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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. It has been said about Alexander the Great (b. 356–d. 323 BCE) that his name marked the end of an old world epoch and the beginning of a new one. Alexander’s empire that stretched from the Danube to India indeed ushered in the Hellenistic age, when Greek culture expanded and merged with Asian and African cultures in the territories he conquered and even beyond. While Alexander’s military record has gained him lasting fame, views of his character, his treatment of compatriots and subjects, and even the merits of his accomplishments have varied greatly since Antiquity. The continuing interest in Alexander has produced numerous works of scholarship and fiction that this bibliography does not presume to cover. Instead, preference is given to recent scholarly works, in which older studies are cited, as well as to works deemed influential, innovating, or useful, although the decision about their significance is bound to be controversial. The bibliography is arranged by topics, with less consideration to the chronology of the campaign. It also does not include works on ancient Macedonia and the Achaemenid Empire. All dates in this entry are BCE unless noted otherwise. Lists of common abbreviations of authors and works used by scholars can be found in the Oxford classical dictionary or the bibliographical journal L’Année Philologique.
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  5. General Overviews and Monographs
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  7. Johann Gustav Droysen’s idealized portrait of Alexander in his History of Alexander the Great, first published in 1833 (Geschichte Alexanders des Großen. Hamburg: F. Perthes), has exerted influence on scholars and laypersons all the way up to this age. Not everyone, however, felt similar admiration for the Macedonian king, and especially not Karl Julius Beloch. This German historian depicted Alexander in his Greek history (Griechische Geschichte, 2d new ed. 4 vols. Strassburg: K. J. Trübner, 1912–1917) as a tyrant who allowed the Orient to conquer him in a way that paved the road to Byzantium. Droysen and Beloch represent the two polar views of Alexander, with the former picking sources that favored the king, and the latter taking a much harsher and more critical approach. Indeed, the diversity of opinions of Alexander goes back to the sources about him that informed their modern interpreters. Individual Alexander historians can be placed anywhere on the continuum between the Droysen and Beloch. Often, and as was the case with Droysen and Beloch, the historians’ own experience and historical circumstances affected to some degree their interpretations of Alexander. Of the items listed in this section, Tarn 1948, Hammond 1989, and Lane Fox 1973 hold a high opinion of the king, while Bosworth 1988, Schachermeyer 1973, and to a lesser extent Green 1992 are much more critical. The opinions of Cartledge 2004 and Briant 2010 are mixed. Since Bosworth published his history of Alexander in 1988, no other monograph has surpassed it. See also Badian 1985 under Alexander and the Iranians for a description of Alexander’s Asian campaign by one of his most influential historians.
  8.  
  9. Bosworth, Albert Brian. 1988. Conquest and empire: The reign of Alexander the Great. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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  11. Written by the leading expert on the topic, this book is arguably the best account of Alexander’s history to date. In addition to describing the Asian expedition, the book examines key aspects of Alexander’s reign and campaign.
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  13. Briant, Pierre. 2010. Alexander the Great and his empire: A short introduction. Translated by Amelie Kuhrt. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
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  15. The book is an updated and revised version of the author’s 2002 Alexandre le Grand (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France). It deals with the campaign thematically and with subjects such as Alexander’s motives, administration, the Persian response, numismatic and Near Eastern evidence, and his death. Briant’s Alexander is essentially a rational, pragmatic king.
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  17. Cartledge, Paul. 2004. Alexander the Great: The hunt for a new past. New York: Vintage.
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  19. A well-written and user-friendly account, which, although aiming at the nonspecialist, is well suited as an introduction to the subject.
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  21. Green, Peter. 1992. Alexander of Macedon 356–323 B.C.: A historical biography. Berkeley, CA: Univ. of California Press.
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  23. When first published in 1974 the book served as a welcomed antidote to Tarn 1948’s glorifying portrait of the king. It is still valuable for its expansive panorama, insights, and balanced view of Alexander.
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  25. Hammond, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière. 1989. Alexander the Great: King, commander and statesman, 2d ed. Park Ridge, NJ: Noyes.
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  27. Written by a leading expert on ancient Macedonia, the book examines Alexander’s leadership qualities and especially his excelling as general. The view is highly favorable, and the author refuses at times to acknowledge the value of sources other than Arrian’s Anabasis.
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  29. Lane Fox, Robin. 1973. Alexander the Great. London: Allen Lane.
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  31. This is one of the more popular books on Alexander and has been translated into a number of languages. The style is engaging, and the king resembles a Homeric hero more in line with Droysen than with Beloch or Badian. The notes are inconveniently grouped at the end of the book but are exhaustive, especially about the ancient evidence.
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  33. Schachermeyer, Fritz. 1973. Alexander der Grosse: Das Problem seiner Persönlichkeit und seines Wirkens. Sitzungsberichte der philosophisch-historischen Klasse 285. Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften.
