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Islam in Indonesia (Islamic Studies)

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. Indonesia has the largest Muslim population in the world, composing approximately 85 percent of its more than 255 million population. They are Sunni, although there has been some influence of Shiʿism among religious intellectuals. The Shafiʿi School dominates, but Indonesian Islam has been traditionally characterized by syncretism, with strong Hindu and animist pre-Islamic influences. The study of Islam in Indonesia has experienced considerable changes, both in the background of the authors and in the subjects under analysis. In the colonial period, as would be expected, most literature available outside the Indies was in Dutch and frequently was authored by those in the colonial administration or those with close ties to government. At that time, Indonesians did relatively little scholarly work that was known outside the colony, except in the field of theology. In the first decades after World War II, there was some decline in interest in Indonesia among the Dutch, and the nationalist upheaval limited the activities of Indonesian scholars. American and other foreign scholars, particularly from the disciplines of anthropology and history, filled this vacuum. By the end of the 20th century, there was a strong Indonesian contribution, including works from many scholars who had been educated in the West. In addition, local bookstores have been inundated by translations of Islamically oriented Middle Eastern and South Asian books and pamphlets by scholars and activists. Thus, in the 21st century, Indonesians have available to them works from many more disciplines and perspectives.
  4.  
  5. Bibliographies and Dictionaries
  6.  
  7. Regional bibliographies are cited in the entry titled “Islam in Southeast Asia.” In this section are Indonesia-specific bibliographies. Most do not focus solely on Islam in Indonesia, but all include significant citations on the subject. Except for the online update of Kemp 1990 and Excerpta Indonesica, none cites very recent material. The most extensive compilations have been from the Library of Congress in Rony 1996.
  8.  
  9. Boland, B. J., and I. Farjon. Islam in Indonesia: A Bibliographic Survey, 1600–1942, with Post-1945 Addenda. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Foris, 1983.
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  11. Somewhat difficult to find and in need of updating but good for the period.
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  13. Excerpta Indonesica. 1970–.
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  15. Covers Western and Indonesian language sources. This contribution includes abstracts, bibliographies, and chapters from books. It is very useful for research on many subjects, including Islam in Indonesia.
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  17. Federspiel, Howard. A Dictionary of Indonesian Islam. Southeast Asia Series 94. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 1995.
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  19. Very useful, especially for those employing Indonesian sources.
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  21. Kemp, Herman. Annotated Bibliography of Bibliographies on Indonesia. Leiden, The Netherlands: KITLV, 1990.
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  23. This is a useful place to start, and the best of its kind at the time. To update the 1990 edition, there is now an updated online source by George Miller, the Meta-Guide to Indonesia: Annotated Bibliography of Post-1990 Bibliographies on Indonesia.
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  25. Kennedy, Raymond. Bibliography of Indonesian Peoples and Cultures. Edited and revised by Thomas W. Maretzki and Henn Theodore Fischer. New Haven, CT: Human Relations Area Files, 1955.
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  27. This is a classic bibliography of the various ethnoreligious groups of Indonesia. Reprint, Kennedy, Raymond, Bibliography of Indonesian Peoples and Cultures, Yale Anthropological Studies 4 (Whitefish, MT: Kessinger, 2007).
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  29. Krause, Gerald, and Sylvia Krause. Indonesia. Oxford: CLIO World Biographical Series, 1994.
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  31. This is a heavily annotated and wide-ranging bibliography of English sources. It needs updating.
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  33. Perpustakaan-Islam.
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  35. This website provides an archive of articles as well as a search engine for finding books and articles on the Qurʾan and fatwa on various subjects.
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  37. Rony, A. Kohar, compiler. Unveiling Indonesia: Indonesian Holdings in the Library of Congress; A Bibliography. Washington, DC: Library of Congress, 1996.
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  39. This is a bibliography of the most extensive holdings publicly available at the time. It is not annotated.
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  41. Sumardi, Mulyanto. Islamic Education in Indonesia: a Bibliography. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1983.
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  43. This is an updated and translated version of Bibliografi Pendidikan de Indonesia. It is not annotated, and most citations are in Indonesian. It covers the years 1945–1975.
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  45. Tairas, J. N. B. Indonesia: a Bibliography of Bibliographies (Daftar Karya Bibiografi Indonesia). New York: Oleander, 1975.
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  47. Overtaken by Kemp 1990, this is still good on earlier Indonesian sources.
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  49. Journals
  50.  
  51. There has been a wide range of publications on Islam printed in Indonesia. They frequently have a small readership or are ephemeral in nature. Even some of the better publications, such as Mizan, no longer exist. Useful periodicals published in Indonesia that are available abroad and specifically concentrate on Islam include Media Dakwah and Studia Islamika. Also listed are publications printed in Indonesia and abroad that often have articles on Islam in Indonesia.
  52.  
  53. Archipel (Paris).
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  55. This journal has published some solid scholarly work on Islam and Indonesia.
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  57. Bijdragen Tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde (Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences of Southeast Asia and Oceania).
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  59. A prestigious and long-respected journal published in The Netherlands. Over the years it has published important contributions on Islam in Indonesia.
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  61. Indonesia.
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  63. A semiannual journal published by the Southeast Asia Program at Cornell University. It has frequently published scholarly articles on Islam in Indonesia.
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  65. Media Dakwah (Missionary, or Proselytizing, Media).
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  67. A monthly in Indonesian dealing with Islamic issues.
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  69. Panji masyarakat (Banner of the Community).
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  71. Founded by the Muslim scholar and editor Hamka (1908–1981), this journal includes articles on contemporary Islam in Indonesia.
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  73. Prisma.
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  75. Publishes in English and Indonesian and often covers contemporary Islamic issues.
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  77. Studia Islamika.
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  79. Published in both Indonesian and English, this quarterly journal contains many scholarly contributions on Islam.
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  81. Belief and Practice
  82.  
  83. This section on the beliefs and practices is divided into four sections: (1) the character of syncretic Islam in Indonesia; (2) local or regional studies that give a sense of how Islam is practiced in the real Indonesia world, including the influence of syncretism and mysticism in contemporary village or town life; (3) the impact of the Islamic revival in Indonesia on belief and practice; and (4) gender issues.
  84.  
  85. Religious Syncretism
  86.  
  87. Islam in Indonesia has long been characterized by syncretism, combining animism with pre-Islamic religions, including Buddhism, Hinduism, and Islam. This pattern has been analyzed by anthropologists in detail in Java, Indonesia’s most populous island, but is present elsewhere as well. While scholars generally agree on the syncretic nature of these societies, there is debate on issues such as the degree to which Islam plays a central role in belief and practice. The citations in this section on syncretism explore the history, variations, and day-to-day influences on the people and state. This list includes more than one generation of scholars, with Koentjaraningrat 1985 as one of the founders of Indonesian anthropology and Ricklefs 2006, Ricklefs 2007, and Woodward 1989 reflecting more recent scholarship.
  88.  
  89. Beatty, Andrew. Variations of Javanese Religion: An Anthropological Account. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
  90. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511612497Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  91. This book shows the differing practices and beliefs in Java, along with a strong consideration of religion in the practical world. The author characterizes religion in Java as resilient in the face of a changing environment.
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  93. Brakel, Clara. Islamic Syncretism in Indonesia from Historical Written Sources: Contemporary Ritual Practice in Java. Jerusalem: Hebrew University, 1995.
