132.  
  133. Akın, Rıdvan. TBMM Devleti (1920–1923): Birinci Meclis Döneminde Devlet Erkleri ve İdare. İstanbul: İletişim, 2001.
  134. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  135. English title: The state of the Turkish Grand National Assembly, 1920–1923: Governmental powers and the administration during the period of the first assembly. A comprehensive analysis of the structure and the functioning of government during the period of the First Grand National Assembly.
  136. Find this resource:
  137. Akşin, Sina. İstanbul Hükûmetleri ve Millî Mücadele. İstanbul: Cem Yayınevi, 1983.
  138. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  139. English title: Istanbul governments and the national struggle. The main source on the policies of the Ottoman (Istanbul) governments and their relations with the nationalist government in Ankara, during the occupation of the Allied forces.
  140. Find this resource:
  141. Criss, Nur Bilge. İstanbul Under Allied Occupation, 1918–1923. Leiden, The Netherlands, and Boston: Brill, 1999.
  142. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  143. Criss presents a perceptive analysis of the policies of the Ottoman governments under the Allied occupation of İstanbul.
  144. Find this resource:
  145. Demirel, Ahmet. Birinci Mecliste Muhalefet: İkinci Grup. 6th ed. İstanbul: İletişim, 2011.
  146. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  147. Demirel’s account of the Second Group is the most comprehensive one on the subject.
  148. Find this resource:
  149. Finefrock, Michael M. “The Second Group in the First Grand National Assembly.” Journal of South Asian and Middle Eastern Studies 3 (1979): 3–17.
  150. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  151. A perceptive analysis of the liberal/conservative opposition group in the First Grand National Assembly.
  152. Find this resource:
  153. Smith, Elaine Dianna. Turkey: Origins of the Kemalist Movement and Government of the Grand National Assembly, 1919–1923. Washington, DC: Judd and Detweiler, 1959.
  154. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  155. The only book-size account of this period in English. Although mainly descriptive, a useful source.
  156. Find this resource:
  157. Zürcher, Eric J. The Unionist Factor: The Role of the Committee of Union and Progress in the Turkish National Movement. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1984.
  158. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  159. A detailed and useful account of the role played by the ex-Unionists in the Turkish nationalist movement.
  160. Find this resource:
  161. The One-Party Rule
  162.  
  163. Shortly after the victory in the War of Independence and the proclamation of the Republic, the regime gradually transformed into a de facto single-party rule of the Republican People’s Party (RPP) founded by Mustafa Kemal (later Atatürk). The single-party rule was consolidated, in the spring of 1925, after the suppression of the short-lived opposition party, the Progressive Republican Party (PRP), also led by some of the prominent figures of the nationalist movement. The authoritarian single-party regime lasted until the mid-1940s. Frey 1965 is an indispensable source not only on the single-party period, but also on the period of transition to a competitive system and the first seven years of the Democrat Party (DP) rule (1950–1957). Özbudun 1981, Öz 1996, Parla and Davison 2004 focus on the organizational and ideological characteristics of the single-party regime. Tunçay 1981 presents a detailed account of the establishment and consolidation of the single-party regime, while Rustow 1981 focuses on the role of Atatürk in this institution-building process. Zürcher 1991, Weiker 1973, and Koçak 2006 analyze the two short-lived opposition parties, the Progressive Republican Party and the Free Republican Party, respectively.
  164.  
  165. Frey, Frederick W. The Turkish Political Elite. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1965.
  166. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  167. This is a seminal work on the Turkish political elite between 1920 and 1957. Frey focuses on the composition of and the changes in the political elites, defined as the members of the Grand National Assembly. As such, the book provides valuable insights not only into the nature of the single-party regime, but also on the period of the national struggle and the transition to democracy in the mid-1940s, and the first years of the Democrat Party rule.
  168. Find this resource:
  169. Koçak, Cemil. Belgelerle İktidar ve Serbest Cumhuriyet Fırkası. İstanbul: İletişim, 2006.
  170. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  171. English title: Government and the free republican party based on documents. The most comprehensive account of the Free Party episode, based on official documents.
  172. Find this resource:
  173. Öz, Esat. Otoriterizm ve Siyaset: Türkiye’de Tek-Parti Rejimi ve Siyasal Katılma, 1923–1945. Ankara, Turkey: Yetkin, 1996.
  174. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  175. This book provides a useful analysis of the nature of the Turkish single-party rule and its organizational characteristics.
  176. Find this resource:
  177. Özbudun, Ergun. “The Nature of the Kemalist Political Regime.” In Atatürk: Founder of a Modern State. Edited by Ali Kazancıgil and Ergun Özbudun, 79–102. London: Hurst, 1981.
  178. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  179. This article analyzes the nature of the Turkish single-party rule within the framework of the typology of authoritarian regimes.
  180. Find this resource:
  181. Parla, Taha, and Andrew Davison. Corporatist Ideology in Kemalist Turkey: Progress or Order? Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2004.
  182. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  183. The authors provide a perceptive analysis of the corporatist (essentially authoritarian) nature of the Kemalist ideology.
  184. Find this resource:
  185. Rustow, Dankwart A. “Atatürk as an Institution-Builder.” In Atatürk: Founder of a Modern State. Edited by Ali Kazancıgil and Ergun Özbudun, 79–102. London: Hurst, 1981. 57–77.
  186. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  187. Rustow perceptively analyzes Atatürk’s institution-building strategies in the four phases (preparatory, experimental, decisional, and consolidation) of the nationalist movement.
  188. Find this resource:
  189. Tunçay, Mete. Türkiye Cumhuriyeti’nde Tek-Parti Yönetiminin Kurulması, 1923–1931. Ankara, Turkey: Yurt Yayınları, 1981.
  190. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  191. English title: The establishment of the single-party rule in the Republic of Turkey, 1923–1931. Tunçay’s work is the most comprehensive and detailed account of the establishment and consolidation of the RPP single-party rule.