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  35. This hefty book is a reprint with occasional updates and modifications of the author’s 1949 monograph Alexander der Grosse: Ingenium und Macht (Graz: A. Pustet). There is much to learn from the erudite analysis, but the irritating rhetorical style, the excessive infusing of psychology, and the impact of the Nazi experience on the interpretation detract from the book’s value. The author’s paying tribute to Nazi ideology in previous publications should not be ignored.
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  37. Tarn, William Woodthorpe. 1948. Alexander the Great. 2 vols. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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  39. Much inspired by Droysen’s Geschichte Alexanders des Großen, Tarn’s Alexander is a flawless leader who dreamt of the unity of mankind under his benevolent rule. The thesis was demolished especially by Ernest Badian’s works (see Alexander’s Aims and Plans). Yet a number of individual investigations in the second volume are still useful.
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  41. Alexander the Great Online
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  43. There are many websites dedicated to Alexander, and as might be expected of cyberspace, their quality varies enormously. Of the following sites, “Livius” is especially extensive, well-illustrated, and updated, while John Popovich’s site offers good visual material as well. See also bibliographies on Alexander online under Bibliographies and DictionariesAlexander and the Iranians.
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  45. Alexander the Great on the Web.
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  47. The site, managed by Tim Spalding, directs users to links on many aspects of Alexander’s history that range from biographies to films. The choice of links can be arbitrary, with some more useful than others, even including some that lead to no longer existent sites.
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  49. Alexander the Great.
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  51. Under the management of Jona Lendering, this highly accessible site to date outmatches all similar sites. It includes a wealth of information about the ancient sources, the stages of the campaign, and its aftermath. There are many photos and illustrations related to the march, with links to other sites or related topics.
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  53. All about Alexander the Great.
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  55. Created by Thomas William-Powlett, the site offers introductions to different aspects of Alexander’s career. The illustrations are relatively sparse and the material can be based on dated scholarship. Some links are no more than titles or redirect the user to other topics.
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  57. Alexander the Great of Macedon, from history to eternity.
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  59. Managed by John J. Popovich, the site has copious illustrations of very good quality with links to the literary evidence on the topics. The discussion is on the introductory level and very favorable toward the king.
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  61. Michael Lahanas. Alexander the Great (Alexander IIII of Macedon).
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  63. A very well illustrated biography with links to brief discussions of related topics, many of them involving the military. The lack of citations, which is common to other sites, somewhat hampers the site’s usefulness.
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  65. Collections of Papers
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  67. Except for Roisman 2003 and Will and Heinrichs 1987–1988, all the books listed here were published following conferences on Alexander and related subjects. Will and Heinrichs 1987–1988 is the most diverse.
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  69. Badian, Ernst, ed. 1976. Alexandre le Grand: Image et réalité. Entretiens sur l’Antiquitè Classique 22. Vandœuvres and Geneva: Fondation Hardt.
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  71. Discussions in English, German, and French of the ancient sources, Alexander’s portraits, his image in the Hellenistic and the Roman periods, his army, and the king’s depiction in Schachermeyer 1973 and his other publications.
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  73. Bosworth, Albert Brian, and Elizabeth Baynham, eds. 2000. Alexander the Great in fact and fiction. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  74. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198152873.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  75. An important collection of chapters on Alexander as a conquistador, the conspiracies against him, his aims and self-perception and self-presentation, depictions of his royal hunts, and ancient sources on his campaign and death.
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  77. Carlsen, Jesper, Bodil Due, Otto Steen Due, and Birte Poulsen, eds. 1993. Alexander the Great: Reality and myth. Rome: “L’Erma” di Bretschneider.
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  79. Relatively short papers in English, German, French, and Italian on Alexander in Asia Minor, his literary and artistic images throughout the Roman age, Darius III, and Alexander’s brutal treatment of Persepolis.
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  81. Heckel, Waldemar, and Lawrence A. Tritle, eds. 2003. Crossroads of history: The age of Alexander. Claremont, CA: Regina.
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  83. The articles that relate to Alexander discuss his education, the destruction of Thebes, Darius’s defense, Alexander’s dealings with the generals Philotas and Cleitus, his ambitions and world vision, and his legacy.
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  85. Heckel, Waldemar, Lawrence Tritle, and Pat Wheatley, eds. 2007. Alexander’s empire: Formulation to decay. Claremont, CA: Regina.
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  87. Of the articles that focus on Alexander there are studies of his sexuality, organization of games, his dealings with his family and the general Cleitus, his treatment of Sidon, and his death.
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  89. Heckel, Waldemar, and Lawrence Tritle, eds. 2009. Alexander the Great: A new history. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
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  91. Not all chapters deserve the category “new history,” but among the less frequently discussed topics are Greeks in Alexander’s service, a Persian perspective of the campaign, Alexander’s sex life, and his portrayal in the paintings of Charles Le Brun (1668–1673) and Oliver Stone’s movie Alexander.