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  95. The author analyzes the characteristics of Javanese mysticism and how it relates to literature and theater.
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  97. Koentjaraningrat, Raden Mas. Javanese Culture. Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1985.
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  99. A classic work by the “father” of Indonesian anthropology. The volume is encyclopedic in content and is particularly good in describing and analyzing Javanese religious belief and practice.
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  101. Mulder, Niels. Mysticism and Everyday Life in Contemporary Java: Cultural Persistence and Change. Singapore: Singapore University Press, 1978.
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  103. Mulder’s study relates the mental attitudes of the Javanese to their practices in everyday life. The book is very detailed and more for the scholar than the general reader.
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  105. Mulder, Niels. Mysticism in Java: Ideology in Indonesia. Amsterdam: Pepin, 1998.
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  107. Analyzes beliefs and practices related to mysticism, including its relationship to the national ideology, the Pancasila (the Five Principles). The book could use more concrete examples, however.
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  109. Ricklefs, Merle C. Mystic Synthesis in Java: a History of Islamization from the Fourteenth to the Early Nineteenth Centuries. Norwalk, CT: EastBridge, 2006.
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  111. Explores the important role of mysticism in the early development of Islam on Java.
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  113. Ricklefs, Merle C. Polarizing Javanese Society: Islamic and other Visions, c. 1830–1930. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2007.
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  115. Provides a good description and analysis of the complex nature of Javanese society and its divisions over a century of colonial rule. Ricklefs looks at the Islamic Javanese legacy and its mystic synthesis.
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  117. Woodward, Mark R. Islam in Java: Normative Piety and Mysticism in the Sultanate of Yogyakarta. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1989.
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  119. In this sophisticated study, Woodward challenges the views of Clifford Geertz and his followers and emphasizes the central role of Islam in Java.
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  121. Woodward, Mark R., ed. Java, Indonesia and Islam. New York: Springer, 2011.
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  123. Essays centering upon ethnographic research in the Sultanate of Yogyakarta. They cover a wide range of topics from religion and culture to political change.
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  125. Local and Regional Studies
  126.  
  127. There is a rich collection on Islamic beliefs and practices at the local and regional levels. Most of these studies are based upon long-term field research by anthropologists. There are several studies of institutions, including Dhofier 1999, an analysis of the role of the pesantren (secondary religious school), and Federspiel 2007, a study of local religious and state leaders. Other citations assess the contemporary impact of Islamic beliefs and practices. More local anthropological studies in Java and Sumatra were represented initially by Clifford Geertz and Robert Jay.
  128.  
  129. Dhofier, Zamakhsyari. The Pesantren Tradition: The Role of the Kyai in the Maintenance of the Traditional Ideology of Islam on Java. Tempe: Arizona State University Press, 1999.
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  131. An important translation of an analysis and description of life in a pesantren. This is a detailed study, although it has not been brought up to date.
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  133. Fealy, Greg, and Sally White, eds. Expressing Islam: Religious Life and Politics in Indonesia. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2008.
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  135. These essays explore contemporary everyday life among Muslims in Indonesia, with an emphasis on how the forces of modernization have changed it. Includes interesting descriptions of the interaction of Islam with modern electronics and communications.
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  137. Federspiel, Howard. Sultans, Shamans, and Saints: Islam and Muslims in Asia. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2007.
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  139. Using a multidisciplinary approach, Federspiel analyzes the changing pattern of Islamic belief and behavior, including the present revival.
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  141. Stauth, Georg G. Politics and Cultures of Islamization in Indonesia and Malaysia in the Nineteen-nineties. Bielefeld, Germany: Transcript Verlag, 2002.
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  143. This volume has interesting chapters on education, politics, and intellectuals in Minangkabau, West Sumatra, and Java.
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  145. Java
  146.  
  147. Java has traditionally been characterized as a culture influenced by a combination of Hindu, animist, and Islamic beliefs. Geertz 1960 did the seminal work on this, and Jay 1963 followed his lead. Their interpretation of Javanese society has significantly influenced modern scholarship.
  148.  
  149. Geertz, Clifford. The Religion of Java. Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1960.
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  151. A groundbreaking and much-debated analysis of society in Java. The categories Geertz used of for defining Muslims—santri, priyaya, and abangan—heavily influenced other scholars on Indonesia. This is probably the best-known anthropological study of Indonesia in the post-independence era.
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  153. Jay, Robert. Religion and Politics in Rural Central Java. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1963.
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  155. An early postwar case study of Islam and politics at the local level in the Yogyakarta region of Java. It analyses these elements within the Geertz paradigm.
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  157. Sumatra
  158.  
  159. Sumatra’s population includes a wide range of ethnic groups. Among the most studied are the cultures of Aceh, a province at the northern tip of the island known for its traditional values, as illustrated by Hurgronje 1893–1894, Bowen 1993, and Siegel 2000.
  160.  
  161. Bowen, John R. Muslims through Discourse: Religion and Ritual in Gayo Society. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993.
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  163. An excellent ethnology of the Gayo society in Indonesia’s highland Sumatra. Bowen explores debates over Gayo beliefs and practices and provides a new framework for the anthropological study of Islam. This is an important contribution to our understanding of Islamic belief and practice.
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  165. Hurgronje, Snouck Christian. De Atjèhers (The Acehnese). Jakarta, Indonesia: Landsrukkerij, 1893–1894.
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  167. This study of Acehnese society and religion is considered a true classic, although some of Hurgronje’s work also was a scholarly effort to effect colonial policies. He had an intimate knowledge of Islam, including a clandestine visit to Mecca, although his policies toward Islam have been debated. Originally published in Dutch, it was later translated by Arthur O’Sullivan under the title The Acehnese.
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  169. Kipp, Rita Smith, and Susan Rodgers, eds. Indonesian Religion in Transition. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1987.
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  171. Resulting from a conference on Islam at Ohio University, this compendium assesses law and practices, beliefs in Sumatra and Sunda, and other topics. It emphasizes the syncretic nature of religion and how religious symbols change over time.
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  173. Siegel, James. The Rope of God. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2000.
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  175. A revised and expanded version of a well-recognized 1969 study. The original edition covered the roles of the ulema and pesantren, religious ideas in the 1930s, and social issues in the 1960s. The 2000 edition also covers contemporary political issues. The author traces the economic, social, and political environment of Aceh in northern Sumatra.
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  177. The Islamic Revival
  178.  
  179. Many scholars have commented on the impact of the Islamic revival that has developed in Indonesia. These observers have noted apparent elements of the revival, including greater piety, more modest dress, greater attention to orthodox practices, and the employment of religion to legitimate the policies of political leaders. Most of the publications on the Islamic revival have been in the form of articles, some overly “journalistic,” with only a few in-depth analyses. There has been a good deal of debate about how unique the present resurgence is and what its implications might be beyond public expressions of religiosity. Peacock 1978 is the only book-length citation in this list; most of the articles present discrete aspects of the movement, illustrated by the Howell 2001 assessment of the role of Sufism, the Liddle 1996 analysis of one organization’s contribution, and the Murray 1988 description of the relationship of the revival and education.
  180.  
  181. Howell, Julia. “Sufism and the Indonesian Islamic Revival.” Journal of Asian Studies 60, no. 3 (2001) 701–729.
  182. DOI: 10.2307/2700107Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  183. In this well-presented article, Howell sees Sufism as alive and well in both rural and urban environments, and she is optimistic about its future. Includes an excellent bibliography.