  192. Find this resource:
  193. Weiker, Walter F. Political Tutelage and Democracy in Turkey: The Free Party and Its Aftermath. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1973.
  194. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  195. Weiker’s book provides a valuable and perceptive analysis of the short-lived (three months) Free Party experiment in Turkey. The Free Party’s establishment was encouraged by Atatürk himself, possibly to provide a more democratic appearance for the regime. It had to dissolve itself, however, when the RPP leadership started to perceive it as a threat to its monopoly.
  196. Find this resource:
  197. Zürcher, Eric J. Political Opposition in the Early Turkish Republic: The Progressive Republican Party, 1924–1925. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1991.
  198. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  199. Zürcher presents a good account of the Progressive Republican Party opposition in the early years of the Republic. The book provides important insights into the schism within the revolutionary cadres, between the ardent revolutionaries and the more liberal proponents of evolutionary change.
  200. Find this resource:
  201. Transition to a Multi-Party System
  202.  
  203. Turkey’s peaceful and orderly transition from an authoritarian single-party system to a competitive party system in the second half of the 1940s has been the subject of great academic and public interest and has been treated in almost all general books on Turkish politics. Still, there is an ongoing debate on whether this change took place under the impact of the West or was a natural outcome of the evolution of the regime. Karpat 1959 remains the standard reference book on the subject. Koçak 2010 is a more detailed treatment based on original documents. Yılmaz 1997 provides an insightful analysis of the process, emphasizing the role played by the changing international context. Burçak 1979 presents a similar but essentially descriptive account.
  204.  
  205. Burçak, Rıfkı Salim. Türkiye’de Demokrasiye Geçiş, 1945–1950. İstanbul: Olgaç, 1979.
  206. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  207. English title: Transition to democracy in Turkey, 1945–1950. An analysis of the transition process from an essentially anti-RPP perspective.
  208. Find this resource:
  209. Karpat, Kemal. Turkey’s Politics: Transition to a Multi-Party System. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1959.
  210. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  211. Karpat’s work is still the most comprehensive account of the transition process available in English.
  212. Find this resource:
  213. Koçak, Cemil. İkinci Parti: Türkiye’de İki Partili Siyasî Sistemin Kuruluş Yılları, 1945–1950, İstanbul: İletişim, 2010.
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  215. English title: The second party: the founding years of a two-party political regime in Turkey, 1945–1950. The most comprehensive and detailed account of the transition process, based on original sources.
  216. Find this resource:
  217. Yılmaz, Hakan. “Democratization from Above in Response to the International Context: Turkey, 1945–1950.” New Perspectives on Turkey 17 (1997): 1–37.
  218. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  219. An important article stressing the role of the international context in the transition.
  220. Find this resource:
  221. The Constitutional System
  222.  
  223. Till the 1980s, Turkish-language constitutional law textbooks were generally written in the French-inspired tradition of “general principles of constitutional law,” focusing more on issues of political theory than on legal analysis. Since then, however, several good books have appeared either on the Turkish constitutional system in general or some of its more specific aspects. A great majority of these works are available only in Turkish. Gözler 2000, Tanör and Yüzbaşıoğlu 2001, and Özbudun 2012 are general works on the subject, and they are widely used as textbooks at Turkish universities. Özbudun 2011 is a more concise text for English-language readers.
  224.  
  225. Gözler, Kemal. Türk Anayasa Hukuku. Bursa, Turkey: Ekin Kitabevi, 2000.
  226. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  227. English title: Turkish constitutional law. This is the most comprehensive and detailed treatment of the subject, even though the author has an essentially legalistic approach and does not pay sufficient attention to political and social circumstances surrounding constitutional regulations.
  228. Find this resource:
  229. Özbudun, Ergun. The Constitutional System of Turkey, 1876 to the Present. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011.
  230. DOI: 10.1057/9780230337855Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  231. While this book focuses essentially on the Constitution of 1982, it also includes sections on earlier constitutional developments and the present search for a new constitution.
  232. Find this resource:
  233. Özbudun, Ergun. Türk Anayasa Hukuku. 12th ed. Ankara, Turkey: Yetkin, 2012.
  234. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  235. English title: Turkish constitutional law. One of the earliest comprehensive accounts of the 1982 Constitution (first edition in 1986) with systematic comparisons with the 1961 Constitution.
  236. Find this resource:
  237. Tanör, Bülent, and Necmi Yüzbaşıoğlu. 1982 Anayasasına Göre Türk Anayasa Hukuku. İstanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayınları, 2001.
  238. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  239. English title: Turkish constitutional law according to the constitution of 1982. A leading textbook covering all essential aspects of the 1982 Constitution.
  240. Find this resource:
  241. Constitutional History
  242.  
  243. Okandan 1977 provides the most comprehensive and detailed account of constitutional developments in the Ottoman Empire up to its fall, while Tanör 1999 presents a more general treatment of the subject including both the Ottoman and the republican periods. Özbudun 1992 and Özbudun 2012 focus more specifically on the 1921 and the 1924 Constitutions, respectively. Tanör 1986 provides a good comparative analysis of the 1961 and the 1982 Constitutions.
  244.  
  245. Okandan, Recai G. Amme Hukukumuzun Anahatları (Türkiye’nin Siyasî Gelişmesi): Osmanlı Devletinin Kuruluşundan Yıkılışına Kadar. İstanbul: İÜHF Yayını, 1977.
  246. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  247. English title: Outlines of our public law: Political developments of Turkey: From the origins of the Ottoman state to its fall. A comprehensive study of the Ottoman-Turkish public law from the origins to the fall of the Ottoman Empire.
  248. Find this resource:
  249. Özbudun, Ergun. 1921 Anayasası. Ankara, Turkey: Atatürk Araştırma Merkezi, 1992.