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  93. Roisman, Joseph, ed. 2003. Brill’s companion to Alexander the Great. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
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  95. The book’s chapters discuss the ancient literary and artistic evidence for Alexander and his image, the Macedonian background, his relations with Greeks, Asians, and the Macedonian elite including women, the military campaigns, his court, his religious beliefs, honor in his camp, and Alexander’s legacy in philosophy and the modern Balkans.
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  97. Will, Wolfgang, and Johannes Heinrichs, eds. 1987–1988. Zu Alexander d. Gr.: Festschrift G. Wirth zum 60. Geburtstag am 9.12.86. 2 vols. Amsterdam: Adolf M. Hakkert.
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  99. A multilingual collection of a large number of articles on Alexander, his background and the aftermath of his empire.
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  101. Will, Wolfgang, ed. 1998. Alexander der Grosse: Eine Welteroberung und ihr Hintergrund. Vorträge des Internationalen Bonner Alexanderkolloquiums, 19.-21.12.1996. Bonn: Habelt.
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  103. Papers in German and English on panhellenism, Greeks and Macedonians, a new inscription related to Alexander, the Amyntas “conspiracy,” Olympias, Andriscus (Macedonia’s last king), Strabo on Alexander, Calanus, and India.
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  105. Readers
  106.  
  107. All of the following anthologies include modern discussions of Alexander, but only Worthington 2003 and Griffith 1966 have in addition a selection of ancient sources. Worthington 2003 is the most useful, while Griffith 1966 is the only collection to include German scholarship. Leyton-Brown and Clevland 1992 has papers on modern Alexander historiography.
  108.  
  109. Griffith, Guy Thompson, ed. 1966. Alexander the Great: The main problems. Cambridge, MA: Heffer.
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  111. A selection of previously published works that reflects the state of Alexander studies at the time of book’s publication.
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  113. Leyton-Brown, Kenneth B., and Ray L. Cleveland, eds. 1992. Alexander the Great: An exercise in the study of history. Melbeta, NB: Hugh Butte.
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  115. A selection of previously published works, mostly abridged, with strong emphasis on the ancient evidence and politics.
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  117. Worthington, Ian, ed. 2003. Alexander the Great: A reader. London: Routledge.
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  119. The most comprehensive selection to date of ancient sources and unedited modern works on the main aspects of Alexander’s career.
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  121. Bibliographies and Dictionaries
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  123. Of the bibliographies below, Seibert 1972 is the best-annotated bibliography for publications on Alexander up to the late 1960s. Badian 1971 and Carlsen 1993 are less inclusive and together cover publications from 1948 to 1970. Anson 2009 is a good, recent introduction to historiographical perspectives on Alexander modern scholarship. Rubinsohn 1986 analyzes depictions of Alexander in Soviet scholarship. Berve 1926, Heckel 1992, and Heckel 2006 list individuals associated with Alexander’s regime and discuss their careers. Both scholars are of the opinion that the backgrounds and alliances of these persons constitute an important key to understanding Alexander’s campaign and regime.
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  125. Anson, Edward M. 2009. Alexander the Great in current scholarship. History Compass 7.3: 981–992.
  126. DOI: 10.1111/j.1478-0542.2009.00606.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  127. An informative introductory survey of Alexander scholarship with an emphasis on studies from the 1960s onward. The author shows how views of Alexander have shifted toward a more critical attitude and discusses reevaluations of key themes of his career. Also available online (by subscription).
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  129. Badian, Ernst. 1971. Alexander the Great, 1948–67. Classical World 65:37–56, 77–83.
  130. DOI: 10.2307/4347560Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  131. Although less inclusive than Seibert 1972, this survey of Alexander scholarship between 1948 and 1967 includes critique and incisive observations about Alexander and his modern historians.
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  133. Berve, Helmut. 1926. Das Alexanderreich auf prosopographischer Grundlage. 2 vols. Munich: Beck.
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  135. The second volume of the book is a dictionary of individuals who are mentioned in relation to Alexander’s story. Their names are given in Greek script but the entries are in German. The first volume attempts to analyze the working of Alexander’s empire and campaign based on this investigation. Heckel 1992 and Heckel 2006 update and supplement Berve.
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  137. Carlsen, Jesper. 1993. Alexander the Great (1970–1990). In Alexander the Great: Reality and myth. Edited by Jesper Carlsen, Bodil Due, Otto Steen Due and Birte Poulsen, 41–52. Rome: “L’Erma” di Bretschneider.
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  139. Following a brief survey of mostly monographs on Alexander published 1970–1990, the article lists publications arranged topically.
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  141. Heckel, Waldemar. 1992. The marshals of Alexander’s empire. London: Routledge.
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  143. Who’s who among Alexander’s officers. The book tracks their political and military careers and discusses military units and institutions. With Berve 1926, this is a fundamental book for the individual biographies of Alexander’s men.
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  145. Heckel, Waldemar. 2006. Who’s who in the age of Alexander the Great. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
  146. DOI: 10.1002/9780470757604Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  147. The book summarizes, updates, and supplements Heckel 1992, including, thus, practically every individual associated with Alexander’s history. A rich bibliography and copious notes complement the different entries.