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  185. Liddle, R. William. “The Islamic Turn in Indonesia: a Political Explanation.” Journal of Asian Studies 55, no.2 (1996): 613–634.
  186. DOI: 10.2307/2646448Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  187. Liddle provides a detailed analysis of the rise, division, and interpretations of the Indonesian Association of Muslim Intellectuals (Ikatan Cendekiawan Muslim Indonesia, or ICMI) that arose during the last years of the New Order. He sees its development as part of Suharto’s political strategy.
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  189. Murray, Thomas. “The Islamic Revival and Indonesian Education.” Asian Survey 28, no. 9 (1988): 897–915.
  190. DOI: 10.1525/as.1988.28.9.01p01932Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  191. Murray seeks to analyze the influence of the Islamic revival on Indonesian educational practices.
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  193. Nash, Manning. “Islamic Resurgence in Malaysia and Indonesia.” In Fundamentalism Observed. Edited by Marty Martin and R. Scott Appleby. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991.
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  195. Provides a comparative analysis of the resurgence of Islam at the local level and in terms of external influences.
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  197. Peacock, James. Muslim Puritans: Reformist Psychology in Southeast Asian Islam. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978.
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  199. This well-recognized book has several chapters on Islamic reform in Yogyakarta. It looks at elements such as culture, education, and the characteristics of Javanese reformist life.
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  201. von der Mehden, Fred. “The Political and Social Challenge of the Islamic Revival in Malaysia and Indonesia.” Muslim World 76, nos. 3–4 (1986): 219–233.
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  203. Compares the characteristics of different elements of the Islamic revival in two countries, including the factors that fostered these changes and government efforts to deal with this new phenomenon.
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  205. Gender Issues
  206.  
  207. There has been a significant increase in the number of gender-related articles and books dealing with Indonesia. The online database at the University of California, Berkeley, Southeast Asia Women Studies Bibliography: Indonesia, gives a sense of the wide range of these studies. The other citations are recommended regional (Blackburn 2001) and Indonesia-specific sources (Day 2007 and Hadler 2008).
  208.  
  209. Blackburn, S., ed. Love, Sex, and Power: Women in Southeast Asia. Clayton, Victoria, Australia: Monash Asia Institute, 2001.
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  211. Four of the eight essays in this compendium analyze gender aspects in Indonesia, including women and the concept of power and the impact of Islam on gender issues.
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  213. Day, Tony, ed. Identifying with Freedom: Indonesia after Suharto. New York: Berghahn, 2007.
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  215. This edited volume addresses a number of gender issues in contemporary Indonesia, including issues involving gays and lesbians, polygamy and democracy, and Islamic influences on Indonesian feminism.
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  217. Hadler, Jeffrey. Muslims and Matriarchs: Cultural Resilience in Indonesia through Jihad and Colonialism. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2008.
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  219. A well-researched study of a region known for its matrilineal culture and long involvement in the country’s politics. It concentrates on the precolonial and colonial period from the late 18th century to the 1930s, including a discussion of indigenous culture, Islamic reform, and colonial policies.
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  221. University of California, Berkeley. Southeast Asia Women Studies Bibliography: Indonesia.
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  223. A good listing of works on women in Indonesia and in Southeast Asia in general. Outside of these categories, Eric Tagliacozzo’s Longest Journey: Southeast Asians and the Pilgrimage to Mecca (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013) is highly recommended. It covers the pilgrimage from several areas in the region, but has lengthy analysis of the Indonesian experience.
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  225. Islam and Politics in Indonesia
  226.  
  227. Islam has played a major role in Indonesian politics since the early 20th century, except for the years 1973 to 1998, when the New Order regime of President Suharto prohibited religious parties from participating in the political system. Muslim political parties and organizations have gone through many changes since their inception in the early post–World War I years. These Islamic political entities experienced pressure by the colonial administration and dissolution by the state in the early post-independence era. They were then forced into unwanted coalitions before finally being allowed to freely organize and participate in a democratic system. Following a short list of general histories, this section is divided into five parts: (1) Islam and Politics under Colonialism; (2) The Sukarno Era and Islam; (3) Islam, Suharto, and the New Order; (4) Islam in the Post-Suharto Era (including the Reformasi); and (5) Islam and Democracy. (Militant Islam is considered in a separate section of this entry.) The best sources available have also changed over time. In the Dutch colonial era, literature on Islam and politics available in the West was primarily in Dutch. In the first decades after independence, after the Dutch had lost the Indies and before the Indonesians had developed their own scholarship on the subject, the best material tended to be in English, with important exceptions from the other two languages. Since the 1980s sources have been more wide-ranging, as many Indonesian scholars have been trained abroad. Other studies reflect the indigenous education of their authors. The studies listed here are primarily in English.
  228.  
  229. General Histories: Islam and Politics
  230.  
  231. Boland 1982 and Porter 2002 analyze the role of Islam in politics over more than one historic era. These works complement each other, providing a review of the subject from the Japanese occupation to the return of democracy.
  232.  
  233. Boland, Bernard Johan. The Struggle of Islam in Modern Indonesia. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1982.
  234. DOI: 10.1007/978-94-011-7895-2Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  235. Originally published in 1971, Boland’s book analyzes the relationship of Islam and politics from the Japanese occupation to the Suharto regime.
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  237. Porter, Donald. Managing Politics and Islam in Indonesia. London: Routledge, 2002.
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  239. Analyzes the politics of Islam from the Suharto years to the return of democracy. Porter analyzes the mobilization of Islamic and other groups.
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  241. Pringle, Robert. Understanding Islam in Indonesia: Politics of Diversity. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2010.
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  243. A history of Islam in Indonesia from its arrival to contemporary political issues. For the general reader.
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  245. Islam and Politics under Colonialism
  246.  
  247. The political role of Islam during the last fifty years of colonial rule was expressed by the colony’s first mass Islamic political organization, Sarekat Islam, which severely declined after the early 1920s. However, two other Islamic organizations, with agendas reflecting a less political orientation, developed in the first decades of the 20th century and grew in the post-independence years to become the two largest organizations in the Republic. The Nahdlatul Ulama (NU; Revival, or Awakening, of Ulema) has been a more religiously and politically conservative organization. Founded in 1926, it has reflected its rural roots. The Muhammadiyah (Followers of Muhammad) was founded in 1912 and has been heavily influenced by Modernist Islamic thinking. Unlike the Nahdlatul Ulama, it never became a formal political party, but it has been neutral about members becoming politically involved. Both parties have developed extensive social programs, and the Muhammadiyah as been a major force in education at all levels. The Nahdlatul Ulama, Muhammadiyah, and new Islamic organizations continued to be active under the Japanese occupation from 1942 to 1945, when Japan sought to co-opt the Muslim population. Almost all of the citations given in this section are by icons in the study of the history of 20th-century Indonesia. Alfian 1989 was important in developing political science in Indonesia, Benda 1958 and Kahin 1952 were seen as giants on this era, and Blumberger 1931 is recognized as the prewar observer of Islam and nationalism. The other citations provide more contemporary interpretations.
  248.  
  249. Alfian. Muhammadiyah: The Political Behavior of a Muslim Modernist Organization under Dutch Colonialism. Yogyakarta, Indonesia: Gadja Mada University Press, 1989.