  250. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  251. English title: The Constitution of 1921. An analysis of this brief but extremely important document adopted during the War of Independence years (1920–1922) by a revolutionary assembly endowed with extraordinary (constituent) powers.
  252. Find this resource:
  253. Özbudun, Ergun. 1924 Anayasası. İstanbul: İstanbul Bilgi Universitesi Yayınları, 2012.
  254. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  255. English title: The Constitution of 1924. An account of the first republican constitution of Turkey largely based on the National Assembly debates on the Constitution, and with emphasis on its commitment to an excessively majoritarian concept of democracy.
  256. Find this resource:
  257. Tanör, Bülent. İki Anayasa, 1961–1982. İstanbul: Beta, 1986.
  258. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  259. English title: The two constitutions, 1961–1982. A concise and insightful comparative analysis of the 1961 and the 1982 Constitutions.
  260. Find this resource:
  261. Tanör, Bülent. Osmanlı-Türk Anayasal Gelişmeleri. İstanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayınları, 1999.
  262. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  263. English title: Ottoman-Turkish constitutional developments. A concise and thoughtful analysis of the Ottoman-Turkish constitutional developments from 1789 till 1980.
  264. Find this resource:
  265. Politics of Constitutional Reform
  266.  
  267. It is generally agreed that the Constitution of 1982, in the making of which the military played a key role, contained many illiberal and authoritarian features and gave the military wide tutelary powers over elected bodies. Consequently, almost from its adoption, issues of constitutional reform have always been on the agenda of Turkish politics, and the Constitution has so far undergone 17 amendments. It is also generally agreed, however, that even though the cumulative effect of these amendments has been a considerable degree of liberalization and democratization of the Turkish political system, this authoritarian and tutelarist legacy has not yet been completely liquidated. Hence, Turkey’s current search for a new constitution. Özbudun and Gençkaya 2009 and Yazıcı 2009 provide general accounts of the politics of constitution-making and constitutional amendments in Turkey. Kaboğlu, et al. 2012 brings together more theoretical and comparative essays on the subject. Göztepe and Çelebi 2012 focus on the debates and proposals in Turkey’s current search for a new constitution.
  268.  
  269. Göztepe, Ece, and Aykut Çelebi, eds. Demokratik Anayasa: Görüşler ve Öneriler. İstanbul: Metis, 2012.
  270. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  271. English title: Democratic constitution: Views and proposals). This edited book also contains a number of contributions on the current search for a new constitution in Turkey, focusing both on procedural and substantive issues.
  272. Find this resource:
  273. Kaboğlu, İbrahim, Jean Marcou, and Christine Murray, eds. Anayasanın Yenilenmesi—Renewal of the Constitution—Renouvellment de la Constitution. Special issue of Anayasa Hukuku Dergisi 1, no. 1. Istanbul: Legal, 2012.
  274. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  275. This book, based on the papers presented to the International Roundtable organized by the International Association of Constitutional Law contains a number of contributions on the procedural and substantive aspects of constitution making, focusing mainly but not exclusively on Turkey.
  276. Find this resource:
  277. Özbudun, Ergun, and Ömer Faruk Gençkaya. Democratization and the Politics of Constitution Making. Budapest and London: Central European University Press, 2009.
  278. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  279. Even though the book contains a section on the earlier experiences of constitution making in Turkey, it focuses essentially on the politics of constitutional amendments between 1987 and 2007.
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Yazıcı, Serap. Yeni Bir Anayasa Hazırlığı ve Türkiye: Seçkincilikten Toplum Sözleşmesine. İstanbul: İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları, 2009.
  282. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  283. English title: Preparation for a new constitution and Turkey: From elitism to social contract. An insightful analysis of Turkey’s current search for a new constitution with reference to the tutelarist/elitist constitutional legacy.
  284. Find this resource:
  285. Contemporary Politics
  286.  
  287. The books cited in this section provide general analyses of contemporary Turkish politics. Heper and Evin 1988 and Heper and Sayarı 2012 are co-edited volumes each dealing with various aspects of modern Turkish politics. Kalaycıoğlu 2005 also provides a concise overview of recent political developments in Turkey, while Dodd 1983 focuses on the crisis of democracy in the 1970s. Özbudun 2000 provides an account of the transitions, crises, breakdowns, and restorations in Turkish democracy. Çarkoğlu and Kalaycıoğlu 2009 insightfully analyze the current rise of conservatism.
  288.  
  289. Çarkoğlu, Ali, and Ersin Kalaycıoğlu. The Rising Tide of Conservatism in Turkey. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009.
  290. DOI: 10.1057/9780230621534Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  291. The book focuses on the currently much debated topic of the rise of conservatism in Turkey. It perceptively analyzes the causes, nature, and consequences of this phenomenon.
  292. Find this resource:
  293. Dodd, Clement. The Crisis of Turkish Democracy. 2d ed. Huntington, UK: Eothen, 1983.
  294. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  295. A succinct analysis of the crisis of Turkish democracy in the 1970s culminating in the military coup of 1980.
  296. Find this resource:
  297. Heper, Metin, and Ahmet Evin, eds. State, Democracy and the Military: Turkey in the 1980s. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1988.
  298. DOI: 10.1515/9783110846881Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  299. An edited volume on various aspects of Turkish politics in the aftermath of the 1980 coup and the adoption of the Constitution of 1982.
  300. Find this resource:
  301. Heper, Metin, and Sabri Sayarı, eds. The Routledge Handbook of Modern Turkey. London and New York: Routledge, 2012.
  302. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  303. The book contains a number of very good contributions not only on contemporary politics, but also on the historical setting, culture, society, geography, and economy.
  304. Find this resource:
  305. Kalaycıoğlu, Ersin. Turkish Dynamics: Bridge Across Troubled Lands. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005.
  306. DOI: 10.1057/9781403978660Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  307. A concise and useful overview of Turkey’s political development in an essentially chronological order, with a perceptive chapter on the dynamics of change and the risk factors.