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  149. Rubinson, W. Zeev. 1986. Some remarks on Soviet historiography of ancient Macedonia and Alexander the Great. Ancient Macedonia 4:525–540.
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  151. The scholar provides Western readers a rare glimpse of Soviet politics and Marxist ideology that both challenged and shaped the discussion of Alexander and Macedonia in Soviet historiography. He deals with historians who watched the official line and those who strayed away from it.
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  153. Seibert, Jakob. 1972. Alexander der Grosse. Erträge der Forschung 10. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft.
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  155. An excellent annotated bibliography of Alexander studies, arranged thematically, and covering publications from the 19th century to the 1960s.
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  157. Literary Sources
  158.  
  159. The study of the ancient sources on Alexander is one of the most developed in the field of ancient historiography. The main extant histories of the king, in likely chronological order, are Diodorus of Sicily Book 17, Q. Curtius Rufus’s Roman history of Alexander, Arrian’s Anabasis, Plutarch’s Life of Alexander, and Justin’s Epitome, books 11–12, of the story of Alexander based on the Philippic history of the Roman historian Pompeius Trogus. Arrian and Plutarch are often distinguished from Diodorus, Curtius, and Justin, who are grouped in what is known as the Vulgate. The name indicates inferior quality, a judgment that is increasingly recognized as undeserved. Many of the works cited under General Overviews and Monographs, Collections of Papers, and Readers include surveys or in-depth examinations of the ancient histories of Alexander.
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  161. Lost Alexander Histories
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  163. Scholars have long been studying passages and references, or fragments, of lost histories of Alexander as cited or summarized by later extant authors. The length of the fragments can range from single words to lengthy passages, and their investigation allows us to retrace the development of Alexander historiography and, one hopes, the impact of the lost histories on the extant accounts. The basis for any study of the fragments is Jacoby 1923–1958. Pearson 1960’s examination of the lost histories is not comprehensive but is still valuable, especially for its literary insights. Pédech 1984 and Hammond 1993 discuss mostly primary sources that are very sympathetic to the king. For translations of the fragments of Alexander’s historians, see Collections of Translated Sources.
  164.  
  165. Hammond, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière. 1993. Sources for Alexander the Great: An analysis of Plutarch’s Life and Arrian’s Anabasis Alexandrou. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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  167. The author’s fine analysis of individual passages is counterbalanced by too rigid a judgment of the credibility or lack thereof of ancient sources that formed the basis of Arrian’s history of Alexander and of Plutarch’s biography.
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  169. Jacoby, Felix, ed. 1923–1958. Die Fragmente der Griechischen Historiker. Berlin: Wiedman; Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
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  171. Two parts of the second volume of this monumental work include the Greek texts of fragments of Alexander historians (IIBi) and commentary in German on them (IID). The authors of the fragments are numbered from 117 to 153. Although Jacoby’s identification of the fragments, his decisions about their size, and his interpretations of them have been questioned, his work is fundamental to the field.
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  173. Pearson, Lionel Ignacius Cusack. 1960. The lost histories of Alexander the Great. New York: American Philological Association.
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  175. The author attempts to reconstruct the now lost accounts of the king based on their remains. The analysis is sound, but the scholar’s questioning of Tarn 1948’s biased view of the sources is not always rigorous enough.
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  177. Pédech, Paul. 1984. Historiens, compagnons d’Alexandre: Callisthène, Onésicrite, Néarque, Ptolémée, Aristobule. Paris: Les Belles Lettres.
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  179. An exhaustive discussion of five primary sources, all favorable to Alexander, which focuses on their varied credibility, agenda and portraits of the king. Pearson 1960, although briefer, covers more historians, including those who did not favor the king, and at times in more depth.
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  181. Individual Lost Historians
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  183. Of the lost historians of Alexander, Ptolemy, son of Lagus, and Aristobolus of Cassandria, together with Cleitarchus of Alexandria, have attracted most scholarly attention. The reason is that Ptolemy and Aristobolus were the main sources of Arrian’s Anabasis, the best extant history of Alexander, while Cleitarchus provided the basis for the so-called Vulgate. Callisthenes of Olynthus is also much discussed because of his role as Alexander’s first historian and his opposition to the king’s divine aspirations. Errington 1960 and Roisman 1984 hold opposite views of the nature of Ptolemy’s history, while Wouters 2006 directs attention to fragments of his history found not just in Arrian. Discussions of Aristobolus are available in all the books mentioned under Lost Alexander Histories and in Bosworth under Arrian (Lucius Flavius Arrianus), Anabasis. Prandi 1985 and Zahrnt 2006 focus on Callisthenes as a historian and Alexander’s adviser, and Prandi 1996 and Parker 2009 deal with Cleitarchus’s contribution to Alexander’s history. Gadaleta 2001 discusses a lost account hostile to Alexander, while Payen 2007 deals with Chares whose account was more sympathetic to the king. For the account of Alexander’s admiral Nearchus, see under The Gedrosian March and Nearchus’ Voyage (325).