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  251. Provides the most detailed description of the Muhammadiyah in the colonial era. Relying heavily on Indonesian sources, Alfian explores the interaction of the Muhammadiyah with the colonial administration, its internal divisions, and the reasons for its success.
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  253. Benda, Harry. The Crescent and the Rising Sun: Indonesian Islam under the Japanese Occupation. The Hague: W. van Hoeve, 1958.
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  255. This classic study of the role of Islam under Japanese rule from 1942 to 1945 has been highly praised and cited.
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  257. Blumberger, J. Petrus. De Nationalistische Beweging in Nederlandsch Indie. Haarlem, The Netherlands: Willink, 1931.
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  259. Written by a former colonial administrator, this description of the first decades of the nationalist movement in the colony has been widely cited in scholarly books and articles.
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  261. Kahin, George. Nationalism and Revolution in Indonesia. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1952.
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  263. A classic analysis and description of politics and nationalism in Indonesia from the latter years of the colonial period to the early 1960s. It provides useful background to political parties and conflicts, including Islamic groups.
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  265. Korver, Arie P. E. Sarekat Islam 1912–1916: Opkomst Bloei en Strucktuur van Indonesie’s Eerste Mass-Beweging. Amsatredam Historische Reeks 3. Amsterdam: Historisch Semenarium van de Universiteit van Amsterdam, 1982.
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  267. The best analysis of the early years of the mass Islamic party, Sarekat Islam. Analyzes the interaction of Islam, politics, and nationalism in colonial Indonesia, with an emphasis on the relationship of Indonesian Muslims to the wider Islamic community.
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  269. Steenbrink, Karel. Dutch Colonialism and Indonesian Islam: Contacts and Conflicts, 1596–1950. 2d ed. Translated by Jan Steenbrink and Henry Jansen. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2006.
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  271. Originally titled Christendom en Islam (Christianity and Islam), this is a study of the interaction between Christians and Muslims in the Dutch East Indies, including the Dutch misunderstanding of Islam.
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  273. The Sukarno Era and Islam
  274.  
  275. Muslim political activities in the post-independence decades need to be considered within three periods: the initial democratic years and the later “Guided Democracy” under the presidency of Sukarno (1945–1966), the “New Order” regime headed by President Suharto (1966–1998), and the return to democracy after the fall of Suharto. In the Sukarno years, two parties—the modernist, socialist-inclined Masjumi and the traditionalist Nahdlatul Ulama—dominated Islamic politics. In 1956 the only free national elections until the end of the century gave both an almost equal 20 percent of the popular vote. The Masjumi (the Council of Muslim Organizations, or Partai Majelis Syuro Muslimin Indonesia) was formed in 1943 as part of an effort by the Japanese to co-opt the Muslim population, and by the first national elections of 1956 it was one of the two best vote getters. After challenging Sukarno’s program to eliminate constitutional democracy and facing charges of complicity in regional revolts, it was banned in 1962. Masjumi was a socialist and Modernist Islamic organization that supplied prime ministers and other cabinet ministers during the democratic period of the Sukarno presidency. During the post-independence period the Nahdlatul Ulama grew significantly, ultimately claiming some 35 million members. Unlike its counterpart, Masjumi, it was allowed to continue both during the Sukarno era and the early Suharto years. However, under Sukarno’s Guided Democracy, political parties were emasculated, and the Nahdlatul Ulama became increasingly more involved in nonpolitical activities. The Muhammadiyah continued to remain out of politics and ultimately attained a membership of approximately 30 million. The works in this section are by well-known scholars on the Sukarno era. Given the weak role of Islam in the state at this time, they do not concentrate on Islamic issues. Feith 2007 is the classic analysis of this period.
  276.  
  277. Bourchier, David, and Legge, John, eds. Democracy in Indonesia, 1950s and 1990s. Clayton, Australia: Monash University, 1994.
  278. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  279. The first half of this book has articles on the decline of democracy in Sukarno’s Indonesia. It covers the role of Islam within the first parliamentary system and has an article on Islam, politics, and democracy by Abdurrahman Wahid and another by G. Barton on neo-modernism. The second half of this volume addresses problems of achieving democracy at the end of the New Order.
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Feith, Herbert. The Decline of Constitutional Democracy in Indonesia. Jakarta, Indonesia: Equinox, 2007.
  282. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  283. Originally published in 1962, this is a major contribution to our understanding of the factors responsible for the end of democracy under Sukarno, including the demise of Masjumi.
  284. Find this resource:
  285. Palmier, Leslie. “Modern Islam in Indonesia: The Muhammadiyah after Independence.” Pacific Affairs 27, no. 3 (1954): 256–263.
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  287. Palmier analyzes divisions within Muhammadiyah and traditionalist Muslims, and he describes the organization as initially weaker after World War II.
  288. Find this resource:
  289. Islam, Suharto, and the New Order
  290.  
  291. Initially the Suharto regime allowed the continued political role of the Nahdlatul Ulama and the reemergence of a successor to Masjumi, the Permusi (Partai Muslimin Indonesia). However, in 1973 there was a forced amalgamation of Nahdlatul Ulama, small Muslim parties, and five non-Islamic parties, including representatives of the republic’s Protestants and Catholics. The new organization, the United Development Party (Partai Persatuan Pembanganan, or PPP), was severely limited politically and forbidden from using religion as a political tool. Toward the end of the Suharto era, there was an effort to co-opt the neo-modernist Islamic elite through the formation of the Indonesian Association of Muslim Intellectuals (ICMI). Because the Suharto regime would not allow Islam a role in national politics, it is not surprising that much of the best work on this era has been about important Islamic organizations that framed Muslim thinking during this period. Thus, there are citations on the Muhammadiyah, Nahdlatul Ulama, the ICMI, and the emasculated parties formed under New Order limitations. Many of these citations concentrate on one organization, i.e., Barton 2002 and Fealy 1996 on Nahdlatul Ulama, Eklof 2003 on the Indonesian Democratic Party (PDI), Hefner 1993 on the ICMI, and Nakamura 2012 on the Muhammadiyah. Hassan 1980 and Ramage 1995 have a broader scope.
  292.  
  293. Barton, Greg. Gus Dur: The Authorized Biography of Abdurrahman Wahid. Jakarta, Indonesia: Equinox, 2002.
  294. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  295. Follows the career of Gus Dur, the former president of Nahdlatul Ulama and the president of Indonesia after the return to democracy. There are useful sections on his intellectual development and influence since the Suharto era.
  296. Find this resource:
  297. Crouch, Harold. The Army and Politics in Indonesia. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1978.
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  299. This is a classic on the military in Indonesia during the early Suharto years. There is a chapter on the emasculation of Islamic parties, including the Masjumi and Nahdlatul Ulama, during the New Order regime.
  300. Find this resource:
  301. Eklof, Stefan. Power and Political Culture in Suharto’s Indonesia: The Indonesian Democratic Party (PDI) and the Decline of the New Order, 1986–1998. Copenhagen, Denmark: NIAS, 2003.
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  303. While this book concentrates on the more secular Indonesian Democratic Party (PDI) and its role in the New Order, the author also provides considerable analysis of the United Development Party (PPP).
  304. Find this resource:
  305. Fealy, Greg, and Greg Barton, eds. Nahdlatul Ulama: Traditional Islam and Modernity in Indonesia. Clayton, Victoria, Australia: Monash Asian Institute, 1996.