  308. Find this resource:
  309. Özbudun, Ergun. Contemporary Turkish Politics: Challenges to Democratic Consolidation. Boulder, CO, and London: Lynne Rienner, 2000.
  310. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  311. The book analyzes the crises and breakdowns in the Turkish political system since the transition to democratic politics, the party system, civil society organizations, and civil-military relations.
  312. Find this resource:
  313. Journals
  314.  
  315. Although articles on various aspects of Turkish politics increasingly appear in a number of journals in comparative and Middle East politics, Turkish Studies and New Perspectives on Turkey would be the most helpful places to begin.
  316.  
  317. New Perspectives on Turkey.
  318. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  319. A biannual journal published by the Economic and Social History Foundation of Turkey (Tarih Vakfı)
  320. Find this resource:
  321. Turkish Studies.
  322. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  323. A special reference must be made to Turkish Studies, published by Routledge since 2000, exclusively devoted to Turkish studies. Some of its special issues have later been published as edited books.
  324. Find this resource:
  325. Political Parties and Elections
  326.  
  327. This is the most thoroughly researched and written about area of Turkish politics, with good general overviews and monographic studies on individual parties and elections. Mardin 1973 is a source of inspiration for many scholars and analysts on the Turkish party system. Rubin and Heper 2002 brings together essays on the individual parties, while Sayarı and Esmer 2002 provides a good analysis of the party system and voting behavior. Özbudun 1976 analyzes the impact of socio-economic change on the party system, and Özbudun 2013 focuses on the impact of social cleavages and the electoral system on party politics. Çarkoğlu and Kalaycıoğlu 2007 provides a good analysis of parties and elections. Hazama 2007 presents the most comprehensive analysis on electoral volatility. Demirel 2011 provides an insightful account of the Democrat Party period (1950–1960).
  328.  
  329. Çarkoğlu, Ali, and Ersin Kalaycıoğlu. Turkish Democracy Today: Elections, Participation and Stability in an Islamic Society. London: I. B. Tauris, 2007.
  330. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  331. An excellent and up-to-date analysis of Turkish parties and elections by two prominent Turkish political scientists.
  332. Find this resource:
  333. Demirel, Tanel. Türkiye’nin Uzun On Yılı: Demokrat Parti İktidarı ve 27 Mayıs Darbesi. İstanbul: İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları, 2011.
  334. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  335. English title: Turkey’s long decade: The Democrat party government and the coup of 27 May. Demirel provides an insightful analysis of the Democrat Party Period (1950–1960) and the events leading to the military coup of 27 May 1960.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. Hazama, Yasushi. Electoral Volatility in Turkey: Cleavages vs. the Economy. Chiba, Japan: Institute of Developing Economies, 2007.
  338. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  339. Hazama provides the most comprehensive study on electoral volatility, one of the principal features of recent voting behavior in Turkey. He discusses the respective impacts of social cleavages and the economic performance on electoral volatility.
  340. Find this resource:
  341. Mardin, Şerif. “Center-Periphery Relations: A Key to Turkish Politics?” Deadalus 2 (1973): 169–190.
  342. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  343. Mardin’s seminal article identifies the main cleavage in Turkish politics as a center-periphery line, and this perspective has been followed by a number of scholars. In this scheme, the “center” refers to the state elites or the world of officialdom, and the “periphery” to the rest of the society with no or little role in the government.
  344. Find this resource:
  345. Özbudun, Ergun. Social Change and Political Participation in Turkey. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1976.
  346. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  347. This book analyzes the impact of social cleavages and the process of social change on the party system and voting behavior from the late Ottoman period up to the end of the 1960s.
  348. Find this resource:
  349. Özbudun, Ergun. Party Politics and Social Cleavages in Turkey. Boulder, CO, and London: Lynne Rienner, 2013.
  350. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  351. The book analyzes the impact of social cleavages and the electoral system on shaping the Turkish party system, including a section on the recent trend toward a predominant party system.
  352. Find this resource:
  353. Rubin, Barry, and Metin Heper, eds. Political Parties in Turkey. London and Portland, OR: Frank Cass, 2002.
  354. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  355. It contains valuable analyses of individual political parties as of the 1990s.
  356. Find this resource:
  357. Sayarı, Sabri, and Yılmaz Esmer, eds. Politics, Parties and Elections in Turkey. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2002.
  358. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  359. An important collection of essays on various aspects of the party system and voting behavior.
  360. Find this resource:
  361. Interest Groups
  362.  
  363. Although a number of good monographic works exist on individual interest groups, few works are available on their more general characteristics and their role in the Turkish political system. Bianchi 1984 remains the most authoritative and comprehensive source on the subject. Heper 1991 brings together articles on major interest groups as well as more theoretical essays. Buğra 1994 and Buğra 1998 analyze the role of business groups, while Quataert and Zürcher 1995 focuses on working class movements.
  364.  
  365. Bianchi, Robert. Interest Groups and Political Development in Turkey. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1984.
  366. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  367. The best and most complete treatment of the subject from both theoretical and historical perspectives.
  368. Find this resource:
  369. Buğra, Ayşe. State and Business in Modern Turkey: A Comparative Study. Albany: State University of New York, 1994.
  370. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  371. This book is the most comprehensive and thoughtful account of the relations of state and business in Turkey.
  372. Find this resource:
  373. Buğra, Ayşe. “Class, Culture, and State: An Analysis of Interest Representation by Two Turkish Business Associations.” International Journal of Middle East Studies 30 (1998): 521–539.
  374. DOI: 10.1017/S0020743800052545Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  375. Buğra provides a comparative analysis of the interest representation strategies of the two leading Turkish businessmen associations, TÜSİAD (secular) and MÜSİAD (Islamic), thus also shedding light on the secular-religious cleavage in Turkish politics.
  376. Find this resource:
  377. Heper, Metin, ed. Strong State and Economic Interest Groups: The Post-1980 Turkish Experience. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1991.