  184.  
  185. Errington, Robert Malcolm. 1960. Bias in Ptolemy’s history of Alexander. Classical Quarterly n.s. 19:233–242.
  186. DOI: 10.1017/S0009838800024642Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  187. The author argues that Ptolemy’s history of Alexander aimed to serve him in his struggle with rivals following Alexander’s death. Ptolemy especially misrepresented the story of Perdiccas. See, however, Roisman 1984.
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  189. Gadaleta, Anna Paola. 2001. Efippo storico di Alessandro: Testimonianze e frammenti. Annalli della Facoltà di lettere e Filosofia di Bari 44:97–144.
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  191. The essay includes the Greek texts, translations, and commentary on the few fragments that survived from Ephippus’s account of Alexander, which nevertheless provide valuable information on life in Alexander’s court.
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  193. Payen, Pascal. 2007. Les fragments de Charès de Mytilène chez Athénée. In Athénée et les fragments d’historiens, Actes du Colloque de Strasbourg (16–18 juin 2005). Collections de l’Université Marc Bloch - Strasbourg, Études d’archéologie et d’histoire ancienne. Edited by Dominique Lenfant, 191–214. Paris: de Boccard.
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  195. Chares of Mytilene was Alexander’s chamberlain, and some of the fragments of his history are highly informative on the royal court. The discussion shows how Chares constructed a positive image of the king and how a Greek author of the Roman era, Athenaeus, used his work.
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  197. Prandi, Luisa. 1985. Callistene: Uno storico tra Aristotele e i re Macedoni. Milan: Jaca.
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  199. Callisthenes, who joined Alexander’s campaign, was probably the first historian to write about it. Prandi discusses Callisthenes’s career, his history of Alexander and other works, his position in camp, and how he was judged by later generations. The study well represents the state of scholarship on the historian around the time of its publication.
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  201. Prandi, Luisa. 1996. Fortuna e realtà dell’opera di Clitarco. Stuttgart: F. Steiner.
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  203. A careful analysis of the Cleitarchus of Alexandria whom the author identifies, with many other scholars, as the ultimate source of the Vulgate. The author, however and more controversially, attributes to Diodorus the use of Duris of Samos in book 17. See also A. B. Bosworth, In search of Cleitarchus: Review-Discussion of Luisa Prandi: Fortuna e realtà dell’opera di Clitarco which expands the review to a discussion of Cleitarchus as a source.
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  205. Parker, Victor. 2009. Source-critical reflections on Cleitarchus’ work. In Alexander and his successors: Essays from the Antipodes. Edited by Pat Wheatley and Robert Hannah, 28–57. Claremont, CA: Regina.
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  207. A well-annotated paper that tries to trace earlier sources that Cleitarchus might have used for his history of Alexander. A recently published papyrus, Oxyrhynchus Papyri no. 4808, will necessitate a revision of the date of Cleitarchus’s history, because it suggests a 3rd-century publication.
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  209. Roisman, Joseph. 1984. Ptolemy and his rivals in his history of Alexander the Great. Classical Quarterly 34:373–385.
  210. DOI: 10.1017/S0009838800031001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  211. The article counters Errington’s 1969 thesis that Ptolemy distorted in word or by suppressing facts the stories of other commanders in Alexander’s service.
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  213. Wouters, Kim. 2006. Nichtarrianische Fragmente der Alexandergeschichte Ptolemaios’ I. Soter (FGrHist 138). Archiv für Papyrusforschung und verwandte Gebiete 52.1: 41–53.
  214. DOI: 10.1515/apf.2006.52.1.41Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  215. The author offers brief discussions of various fragments of Ptolemy that are found outside Arrian’s Anabasis and Indica and in sources ranging from Strabo and Plutarch to Christian authors and Byzantine lexica.
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  217. Zahrnt, Michael. 2006. Von Siwa bis Persepolis: Überlegungen zur Arbeitsweise des Kallisthenes. Ancient Society 36:143–174.
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  219. The author argues that Callisthenes sought to promulgate Alexander’s fame in Greece but also to set aright incorrect or partial reports on the campaign.
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  221. Questionable Contemporary Documents
  222.  
  223. Plutarch cites in his biography material from Alexander’s correspondence whose authenticity is uncertain; see Hamilton 1961 for an investigation of Alexander’s purported letters, and, more briefly, Brunt 1976–1983 (cited under Arrian), Volume 1, pp. xxvi–vii; Volume 2, pp. 533–534. Several sources mention the Ephemerides, or journals, which some scholars, including Hammond 1989, have identified as royal diaries and the basis of primary histories of Alexander such as Ptolemy’s work. Yet the extant extracts of the journals refer exclusively to Alexander’s last days, and their authenticity has been put in doubt (see Bosworth 1988). The so-called Liber de Morte that purports to describe Alexander’s last days and his will has long been recognized as a forgery. Heckel 1988 and Bosworth 2000 disagree on the author and date of the “will.” Alexander’s Hypomnemata, or notebooks, included his last plans for monumental, costly projects and some administrative arrangements. The Macedonians canceled the plans shortly after his death. Tarn 1948 (cited under General Overviews and Monographs), pp. 387–398, doubts the historicity of most of the plans, but his skepticism was rejected by many, including Badian 1968 and Bosworth 1988.