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  307. The contributors analyze a range of subjects related to the Nahdlatul Ulama (NU), including the significance of various leaders, internal divisions, and interactions with the New Order. The forward by Abdurrahman Wahid characterizes the NU as traditionalist but ultimately open to change.
  308. Find this resource:
  309. Hassan, Mohammad Kamal, ed. Muslim Intellectual Responses to “New Order” Modernization in Indonesia. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, 1980.
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  311. Provides an informative overview of the reactions of Indonesian intellectuals to economic and political aspects of the Suharto regime.
  312. Find this resource:
  313. Hefner, Robert. “Islam, State, and Civil Society: ICMI and the Struggle for the Indonesian Middle Class.” Indonesia 56 (1993): 1–35.
  314. DOI: 10.2307/3351197Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  315. Analyzes the efforts of the Suharto regime in its latter years to co-opt Islam in order to bolster the government’s standing among Muslim intellectuals.
  316. Find this resource:
  317. Nakamura, Mitsuo. The Crescent Arises over the Banyan Tree: A Study of the Muhammadiyah Movement in a Central Javanese Town c. 1910–2010. 2d ed. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2012.
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  319. This is an enlarged edition of the 1983 detailed study of the role of the Muhammadiyah in Koetagoede, Java.
  320. Find this resource:
  321. Ramage, Douglas. Politics in Indonesia: Democracy, Islam, and the Ideology of Tolerance. London: Routledge, 1995.
  322. DOI: 10.4324/9780203290897Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  323. Explores the role of political Islam and how Indonesian leaders sought to frame the national ideology, the Pancasila, to strengthen their power. Ramage is particularly good in analyzing actors such as Abdurrahman Wahid.
  324. Find this resource:
  325. Schwartz, Adam. A Nation in Waiting: Indonesia in the 1990s. Boulder, CO: Westview, 1994.
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  327. This general analysis of the New Order includes a useful chapter on the role of Muslim parties at the time, and it details factors in the development of the Indonesian Association of Muslim Intellectuals (ICMI). A second edition was published in 2000.
  328. Find this resource:
  329. Stauth, Georg. Politics and Cultures in Southeast Asia: Indonesia and Malaysia in the Nineteen-Nineties. Bielefeld, Germany: Transcript Verlag, 2012.
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  331. Analyzes the changing role of Islam in Indonesia and Malaysia during the 1990s and provides a chapter on Singapore as a possible future for these countries.
  332. Find this resource:
  333. Islam in the Post-Suharto Era
  334.  
  335. According to many observers, unfulfilled goals, fragmentation, and generally poor party leadership and organization have characterized Islamic politics in the post-Suharto years. Given the large Muslim population of Indonesia and the fact that more than 40 percent of the popular vote in the democratic elections of 1956 was won by Islamic parties, Muslim politicians expected to play a dominant role in the post-Suharto era. In the 2004 parliamentary elections, however, Islamic parties received only 38.5 percent of the popular vote, which was divided among some nine parties. Fragmentation has characterized the Islam parties since, although they increased their vote in the last parliamentary elections. At the same time, these parties presented a portrait of moderation, and radical Muslims gained no significant representation. Even without Islamic majorities, it has been possible to pass Islamically oriented legislation. Islamic groups have also been successful at the local and regional levels in fulfilling their religious agendas. Nonetheless, the new democratic system has been in existence for too short a time to see significant book-length studies. Presented in this section are primarily articles and book chapters, well represented by the work of Baswedan 2004 and Barton 2006. For information on the most recent political events, the Internet or newspapers such as the Jakarta Post are the best sources.
  336.  
  337. Barton, Greg. “Islam and Democratic Transition in Indonesia.” In Religious Organizations and Democratization: Case Studies from Contemporary Asia. Edited by Tun-jen Chiang and Deborah Brown. New York: M. E. Sharpe, 2006.
  338. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  339. This essay looks at democracy in Indonesia in the 1999 and 2004 elections, including the role of Islamic groups. It assesses the contributions of Muslim intellectuals to democracy.
  340. Find this resource:
  341. Baswedan, Anies A. “Political Islam in Indonesia: Present and Future Trajectory.” Asian Survey 44, no. 5 (2004): 669–690.
  342. DOI: 10.1525/as.2004.44.5.669Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  343. Examines the changing political and religious environment in democratic Indonesia and assesses the “Islam-friendly” political parties.
  344. Find this resource:
  345. Effendi, Djohan. “Progressive Traditionalists: the Emergence of a New Discourse in Indonesia’s Nahdlatul Ulama.” PhD diss., Deakin University (Melbourne), 2000.
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  347. Effendi assesses changes in the platforms of Nahdlatul Ulama during Abdurrahman Wahid’s Nahdlatul Ulama presidency and during his presidency of the republic.
  348. Find this resource:
  349. United States–Indonesia Society (USINDO). Islam in Modern Indonesia. Washington, DC: USINDO. 7 February 2002.
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  351. Proceedings of a conference on post-Suharto Indonesia. The papers are written by many of the best-known commentators on Indonesia and cover a wide range of subjects.
  352. Find this resource:
  353. Reformasi
  354.  
  355. The Reformasi movement in Indonesia is seen as the effort to transform Indonesia’s political, economic, and social system as it existed under Suharto into a more plural system. While Islam played a role in this, it was not central. Reformasi, as a rubric, can be considered under either post-Suharto politics or democratization, and it is both a banner of change and a means to achieve change. Much of the writing on the Reformasi has been journalistic or ideological. O’Rourke 2002 is the most extensive history of the movement, while Nyman 2006 looks back on its implications. Some essays in Budiman, et al. 1999 and Manning and van Dierman 2000 have articles dealing with Islam during this period.
  356.  
  357. Budiman, Arief, Barbara Hatley, and Damien Kingsbury, eds. Reformasi: Crisis and Change in Indonesia. Clayton, Victoria, Australia: Monash Asia Institute, 1999.
  358. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  359. This compendium of articles addresses the role of Islam in Indonesia, including its relation to democratic development.
  360. Find this resource:
  361. Manning, Chris, and Peter van Dierman, eds. Indonesia in Transition: Social Aspects of Reformasi and Crisis. London: Zed Books, 2000.
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  363. This collection of twenty-three somewhat uneven essays concentrates on the factors responsible for the fall of the New Order. The essays on economics, contemporary political events, and Islam are strong, and there is a chapter by Azyumardi Azra titled “The Islamic Factor in Post-Soeharto Indonesia.”
  364. Find this resource:
  365. Nyman, Mikaela. Democratizing Indonesia: The Challenge of Civil Society in the Era of Reformasi. Copenhagen, Denmark: NIAS, 2006.
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  367. Analyzes the New Order and its successor, emphasizing efforts to achieve democracy.
  368. Find this resource:
  369. O’Rourke, Kevin. Reformasi: the Struggle for Power in Post-Suharto Indonesia. Crows Nest, Australia: Allen and Unwin, 2002.
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  371. Looks at the roots of Reformasi and analyzes political and economic conditions since Suharto’s fall from power in 1998.
  372. Find this resource:
  373. Islam and Democracy
  374.  
  375. Since the latter years of the Suharto regime, and particularly after the return to democracy, the field of literature on the interaction of Islam with civil society or democracy has grown. These analyses, by both foreigners and Indonesians, have assessed the development of democracy and analyzed whether Islam is compatible with democracy. The most well-known examinations of civil society in the region are Hefner 2000, Hefner 2001, Hefner 2005 and Nakamura, et al. 2001.