  378. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  379. A useful collection of essays providing both theoretical insights and analysis of major economic interest groups.
  380. Find this resource:
  381. Quataert, Donald, and Eric Zürcher, eds. Workers and the Working Class in the Ottoman Empire and the Turkish Republic. London and New York: I. B. Tauris, 1995.
  382. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  383. A good collection of articles on working class movements in the late Ottoman Empire and the Turkish Republic.
  384. Find this resource:
  385. Religion and Politics
  386.  
  387. While the cleavage between the secularizing central state elites and the more pious and conservative periphery has always been one of the distinguishing marks of Turkish politics, the rise of a more political version of Islam since the mid-1970s has led to a number of studies on the subject. Many of the works cited here, such as Cizre 2008, Hale and Özbudun 2010, Yavuz 2006, and Yavuz 2009, focus on the most recent manifestation of Islamic politics, namely the Justice and Development Party (JDP; in Turkish, Adalet ve Kalkınma Partisi, AKP). Yavuz 2003 treats the subject in a more historical and sociological perspective, while White 2002 focuses on the mobilization techniques of Islamist parties. Öniş 1997 analyzes the socio-economic factors behind the rise of Islamic parties. Finally, Çarkoğlu and Rubin 2006 brings together a number of articles dealing with various aspects of religion and politics in Turkey.
  388.  
  389. Çarkoğlu, Ali, and Barry Rubin, eds. Religion and Politics in Turkey. London and New York: Routledge, 2006.
  390. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  391. This edited volume includes a number of articles on various aspects of religion and politics in Turkey.
  392. Find this resource:
  393. Cizre, Ümit, ed. Secular and Islamic Politics in Turkey: The Making of the Justice and Development Party. Abingdon, UK, and New York: Routledge, 2008.
  394. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  395. This volume contains good contributions on various aspects of the emergence and characteristics of the JDP.
  396. Find this resource:
  397. Hale, William, and Ergun Özbudun. Islamism, Democracy, and Liberalism in Turkey: The Case of the AKP. London and New York: Routledge, 2010.
  398. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  399. The book provides a comprehensive analysis of the emergence, ideology, and organizational characteristics of the Justice and Development Party (AKP) as well as its policies since it came to power in 2002.
  400. Find this resource:
  401. Öniş, Ziya. “The Political Economy of Islamic Resurgence in Turkey: The Rise of the Welfare Party in Perspective.” Third World Quarterly 18 (1997): 743–766.
  402. DOI: 10.1080/01436599714740Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  403. An insightful analysis of the rise of Islamic Welfare Party in relation to the changes in the Turkish economic system in the 1980s and the 1990s.
  404. Find this resource:
  405. White, Jenny B. Islamist Mobilization in Turkey. Seattle and London: University of Washington Press, 2002.
  406. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  407. White, in a fascinating anthropological study, describes the mobilization and campaign techniques of the Islamic Welfare Party in a low-income neighborhood of İstanbul.
  408. Find this resource:
  409. Yavuz, M. Hakan. Islamic Political Identity in Turkey. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
  410. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  411. Yavuz provides a rich account of the development of an Islamic political identity in Turkey, starting with the Ottoman legacy, and analyzes a number of Islamic movements as well as the rise of the Welfare Party.
  412. Find this resource:
  413. Yavuz, M. Hakan, ed. The Emergence of a New Turkey: Democracy and the AK Parti. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2006.
  414. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  415. A good collection of studies on the emergence and characteristics of Turkey’s present governing party, the Justice and Development Party.
  416. Find this resource:
  417. Yavuz, M. Hakan. Secularism and Muslim Democracy in Turkey. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2009.
  418. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511815089Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  419. Yavuz’s book is an in-depth analysis of the AKP, centering on the question of the definition of an Islamic party and whether the AKP is an Islamic party.
  420. Find this resource:
  421. Kurdish Question
  422.  
  423. Kurdish question occupies a central place in modern Turkish politics. The republic has pursued markedly assimilationist and rejectionist policies toward the Kurdish minority denying to them even basic cultural rights, without, however, much success. Consequently, Turkey has been struggling with a persistent Kurdish armed revolt (the PKK) for almost thirty years. The AKP’s policy with regard to the Kurdish issue is considerably softer and more conciliatory than those of the more nationalist and secularist parties. Thus, the AKP government is currently in the midst of a negotiation process with the rebels in the hope of reaching a final peaceful solution to the conflict. Barkey and Fuller 1998, Kirişçi and Winrow 1997, Kreyenbrook and Sperl 1992, and Çandar 2012 provide good overall accounts of Turkey’s Kurdish problem. Olson 1989 analyzes its historical origins. Taşpınar 2005 and Sakallıoğlu 1998 focus on the views of the Islamic parties and writers with regard to the Kurdish question. Konda 2011 presents the findings of a large-scale survey on public perceptions on the issue.
  424.  
  425. Araştırma, Konda. Kürt Mesele’sinde Algı ve Beklentiler. İstanbul: İletişim, 2011.
  426. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  427. English title: Perceptions and expectations on the Kurdish question. This study by a leading Turkish public opinion research company presents interesting findings about the public perceptions and expectations on the Kurdish question.
  428. Find this resource:
  429. Barkey, Henri J., and Graham E. Fuller. Turkey’s Kurdish Question. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1998.
  430. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  431. A perceptive book that analyzes the background of certain critical turning points in the conflict, particularly during its earlier phase.
  432. Find this resource:
  433. Çandar, Cengiz. Mezopotamya Ekspresi: Bir Tarih Yolculuğu. İstanbul: İletişim, 2012.
  434. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  435. English title: Mesopotamian express: A journey into history. A comprehensive and up-to-date account of the Kurdish problem with its critical turning points, plus proposals for a peaceful solution by a leading Turkish journalist.