  224.  
  225. Badian, Ernst. 1968. A king’s notebooks. Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 72:183–204.
  226. DOI: 10.2307/311079Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  227. Alexander’s last plans were largely authentic, but they were reworked and presented in a way that invited their rejection by the Macedonians, which worked in the interests of Perdiccas and other generals.
  228. Find this resource:
  229. Bosworth, Albert Brian. 1988. From Arrian to Alexander: Studies in historical interpretation. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
  230. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  231. Argues (pp. 158–211) that the Diaries were composed shortly after Alexander’s death to dispel rumors that he was poisoned. The last plans, however, were an authentic document.
  232. Find this resource:
  233. Bosworth, Albert Brian. 2000. Ptolemy and the will of Alexander. In Alexander the Great in fact and fiction. Edited by Albert Brian Bosworth and Elizabeth Baynham, 207–241. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  234. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198152873.003.0007Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  235. The author suggests that “Alexander’s will” reflects Ptolemy’s propaganda and his rivalry with other successors around 309.
  236. Find this resource:
  237. Hamilton, James Robertson. 1961. The letters in Plutarch’s Alexander. Proceedings of the African Classical Association 4:9–20.
  238. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  239. Argues that the authenticity of each letter to or from Alexander cited by Plutarch should be judged individually, and that only a few of them withstand a critical examination of their historicity.
  240. Find this resource:
  241. Hammond, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière. 1989. Aspects of Alexander’s journal and ring in his last days. American Journal of Philology 110.1: 155–160.
  242. DOI: 10.2307/294959Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  243. The scholar defends the authenticity of both the journals and the story that Alexander designated Perdiccas as his posthumous regent.
  244. Find this resource:
  245. Heckel, Waldemar. 1988. The last days and testament of Alexander the Great. A prosopographic study. Stuttgart: F. Steiner Verlag.
  246. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  247. Argues that Alexander’s alleged instructions in his will were forged by the Macedonian Holcias to promote the interests of Polyperchon, one of the Successors.
  248. Find this resource:
  249. Babylonian Accounts
  250.  
  251. The only non-Greek references to Alexander that are contemporary with his reign come from Egypt and Babylon. Van der Spek 2003 is the best discussion of the Babylonian documents. Briant 2010 (cited under General Overviews and Monographs) includes a discussion of this and additional Near Eastern evidence for the campaign (pp. 153–186).
  252.  
  253. van der Spek, Robartus J. 2003. Darius III, Alexander the Great and Babylonian scholarship. In A Persian perspective: Essays in memory of Heleen Sancisi-Weerdenburg. Edited by Wouter Henkelman and Amélie Kuhrt, 289–346. Leiden, The Netherlands: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten. Achaemenid History 13.
  254. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  255. The article examines Babylonian astronomical observations and prophecies regarding Alexander’s replacing Darius, his later campaign, and his return to Babylon. They show mutual positive regard between the Babylonian elite and Alexander and that the Babylonians viewed him as a successor of their kings.
  256. Find this resource:
  257. Extant Ancient Accounts of Alexander
  258.  
  259. The best extant ancient history of Alexander is Arrian’s Anabasis, which is largely based on the histories of Alexander’s companions Ptolemy and Aristobulus. It is by no means a problem-free history, and Plutarch’s biography of Alexander and the histories of Diodorus of Sicily (Book 17), Curtius Rufus, and Justin at times corroborate it but also contradict, supplement, and even supplant it. The texts of all these authors have been scientifically edited and published by Oxford University Press or Teubner. Except for Justin, they are all translated into English in the Loeb Classical Library series.
  260.  
  261. Arrian (Lucius Flavius Arrianus), Anabasis
  262.  
  263. The best edition of Arrian’s Anabasis and Indica is Roos (Arrian 2002, originally published in 1904 and later revised by Wirth). The best commentary on Arrian’s Anabasis is Bosworth 1980–1995, which currently covers the first five of its seven books. Sisti (Arrian 2001–2004) is more complete but not as informative. Brunt (Arrian 1976–1983) provides the best translation of these works, with many analytical appendices. Bosworth 1988 examines Arrian’s historical methods and sources, and Stadter 1980 is useful for Arrian’s other compositions.
  264.  
  265. Arrian (Lucius Flavius Arrianus). 1976–1983. Arrian History of Alexander and Indica. 2 vols. Edited and translated by Peter A. Brunt. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
  266. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  267. In addition to translating the text (opposite the Greek), the scholar added many valuable appendices and notes regarding Arrian’s account and Alexander’s history.