  376.  
  377. Abdillah, Masykuri. Responses of Indonesian Muslim Intellectuals to the Concept of Democracy (1966–1993). Edited by Rainer Carle and Peter Pink. Hamburg, Germany: Abera Verlag Meyer, 1997.
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  379. Written at the end of the New Order, the author argues for democracy but within Islamic principles. The belief is expressed that the “Pancasila democracy” was in accord with Islam.
  380. Find this resource:
  381. Faud, Muhammad. “Civil Society in Indonesia: The Potential and Limits of Muhammadiyah.” Sojourn 17, no. 2 (2002): 133–163.
  382. DOI: 10.1355/SJ17-2ASave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  383. Using case studies of a hospital and a school, the author investigates the complementary relationship between state and nonstate actors. He also raises problems of finance and the interaction between religious views and modernity.
  384. Find this resource:
  385. Hefner, Robert. Civil Islam: Muslims and Democratization in Indonesia. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000.
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  387. A definitive work on the contemporary relationship of Islam and democracy. Hefner, a well-respected scholar, looks at relationships between Islam and the state and Islam and politics, including the religious aspects of democracy and Muslim political organizations, concentrating on the Suharto era. He does not see Islam and democracy as incompatible.
  388. Find this resource:
  389. Hefner, Robert, ed. The Politics of Multiculturalism: Pluralism and Citizenship in Malaysia, Singapore, and Indonesia. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2001.
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  391. A multidisciplinary compilation, supported by the Ford Foundation, examining civic associations and their relationships with Islam.
  392. Find this resource:
  393. Hefner, Robert, ed. Remaking Muslim Politics: Pluralism, Contestation, Democratization. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005.
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  395. This is a comparative compilation of articles on the relationship of Islam and democracy and the resistance of conservative Muslims. There are several chapters on Islam in Southeast Asia, including one by M. Peletz on Muslim democrats and Islamist violence in post-Suharto Indonesia.
  396. Find this resource:
  397. Hosen, Nadirsyah, ed. Shariʿa and Constitutional Reform in Indonesia. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2007.
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  399. A study of constitutional reform from 1999 to 2001, after the fall of Suharto. These essays concentrate on the question of whether Sharia compromises democracy and the foundations of constitutionalism.
  400. Find this resource:
  401. Masdar, Hilary. Islam and Democracy in Indonesia. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2010.
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  403. Analyzes two streams of Islamism in Indonesia, one that rejects democracy and one that accepts the concept.
  404. Find this resource:
  405. Nakamura, Mitsuo, Sharon Siddique, and Omar F. Bajunid, eds. Islam and Civil Society in Southeast Asia. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2001.
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  407. The Indonesian section of this book presents analyses of the relationship between civil society and the state, with a separate chapter on Nahdlatul Ulama and Mohammadiyah.
  408. Find this resource:
  409. Platzdasch, Bernhard. Islamism in Indonesia: Politics in the Emerging Democracy. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2009.
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  411. Analyzes Islamic-oriented parties in the early post-Suharto era.
  412. Find this resource:
  413. Sirry, Munʿim. “Transformation of Political Islam in Post-Suharto Indonesia.” In The Blackwell Companion to Contemporary Islamic Thought. Edited by Abu-Rabiʿ, Ibrahim. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2006.
  414. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  415. Sirry characterizes Islam as generally moderate, providing political and cultural explanations for this tendency. This collection is part of an online project, Blackwell Reference On-line, that is primarily accessed through libraries.
  416. Find this resource:
  417. Militant Islam
  418.  
  419. Indonesian Islam is frequently characterized as moderate and peaceful. However, there have been violent Islam-oriented groups, such as the early post–World War II group Darul Islam; small organizations that appeared later, such as Komando Jihad; and several radical, violent groups starting in the 1990s. Citations on militant Islam in Indonesia are considered within two broad categories: (1) violence involving largely domestic conflicts with non-Muslims and against the state, such as the activities of Laskar Jihad and Darul Islam; and (2) cross-national militant organizations, which tend to be small, violent, antiforeign, and antidemocratic. Some of these latter groups have region-wide relationships. The most publicized has been Jemaah Islamiyah, charged with the 2002 bombings in Bali and numerous other acts of violence. It should be noted that tensions between Christians and Muslims in Indonesia are behind much of this violence. Anti-Christian views have been a result of the pro-Dutch sympathies of the region’s Christians, as well as ethno-religious divisions. Many of the targets of Jemaah Islamiyah have been churches and other Christian centers, and Laskar Jihad has attacked areas in East Indonesia with Christian populations. Militant Islam in Southeast Asia and Indonesia has produced an “industry” of unscholarly and often ill-informed articles. Those listed in this section are among the best analyses of the general problem of militant Islam and the various organizations involved. Abuza 2003 and Abuza 2004 concentrate on describing radical Islamic organizations and their roots, while Sidel 2006 is a more in-depth study of the factors responsible for these organizations and events.
  420.  
  421. Abuza, Zachary. Militant Islam in Southeast Asia: Crucible of Terror. Boulder, CO: Lynne Reiner, 2003.
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  423. At the time this book was written, it was seen as the most thorough description of militant Islam in Southeast Asia. Abuza provides detailed descriptions of violent groups, including the Jemaah Islamiyah and other radical groups and militias. He also investigates the root causes of religious violence in the region.
  424. Find this resource:
  425. Abuza, Zachary. “Muslims, Politics, and Violence in Indonesia: An Emerging Jihadist-Islamist Nexus?” NBR Analysis 15, no 3 (2004): 5–55.
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  427. The author analyzes contemporary Islamic radical organizations, the reasons behind this militancy, and the reluctance of authorities to act. It was written at a time when it appeared there might be a growth of conservative Islam in Indonesia. Text is available online.
  428. Find this resource:
  429. International Crisis Group (ICG). Indonesia Backgrounder: Why Salafism and Terrorism Mostly Don’t Mix. ICG Asia Report 83. Brussels, Belgium: ICG, 2004.
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  431. This is the most detailed study of the origins and influences of Salafism in Southeast Asia. It includes a useful directory of Salafy charitable organizations and schools in Indonesia. Salafy views have been attributed to leaders in several radical Islamic groups. Available online.
  432. Find this resource:
  433. Sidel, John Thayer. Riots, Pogroms, Jihad: Religious Violence in Indonesia. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2006.
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  435. Rejecting what he sees as overly simplistic analyses of religious violence in Indonesia, Sidel provides a detailed and thoughtful counter based upon historic and sociological research. He looks to colonial heritage, class, ethnicity, and social transformation to help explain different periods of violence in the republic, from anti-Christian activities to electoral crises and jihadist movements. There is a major use of Indonesian-language sources.
  436. Find this resource:
  437. Van Bruinessen, Martin. “Genealogies of Islamic Radicalism in Post-Suharto Indonesia.” South East Asia Research 10, no.2 (2002): 117–154.
  438. DOI: 10.5367/000000002101297035Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  439. A clear and useful assessment of the development of radical Islam in Indonesia, with an analysis and description of the most publicized radical organizations.
  440. Find this resource:
  441. Darul Islam
  442.  