  436. Find this resource:
  437. Kirişçi, Kemal, and Gareth M. Winrow. The Kurdish Question and Turkey. London: Frank Cass, 1997.
  438. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  439. A comprehensive general account of Turkey’s Kurdish question.
  440. Find this resource:
  441. Kreyenbrook, Philip G., and Stepan Sperl, eds. The Kurds: A Contemporary Overview. London and New York: Routledge, 1992.
  442. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  443. A good collection of articles on various aspects of the Kurdish question, including language, culture, ethnicity, and nationalism.
  444. Find this resource:
  445. Olson, Robert. The Emergence of Kurdish Nationalism and the Sheikh Said Rebellion. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1989.
  446. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  447. A good account of the historical origins of Turkey’s Kurdish question, going back to the Sheikh Said revolt in 1925.
  448. Find this resource:
  449. Sakallıoğlu, Ümit Cizre. “Kurdish Nationalism from an Islamist Perspective: The Discourses of Turkish Islamist Writers.” Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 18 (1998): 73–89.
  450. DOI: 10.1080/13602009808716394Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  451. The author provides a perceptive analysis of the Turkish Islamist writers’ views on Kurdish nationalism.
  452. Find this resource:
  453. Taşpınar, Ömer. Kurdish Nationalism and Political Islam in Turkey: Kemalist Identity in Transition. New York and London: Routledge, 2005.
  454. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  455. A perceptive analysis of the Islamic political parties’ perceptions of and policies toward the Kurdish question.
  456. Find this resource:
  457. Political Culture
  458.  
  459. The strong state tradition in Turkey vis-â-vis a relatively weak civil society has been noted by a number of scholars. This corresponds to a political culture that exalts the state as a value in itself, above and autonomous from civil society. Heper 1985 stresses the importance of the strong state tradition in Turkey, while Özbudun 1994 focuses more specifically on the political culture of the state elites. Rustow 1965 presents an insightful analysis of the traditional and modern elements in Turkish political culture. Turan 1984 provides a good account of the evolution of political culture. Arat 2012 is a perceptive essay on the status of women in Turkish society and politics. Arat 2005 deals with the role of Islamist women in Turkish politics.
  460.  
  461. Arat, Yeşim. Rethinking Islam and Liberal Democracy: Islamist Women in Turkish Politics. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2005.
  462. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  463. Discusses the role of Islamist women in Turkish politics.
  464. Find this resource:
  465. Arat, Zehra F. Kabasakal. “Women.” In The Routledge Handbook of Modern Turkey. Edited by Metin Heper and Sabri Sayarı, 259–270. London and New York: Routledge, 2012.
  466. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  467. Insightful essay on the status of women in Turkish society and culture.
  468. Find this resource:
  469. Heper, Metin. The State Tradition in Turkey. Walkington, UK: Eothen, 1985.
  470. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  471. Heper skillfully analyzes the historical roots and the present political repercussions of the strong state tradition in Turkey.
  472. Find this resource:
  473. Özbudun, Ergun. “State Elites and Democratic Political Culture in Turkey.” In Political Culture and Democracy in Developing Countries. Edited by Larry Diamond, 247–268. Boulder, CO, and London: Lynne Rienner, 1994.
  474. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  475. This article analyzes the state elites’ approach to democracy, particularly their elitist, authoritarian, and tutelary attitudes.
  476. Find this resource:
  477. Rustow, Dankwart A. “Turkey: The Modernity of Tradition.” In Political Culture and Political Development. Edited by Lucian W. Pye and Sydney Verba, 171–198. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1965.
  478. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  479. Rustow persuasively argues that the sharp dichotomy between modern and traditional politics needs closer examination and revisions. Thus, a characteristic of Turkish political culture is its combination of progressivism and conservatism, of continuity and change, not unlike those of Britain and Japan.
  480. Find this resource:
  481. Turan, İlter. “The Evolution of Political Culture in Turkey.” In Modern Turkey: Continuity and Change. Edited by Ahmet Evin, 84–112. Opladen, Germany: Leske Verlag + Budrich GmbH, 1984.
  482. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-663-01177-4Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  483. The article analyzes the principal characteristics of Turkish political culture and its evolution in a more democratic direction, based on survey data.
  484. Find this resource:
  485. Civil-Military Relations
  486.  
  487. Turkish military has always been one of the principal actors in Turkish politics, in conformity with the pattern of “revolution from above.” Since the transition to democratic politics in the mid-1940s, the democratic political process has been interrupted by three military coups (1960, 1971, and 1980) and by a number of more subtle forms of intervention. The pattern of civil-military relations is still far from full democratic civilian control. Hale 1994 is the most complete and detailed source on the subject. Rustow 1959 describes the role of the army in the founding of the Turkish republic, thereby shedding light on its continued influence. Weiker 1963 and Özbudun 1966 analyze the causes and the dynamics of the 1960 coup. Cizre 1997 and Cizre 2006 provide valuable insights on the current state of civil-military relations.
  488.  
  489. Cizre, Ümit. “The Anatomy of the Turkish Military’s Autonomy.” Comparative Politics 29 (1997): 151–166.
  490. DOI: 10.2307/422077Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  491. A perceptive article that analyzes the autonomy of the Turkish military vis-â-vis elected civilian authorities.
  492. Find this resource:
  493. Cizre, Ümit, ed. Almanac Turkey 2005: Security and Democratic Oversight. İstanbul: TESEV and DCAF, 2006.
  494. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  495. An important collective volume that critically analyzes the weakness of civilian-democratic oversight mechanisms on the armed forces.
  496. Find this resource:
  497. Hale, William. Turkish Politics and the Military. London: Routledge, 1994.
  498. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  499. The most comprehensive account of the role of military in Turkish politics from the late Ottoman period up to the 1990s.
  500. Find this resource:
  501. Özbudun, Ergun. The Role of the Military in Recent Turkish Politics. Occasional Papers in International Affairs 14. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Center for International Affairs, 1966.