  268. Find this resource:
  269. Arrian (Lucius Flavius Arrianus). 2002. Flavius Arrianus. Edited by Antoon Gerard Roos; revised by Gerhard Wirth. 2 vols. Leipzig: Teubner.
  270. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  271. Roos’s is the most authoritative edition of the text of Arrian’s Anabasis.
  272. Find this resource:
  273. Arrian (Lucius Flavius Arrianus). 2001–2004. Anabasi di Alessandro, Arriano. Edited and translated by Francesco Sisti. 2 vols. Rome: Fondazione Lorenzo Valla.
  274. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  275. The book includes the Greek text with an Italian translation, accompanied by many comments on the campaign and Alexander historiography. It should not replace Bosworth’s commentary on Arrian.
  276. Find this resource:
  277. Bosworth, Albert Brian. 1988. From Arrian to Alexander: Studies in historical interpretation. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
  278. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  279. The author, who is the leading interpreter of Arrian in recent decades, discusses in this book Arrian’s sources and historigraphical methods, especially in his history of Alexander. The discussion includes historical analysis of the events during the campaign.
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Bosworth, Albert Brian. 1980–1995. Historical commentary on Arrian’s History of Alexander. 2 vols. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
  282. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  283. A landmark commentary that successfully combines historical and literary examination of the source. A third volume of commentary on the last two books of the Anabasis (6–7) is expected.
  284. Find this resource:
  285. Stadter, Philip A. 1980. Arrian of Nicomedia. Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press.
  286. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  287. A study of Arrian’s Anabasis and other literary works, which firmly places them in the author’s contemporary political and cultural environments.
  288. Find this resource:
  289. Diodorus of Sicily (Diodorus Siculus), Library, Book 17
  290.  
  291. Bekker and Dindorf (Diodorus Siculus 1961, originally published in 1867–1868 and revised by Fisher) offers the best edition of Diodorus’s Library, an extensive history of which Book 17 deals with Alexander. There is no commentary to date on Diodorus 17. However, Welles (Diodorus Siculus 1963) and Goukowsky (Diodorus Siculus 1976) both translated and annotated the text, while Sacks 1990 discusses Diodorus’s historiographical approach and methods in the entire Library. Hammond 1983 deals with the sources of Diodorus 17 and of other extant ancient histories whose view of Alexander is less sympathetic than those of Arrian or Plutarch.
  292.  
  293. Diodorus Siculus. 1961. Bibliotheca Historica. Edited by Immanuel Bekker and Ludwig August Dindorf; revised by Curt Theodor Fischer. 5 vols. Stuttgart. Teubner.
  294. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  295. Bekker-Dindorf is the most authoritative edition of the text of Diodorus Book 17.
  296. Find this resource:
  297. Diodorus Siculus. 1963. Diodorus of Sicily, vol. 7. Edited and translated by Charled Bradford Welles. Loeb Classical Library 389. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
  298. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  299. The faithful translation is accompanied by many useful notes that often compare Diodorus’s account to other histories of Alexander.
  300. Find this resource:
  301. Diodorus Siculus. 1976. Diodorus Siculus: Bibliothèque historique, Livre XVII. Translated by Paul Goukowsky. Paris: Les Belles Lettres.
  302. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  303. A reliable translation of the text. The historical annotations are superior to those in Welles (Diodorus Siculus 1963), but are also eclectic.
  304. Find this resource:
  305. Hammond, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière. 1983. Three historians of Alexander the Great: The so-called Vulgate authors, Diodorus, Justin, and Curtius. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  306. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  307. The book complements Hammond’s 1993 investigation of the sources of Arrian and Plutarch (see under Lost Alexander Histories). The author’s identifies the obscure Diyllus as one of the chief sources of Diodorus and even of Curtius Rufus, but his view has not found favor among scholars.
  308. Find this resource:
  309. Sacks, Kenneth S. 1990. Diodorus Siculus and the first century. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
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  311. The book does not focus on Diodorus’s account of Alexander but on the historian’s methods and view of history in his Library. Yet the author’s demonstration that Diodorus was not a mere slavish copier of his sources is highly relevant to Book 17 and to the interpretation of Alexander’s history.
  312. Find this resource:
  313. Quintus Curtius Rufus, Histories of Alexander the Great
  314.  
  315. The text of Curtius’s history is incomplete. The first two books are lost, and the last book (10) is only partially preserved. The absence of preface or introduction led to scholarly speculations about Curtius’s identity and date. Many, however, date him to the early Roman Empire. Müller’s (Curtius Rufus 2009) is the best edition of the text, while Heckel and Yardley (Curtius Rufus 1984) offer its best English translation. Baynham 1998 presents a sensitive historical and especially literary study of Curtius’s account. Atkinson 1980, Atkinson 1994, Atkinson 2000, and Atkinson in Curtius Rufus 2009 have established the author as a leading commentator on Curtius. In addition to examining Curtius’s contribution to Alexander history, Atkinson often calls attention to its Roman political and literary contexts.