  443. Darul Islam was a militant Islamic organization that confronted both the Dutch and Indonesian authorities in the 1940s. It has been described as a significant influence on contemporary radical groups. Detailed studies of Darul Islam are unusual. Most references to the organization are in general histories of the period. The sources listed in this section provide the most concentrated analyses of Darul Islam, although Van Dijk 1981 provides the best general history.
  444.  
  445. Jackson, Karl D. Traditional Authority, Islam, and Rebellion: a Study of Indonesian Political Behavior. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980.
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  447. Jackson analyzes support for Darul Islam through the study of three Sundanese villages. He postulates that the relationship to authority is what bound the villagers together. The book is both descriptive and theoretical.
  448. Find this resource:
  449. Van Dijk, Cornelius. Rebellion under the Banner of Islam: The Darul Islam in Indonesia. The Hague: M. Nijhof, 1981.
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  451. This is the most detailed analysis of the seminal Islamic militant organization in Indonesia. It analyzes the group’s origins; explores its activities in Java, Sulawesi, Kalimantan, and Aceh; and assesses why people joined it.
  452. Find this resource:
  453. Vicziany, Marika, and David Wright-Neville, eds. Terrorism and Islam in Indonesia: Myths and Realities. Clayton, Victoria, Australia: Monash Asia Institute, 2005.
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  455. This lecture series by Harold Couch, Greg Fealy, and Sydney Jones analyzes Darul Islam, Jemaah Islamiyah, and Islam and politics in Indonesia.
  456. Find this resource:
  457. Jemaah Islamiyah
  458.  
  459. The actions of Jemaah Islamiyah have led to a plethora of newspaper and periodical articles. However, Barton 2004 provides the only detailed scholarly monograph on the group. International Crisis Group (ICG) publications are very useful for presenting factual analyses not found elsewhere (see International Crisis Group 2002 and International Crisis Group 2003).
  460.  
  461. Abuza, Zachary. Political Islam and Violence in Indonesia. London: Routledge, 2007.
  462. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  463. While looking specifically at Jemaah Islamiyah, Abuza also analyzes the religious aspect of violence and the role of political Islam in Indonesia.
  464. Find this resource:
  465. Barton, Greg. Indonesia’s Struggle: Jemaah Islamiyah and the Soul of Islam. Sydney: University of South Wales Press, 2004.
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  467. This is a study of the most well-known violent organization in the region speaking in the name of Islam. Barton is a well-recognized scholar on contemporary Indonesia.
  468. Find this resource:
  469. International Crisis Group (ICG). Indonesia Backgrounder: How the Jemaah Islamiyah Terrorist Network Operates. ICG Asia Report 43. Brussels, Belgium: ICG, 2002.
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  471. This detailed study analyzes the character of Jemaah Islamiyah and the factors responsible for its violent acts in Indonesia, including the Bali bombings.
  472. Find this resource:
  473. International Crisis Group (ICG). Jemaah Islamiyah in Southeast Asia: Damaged but Still Dangerous. ICG Asia Report 63. Brussels, Belgium: ICG, 2003.
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  475. This is part of an extensive investigation into Islamic radical groups in Southeast Asia. Other reports deal the influence of Salafy ideas and how the Jemaah Islamiyah network operates. Available online.
  476. Find this resource:
  477. Laskar Jihad
  478.  
  479. Laskar Jihad is a now disbanded organization and militia that was responsible for large-scale violence against Christians, primarily in East Indonesia. It had significant relationships with members of the military and political elite. While Davis 2002 and Umam 2006 present good assessments of Laskar Jihad, Hasan 2006 is by far the best-detailed account of the organization.
  480.  
  481. Davis, Michael. “Laskar Jihad and the Political Position of Conservative Islam in Indonesia.” Contemporary Southeast Asia 24, no. 1 (2002): 12–32.
  482. DOI: 10.1355/CS24-1BSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  483. After analyzing the context in which Laskar Jihad developed, the article investigates the activities of the group on Maluku in eastern Indonesia.
  484. Find this resource:
  485. Hasan, Noorhaidi. Laskar Jihad: Islam, Militancy, and the Quest for Identity in Post–New Order Indonesia. Ithaca, NY: Southeast Asia Program Publications, Cornell University, 2006.
  486. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  487. This is the major and most detailed analysis of the region’s largest and most violent anti-Christian organization, exploring its antecedents and final demise. Religion-state relations and the influence of fundamentalism are among the factors considered.
  488. Find this resource:
  489. Umam, Saiful. “Radical Muslims in Indonesia: The Case of Jaʿfar Umar Thalib and the Laskar Jihad.” Explorations in Southeast Asian Studies. 6, no. 1 (2006): 1–26.
  490. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  491. This detailed article discusses the meaning of Islamic radicalism and the environment within which these Islamic groups developed in Indonesia. The bulk of the article concentrates on Laskar Jihad and its leader, Jaʿfar Umar Thalib.
  492. Find this resource:
  493. Islamic Intellectuals and Religious Leaders
  494.  
  495. For many decades, Indonesian Muslims were not viewed favorably by their Middle Eastern counterparts, who generally did not recognize Indonesian Muslims as their intellectual equals. For example, a review of the influential bibliography Index Islamicus shows that it did not have a section on South Asia and Southeast Asia until 1982. Yet Middle Eastern writers had considerable impact on the archipelago. Modernism was influential from the beginning of the 20th century, and by the end of the century a wide range of Middle Eastern Islamic books and pamphlets had been translated into Indonesian. There were significant Muslim intellectuals in the interwar years, as exemplified by Hamka, a prolific author from the late 1920s until the early 1970s. In post-independence Indonesia there were Muslim intellectuals with international reputations. Influences on their ideas ranged from traditional Middle Eastern educational institutions like Al Azhar to Western Islamic programs in Australia, Europe, and the United States and to a growing number of Islamic centers in Indonesia. Influential Muslim intellectuals like Abdurrahmann Wahid were educated at Al Azhar, and the late, well-regarded scholar Nurcolish Madjid received his PhD from the University of Chicago, exemplifying this heterogeneity. Among these citations, Federspiel 2006, Latif 2008, Riddell 2001, and Woodward 1996 provide the broadest perspectives of Islam and intellectuals in the region.
  496.  
  497. Azra, Azyumardi, and Wayne Hudson, eds. Islam beyond Conflict: Indonesian Islam and Western Political Theory. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2008.
  498. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  499. A wide-ranging selection of essays dealing with subjects such as the rule of law, Islam and democratization, citizenship, and civil society.
  500. Find this resource:
  501. Effendy, Bahtiar B. Islam and the State in Indonesia. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2003.
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  503. Investigates past political antagonism between Islam and the state, implications of the new Islamic intellectuals, and the possibility of a more integrated relationship.
  504. Find this resource:
  505. Federspiel, Howard. Muslim Intellectuals in the Twentieth Century. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2006.
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  507. This prolific writer on Islam in Indonesia assesses how Muslim intellectuals have dealt with the colonial environment and the various political regimes that followed. He analyzes how these intellectuals had to interact with both their indigenous Islamic heritage and new ideas and interpretations from the West.
  508. Find this resource:
  509. Hooker, M. B. Indonesian Islam: Social Change through Contemporary Fatāwā. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2003.
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  511. Hooker, a leading scholar on Southeast Asia, analyzes how fatawa in Indonesia have related to a range of social issues, including such subjects as gender and religious duties.