  502. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  503. This monograph analyzes the causes of the 1960 coup and the dynamics of military politics from a comparative perspective.
  504. Find this resource:
  505. Rustow, Dankwart A. “The Army and the Founding of the Turkish Republic.” World Politics 11 (1959): 543–552.
  506. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  507. The article analyzes the army’s role in the founding of the Turkish Republic.
  508. Find this resource:
  509. Weiker, Walter F. The Turkish Revolution, 1960–1961: Aspects of Military Politics. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1963.
  510. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  511. Weiker provides a comprehensive account of the military coup of 1960 and its immediate aftermath.
  512. Find this resource:
  513. Judicial Behavior
  514.  
  515. In Western democratic countries, the judiciary is often described as “the least dangerous branch,” and considered the best protector of individual rights and liberties against the encroachments of the state. Paradoxically, in Turkey, as a result of the pattern of “revolution from above,” the judiciary has often acted as the guardian of the official founding ideology of the Republic (Kemalism), especially its two pillars, namely Turkish nationalism and militant secularism. As a consequence, the Constitutional Court and the other components of the judiciary have often exceeded the limits of “review of legality” and have ventured into the area of “review of expediency.” Arslan 2002, Belge 2006, Arslan 2007, Hakyemez 2009, and Erdoğan 2011 all deal with various aspects of the paradoxical behavior of the Turkish judiciary, namely its activist stance in the interests of the state at the expense of individual rights and freedoms.
  516.  
  517. Arslan, Zühtü. “Conflicting Paradigms: Political Rights in the Turkish Constitutional Court.” Critique: Critical Middle Eastern Studies 11 (2002): 9–25.
  518. DOI: 10.1080/10669920120122225Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  519. A perceptive article analyzing the Turkish Constitutional Court’s attitude as an “ideology-based” paradigm rather than as a “rights-based” paradigm.
  520. Find this resource:
  521. Arslan, Zühtü. “Reluctantly Sailing Towards Political Liberalism: The Political Role of the Judiciary in Turkey.” In Fighting for Political Freedom: Comparative Studies of the Legal Complex and Political Liberalism. Edited by Terence C. Halliday, Lucian Karpik, and Malcolm M. Feely, 219–245. Oxford: Hart, 2007.
  522. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  523. The article analyzes the roots of the illiberal attitudes of the Turkish judiciary in general, and its slow evolution to a more liberal perspective.
  524. Find this resource:
  525. Belge, Ceren. “Friends of the Court: The Republican Alliance and Selective Activism of the Constitutional Court of Turkey.” Law and Society Review 40 (2006): 653–691.
  526. DOI: 10.1111/j.1540-5893.2006.00276.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  527. Belge analyzes the political alliance among the Constitutional Court, the state elites in general, the militantly secularist Republican People’s Party, and the consequent selective activism of the Court.
  528. Find this resource:
  529. Erdoğan, Mustafa. “Demokrasi, Anayasa Yargısı ve Türkiye Örneği” (Democracy and Constitutional Justice: The Turkish Case). İstanbul Ticaret Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi 20 (2011): 27–45.
  530. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  531. A perceptive analysis of the question of the democratic legitimacy of constitutional justice with special reference to the Turkish case.
  532. Find this resource:
  533. Hakyemez, Yusuf Şevki. Hukuk ve Siyaset Ekseninde Anayasa Mahkemesinin Yargısal Aktivizmi ve İnsan Hakları Anlayışı. Ankara, Turkey: Yetkin, 2009.
  534. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  535. English title: The judicial activism of the constitutional court and its conception of human rights in a legal and political perspective. A comprehensive study of the Constitutional Court and its rulings on human rights issues, emphasizing its judicial activism in favor of the official ideological values of the state rather than of individual rights and liberties.
  536. Find this resource:
  537. Political Economy
  538.  
  539. A number of studies have analyzed the recent trends in Turkish politics in relation to the effects of globalization and the liberalization of Turkish economy starting from the 1980s. Hershlag 1968 is a basic reference work on the post-war Turkish economy. Barkey 1990 analyzes the Turkish industrialization crisis as a factor leading to the 1980 coup. Waldner 1999 also deals with the problems associated with late development. Keyder 1987 provides important insights into the role of the state in class formation in Turkey. Öniş 1998, Öniş and Şenses 2009, and Ercan and Öniş 2001 analyze the more recent developments in the Turkish economy as a result of increasing integration with global economy.
  540.  
  541. Barkey, Henry J. The State and the Industrialization Crisis in Turkey. Boulder, CO: Westview, 1990.
  542. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  543. A good study analyzing the 1980 coup and its aftermath in terms of the industrialization crisis in the 1970s, marking the failure of inward-oriented, import-substitution based economic policies of the earlier decades.
  544. Find this resource:
  545. Ercan, M., and Ziya Öniş. “Turkish Privatization: Institutions and Dilemmas.” Turkish Studies 2 (2001): 109–134.
  546. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  547. The authors analyze the recent trend toward privatization and the problems and dilemmas associated with it.
  548. Find this resource:
  549. Hershlag, Zvi Y. Turkey: The Challenge of Growth. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1968.
  550. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  551. As a follow-up to his Turkey: An Economy in Transition (1960), Hershlag gives a comprehensive account of problems and challenges produced by the Democrat Party (DP) government’s economic growth policies.
  552. Find this resource:
  553. Keyder, Çağlar. State and Class in Turkey. London: Verso, 1987.
  554. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  555. Keyder perceptively analyzes the crucial role of the state in class formation in Turkey.
  556. Find this resource:
  557. Öniş, Ziya. State and Market: The Political Economy of Turkey in Comparative Perspective. İstanbul: Boğaziçi University Press, 1998.
  558. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  559. The most comprehensive and satisfactory analysis of the political economy in Turkey.
  560. Find this resource:
  561. Öniş, Ziya, and Fikret Şenses, eds. Turkey and the Global Economy: Neoliberal Restructuring and Integration in the Past-Crisis Era. London and New York: Routledge, 2009.
  562. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  563. An important collection of essays on Turkish economy’s integration with the global economy and the challenges associated with this process.
  564. Find this resource:
  565. Waldner, David. State-Building and Late Development. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1999.
  566. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  567. The book provides a good comparative account of the complex relationship between state-building and late development.
  568. Find this resource:
  569. Foreign Policy
  570.  
  571. The foreign policy of Turkey has become a subject of intense academic and political attention in the last decade, as a result of Turkey’s growing soft power in the Middle East, the Balkans, and the other parts of the Islamic world. This has led to a heated debate among academics and political analysts on whether this represents a weakening of Turkey’s ties with the West and a move toward the Islamic world. Vali 1971 presents a solid account of Turkey’s foreign relations in the post-War period, while Hale 2002 covers its historical development from 1774 to 2000. Davutoğlu 2000 is essential reading for understanding the present Turkish foreign policy. Hale 2007, Jenkins 2008, Kirişçi 2009, Martin and Keridis 2004, and Oran 2013 focus on more recent developments.
  572.  
  573. Davutoğlu, Ahmet. Stratejik Derinlik: Türkiye’nin Uluslararası Konumu. İstanbul: Küre Yayınları, 2000.
  574. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  575. English title: Strategic depth: Turkey’s international position. Davutoğlu, currently the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Turkey, has been an influential actor in shaping the present Turkish foreign policy. Written when he was still an academic and an adviser to Prime Minister Erdoğan, the book advocates diversification of Turkey’s foreign policy, strengthening its economic and cultural ties with Middle Eastern, Balkanic, and other neighboring states, while maintaining its ties with the West.
  576. Find this resource:
  577. Hale, William. Turkish Foreign Policy, 1774–2000. 2d ed. London and Portland, OR: Frank Cass, 2002.
  578. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  579. Hale provides an excellent account of Turkish foreign policy from the late Ottoman times up to the year 2000.
  580. Find this resource:
  581. Hale, William. Turkey, the US and Iraq. London: Saqi, 2007.
  582. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  583. Hale presents a detailed account of Turkey’s role in the two Iraqi crises (1980–1993 and 1998–2003) and its implications for Turkey-USA relations.
  584. Find this resource:
  585. Jenkins, Gareth. Political Islam in Turkey: Running West, Heading East? Basingstoke, UK, and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008.
  586. DOI: 10.1057/9780230612457Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  587. Jenkins analyzes the problems associated with Turkey’s commitment to the European Union and the Western security system on the one hand, and its recent opening to other regions of the world, particularly to Islamic countries, on the other.
  588. Find this resource:
  589. Kirişçi, Kemal. “The Transformation of Turkish Foreign Policy: The Rise of the Trading State.” New Perspectives on Turkey 40 (2009): 29–57.
  590. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  591. Kirişçi presents an insightful account of the impact of Turkey’s growing and diversified trade relations on its foreign policy.
  592. Find this resource:
  593. Martin, Lenore G., and Dimitris Keridis, eds. The Future of Turkish Foreign Policy. Cambridge, MA, and London: MIT Press, 2004.
  594. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  595. This edited volume contains a number of insightful essays on various aspects of Turkish foreign policy.
  596. Find this resource:
  597. Oran, Baskın, ed. Türk Dış Politikası: Kurtuluş Savaşından Bugüne Olgular, Belgeler, Yorumlar. Vol. 3, 2001–2012. İstanbul: İletişim, 2013.
  598. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  599. English title: Turkish foreign policy: Facts, documents, comments since the war of liberation. This collected volume contains useful information about facts, and provides documentation and comments on Turkish foreign policy for the 2001–2012 period.
  600. Find this resource:
  601. Vali, Ferenc A. Bridge Across the Bosphorus: The Foreign Policy of Turkey. Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1971.
  602. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  603. Vali’s account of Turkish foreign policy, emphasizing its role as the bridge between the West and the East is one of the most comprehensive treatments of the subject.
  604. Find this resource:
  605. Turkey and the EU
  606.  
  607. The acceptance of Turkey’s candidacy for membership in the European Union (EU) in 1999 has acted as a powerful stimulus for its liberalization and democratization policies, although this “carrot effect” has weakened considerably since 2006, as a result of various difficulties in the accession negotiations process. While Müftüler-Baç 2002 and Tocci 2007 focus on the accession process and the difficulties it involves, Öniş 2003 and Öniş 2007 dwell more specifically on its implications for domestic Turkish politics.
  608.  
  609. Müftüler-Baç, Meltem. Enlarging the European Union: Where Does Turkey Stand? İstanbul: TESEV, 2002.
  610. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  611. A comprehensive study of Turkey-EU relations and of the challenges ahead.
  612. Find this resource:
  613. Öniş, Ziya. “Domestic Politics, International Norms, and Challenges to the State: Turkey-EU Relations in the Post-Helsinki Era.” Turkish Studies 4 (2003): 9–34.
  614. DOI: 10.1080/714005718Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  615. A perceptive analysis of the topic, particularly with its repercussions on domestic Turkish politics.
  616. Find this resource:
  617. Öniş, Ziya. “Conservative Globalists versus Defensive Nationalists: Political Parties and Paradoxes of Europeanization in Turkey.” Journal of Southern Europe and the Balkans 9 (2007): 247–260.
  618. DOI: 10.1080/14613190701689902Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  619. Öniş describes the main cleavage line in recent Turkish politics as one between the supporters of Europeanization and its opponents (“defensive nationalists”).
  620. Find this resource:
  621. Tocci, Natalie, ed. Conditionality, Impact, and Prejudice in EU-Turkey Relations. Rome: IAI Quedermi, 2007.
  622. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  623. An insightful study on the possibilities and obstacles on the way to Turkey’s road to the EU.
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