  512. Find this resource:
  513. Latif, Yudi. Indonesian Muslim Intelligentsia and Power. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2008.
  514. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  515. A detailed study of the long-term development of Muslim intelligentsia and its relations with power. Latif reviews previous studies, the roots of the Indonesian Islamic intelligentsia, its relationship to the independent republic, and its struggle with the New Order.
  516. Find this resource:
  517. Moussay, Gerard. “Une grande figue de l’Islam Indonesien: Buya Hamka.” Archipel 32 (1981): 87–111.
  518. DOI: 10.3406/arch.1986.2313Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  519. A well-balanced survey of Hamka’s life and work.
  520. Find this resource:
  521. Riddell, Peter. Islam and the Malay-Indonesian World: Transmission and Responses. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2001.
  522. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  523. Not a study of everyday life but a sophisticated intellectual history exploring issues in Islamic theology and the major scholars that articulated them.
  524. Find this resource:
  525. Saleh, Fauzan. Modern Trends in Islamic Theological Discourse in 20th Century Indonesia: A Critical Study. Social, Economic, and Political Studies of the Middle East and Asia 79. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2001.
  526. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  527. Reviews the growth of theological discourse in Indonesia in the 20th century and analyzes the development of Modernism and the more recent growth of orthodox Islam.
  528. Find this resource:
  529. Woodward, Mark, ed. Toward a New Paradigm: Recent Developments in Indonesian Islamic Thought. Tempe: Arizona State University Press, 1996.
  530. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  531. This useful book has a wide-ranging selection of essays dealing with subjects such as modernization and the nature of contemporary Muslim discourse. Several chapters are by Muslim intellectuals.
  532. Find this resource:
  533. Islam and International Relations
  534.  
  535. Indonesia’s relations with the rest of the world in the name of Islam have run on two tracks during the Sukarno and Suharto regimes. At the official level, both tended to downgrade Islam as a foundation for foreign policy, in part due to their own more secular tendencies and in part as a means of limiting domestic religious opposition. A reading of books on the foreign policy during the Sukarno and early Suharto years shows a minimal interest in Islam (see, for example, Agung 1973). Thus, crises in the Middle East were discussed in terms of anti-imperialism rather than Islamic issues. At the end of Suharto’s rule and in the post-Suharto years, Islam took a greater role, with its intensity varying over time. While these governments tended to maintain a more secular stance, the past several decades have also seen nongovernmental groups and the citizenry far more aware of what have been interpreted as dangers to Islam and Muslims abroad. The expansion of mass media, education, and interaction with other Muslims has brought Indonesia into the ummah as never before. In the 20th and 21st centuries, crises in the Middle East (and Israeli and American policy) have frequently been interpreted by the Muslim public as part of an attack on Islam.
  536.  
  537. Agung, Ide Anak Agung Gde. Twenty Years Indonesian Foreign Policy, 1945–1965. The Hague: Mouton, 1973.
  538. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  539. Memoirs of a major actor in Indonesian foreign policy during the Sukarno years. Does not address religious issues.
  540. Find this resource:
  541. Peacock, Andrew C. S., and Annabel the Gallop, eds. From Anatolia to Aceh: Ottomans, Turks and Southeast Asia. Oxford: British Academy by Oxford University Press, 2015.
  542. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  543. The best collection on the military, political, and religious interaction between the Ottomans and Southeast Asia. The book also covers Malaysia and the Philippines, but has major portions on Indonesia.
  544. Find this resource:
  545. Islam and International Relations in the Sukarno-Suharto Years
  546.  
  547. Since Islam played only a peripheral role in the foreign policies of Sukarno and Suharto, relatively little has been written on the subject (Leifer 1983 was unusual). However, the Middle East has long been important to Indonesian Muslims, and Eliraz 2004 and Von der Mehden 1993 concentrate upon Indonesia’s political, intellectual, and religious relations with that region.
  548.  
  549. Dawisha, Adeed, ed. Islam in Foreign Policy. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1983.
  550. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  551. This general work has a chapter by Michael Leifer titled “The Islamic Factor in Indonesia’s Foreign Policy.”
  552. Find this resource:
  553. Eliraz, Giora. Islam in Indonesia: Modernism, Radicalism, and the Middle East Dimension. Brighton, UK: Sussex Academic Press, 2004.
  554. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  555. Analyzes the important influence of Middle Eastern sources on Islam in Indonesia as well as future trends. Eliraz sees the historic character of Indonesian Islam as a bulwark against fundamentalism.
  556. Find this resource:
  557. Leifer, Michael. Indonesia’s Foreign Policy. London: Allen and Unwin, 1983.
  558. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  559. A well-recognized analysis of Indonesian foreign policy in the first decades after independence.
  560. Find this resource:
  561. Von der Mehden, Fred. Two Worlds of Islam: Interaction between Southeast Asia and the Middle East. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1993.
  562. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  563. This book deals with intellectual, economic, and political interaction between the two regions during the 20th century.
  564. Find this resource:
  565. Weinstein, Franklin. Indonesia Foreign Policy and the Dilemma of Dependence: From Sukarno to Soeharto. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1976.
  566. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  567. A study of the relationship between elites and Indonesian foreign policy. Religious issues are not addressed. Reprint, Jakarta, Indonesia: Equinox, 2007.
  568. Find this resource:
  569. Islam and International Relations in the Post-Suharto Era
  570.  
  571. The publications listed in this section are primarily histories of Indonesian foreign policy, but they include sections on the democratic era. The very contemporary nature of the post-Suharto era explains the lack of major 21st-century contributions to Indonesian foreign policy. Among the citations, Perwita 2007 and Sukma 2003 provide the most in-depth analyses of contemporary Islam and Indonesian foreign policy.
  572.  
  573. Meuleman, Johan H. Islam in the Era of Globalization: Muslim Attitudes Towards Modernity and Identity. London: Routledge, 2002.
  574. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  575. The essays in this book assess the practical and theoretical issues relating to the interface of Muslims with the new era of globalization. The Indonesia chapters provide a historical background of Islam in the colonial era and explore the globalization of Indonesian Islamic discourse.
  576. Find this resource:
  577. Perwita, Anak Agung Banyu. Indonesia and the Muslim World: Islam and Secularism in the Foreign Policy of Soeharto and Beyond. Copenhagen, Denmark: Nordic Institute of Asian Studies, 2007.
  578. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  579. Analyzes and describes the interaction between Indonesian and other Muslim societies and organizations, as well as Indonesian involvement in Muslim issues such as Middle Eastern conflicts and the Moro problem. The book covers both the Suharto and post-Suharto years.
  580. Find this resource:
  581. Sukma, Rizal. Islam in Indonesian Foreign Policy: Weaknesses and Dilemma of Dual Identity. London: Routledge, 2003.
  582. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  583. Sukma perceives Indonesia as neither Islamic nor secular, which explains why the government finds it difficult to formulate its foreign policy. The book analyzes the weak role of Islam in the foreign policies of both Sukarno and Suharto as well as the growth of Islam since the reestablishment of democracy in the late 1990s.
  584. Find this resource:
  585. Suryadinata, Leo. Indonesian Foreign Policy under Suharto: Aspiring to International Leadership. Singapore: Times Academic Press, 1991.
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  587. This is a general survey of Indonesian foreign policy in the Suharto years. There is a chapter on the Islamic factor and its relation to policies toward Bosnia and the Middle East. The author sees the regime as not wanting to aid political Islam and religious fundamentalism.
  588. Find this resource:
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