  316.  
  317. Atkinson, John Edward. 1980. A commentary on Q. Curtius Rufus’ Historiae Alexandri Magni, Books 3 and 4. Amsterdam: J. C. Gieben.
  318. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  319. Although the commentary adds much to our understanding of Curtius’s historical value, the first volume suffers from editorial and organizational problems that make the commentary not always user-friendly.
  320. Find this resource:
  321. Atkinson, John Edward. 1994. A commentary on Q. Curtius Rufus’ Historiae Alexandri Magni, Books 5 to 7.2. Amsterdam: A. M. Hakkert.
  322. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  323. As opposed to Atkinson 1980, the second volume is better presented and successfully merges historical with literary analysis.
  324. Find this resource:
  325. Atkinson, John Edward, ed. 1998. Curzio Rufo: Storie di Alessandro Magno. Vol. I (Libri III-V). Translated by Virginio Antelami and Tristano Gargiulo. Milan: Mondadori.
  326. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  327. See under Atkinson 2000.
  328. Find this resource:
  329. Atkinson, John E. 2000. Curzio Rufo: Storie di Alessandro Magno. Vol II (Libri VI-X). Translated by Virginio Antelami and Tristano Gargiulo. Milan: Mondadori.
  330. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  331. Both Atkinson 1998 and Atkinson 2000 are based on a revised edition of Müller’s 1954 text and offer an Italian translation of Atkinson’s English commentary (1980 and 1994) in abbreviated form. The second volume includes a commentary on books 7.3–9, which has no English counterpart but is significantly shorter than Atkinson’s other commentaries.
  332. Find this resource:
  333. Baynham, Elizabeth. 1998. Alexander the Great: The unique history of Quintus Curtius. Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press.
  334. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  335. The author discusses Curtius’s sources and methods as well as his influence on accounts of Alexander beyond Antiquity and the impact of earlier Roman authors on his presentation and methods. The book is especially valuable in analyzing the role of the concepts of fortune and regnum in Curtius’s characterization of the king.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. Curtius Rufus. 2009. Curtius Rufus: Histories of Alexander the Great, Book 10. Edited by John Edward Atkinson; translated by John C. Yardley. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  338. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  339. A commentary that is based on, but also updates, the author’s Italian commentary on book 10 (2000) and which includes a useful introduction to the text.
  340. Find this resource:
  341. Curtius Rufus. 1984. Quintus Curtius Rufus: The History of Alexander. Translated by John C. Yardley with notes by Waldemar Heckel. Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin.
  342. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  343. Yardley’s highly accessible translation is accompanied by Heckel’s helpful notes on the text. The translation is superior to the Loeb Classical Library volumes of John C. Rolf (Cambridge, MA:Harvard Univ. Press, 1946), which are based on an inferior text and include a translation of modern supplements.
  344. Find this resource:
  345. Plutarch, Life of Alexander
  346.  
  347. Plutarch’s biography of Alexander is based on many good sources, although the author’s didactic and literary aims and devices form an integral part of his historical account. This presents a challenge for scholars who wish to use the biography as a historical document. Plutarch’s two rhetorical compositions, On Alexander the Great: Fortune or virtue, which are included in his literary and philosophical writings (Moralia 326D–345B), use history for epideictic purposes and turn Alexander into a philosophical example. The best edition of Plutarch’s text is Ziegler (Plutarch 1994). Hamilton 1999 is the most useful work on the biography. Asirvatham 2005 places the biography in its literary and cultural contexts. Badian 2003 and Cook 2001 deal with the relationship between history and biography in Plutarch’s Alexander, while Cammarota 1998 extends the investigation to Plutarch’s treatment of Alexander in other compositions. See also Hammond’s work cited under Lost Alexander Histories.
  348.  
  349. Asirvatham, Sulochana Ruth. 2005. Classicism and romanitas in Plutarch’s De Alexandri fortuna aut virtute. American Journal of Philology 126:107–125.
  350. DOI: 10.1353/ajp.2005.0013Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  351. The author shows how Plutarch’s literary essays on Alexander use the image of Alexander as a philosopher to create a cultural exchange between Greeks and Romans.
  352. Find this resource:
  353. Badian, Ernst. 2003. Plutarch’s unconfessed skill: The biographer as a critical historian. In Laurea internationalis: Festschrift für Jochen Bleicken zum 75. Geburtstag. Edited by Theodora Hantos, 26–44. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner.
  354. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  355. The scholar defends Plutarch’s historical investigation and discusses his literary methods of incorporating stories whose historicity the biographer doubts. The investigation serves Badian’s already published thesis that Alexander plotted against his general Philotas (see Badian 2000, cited under Alexander and the Macedonian Elite and Troops).
  356. Find this resource:
  357. Cammarota, Maria Rubina, ed. 1998. La fortuna o la virtú di Alessandro Magno: Seconda orazione. Corpus Plutarchi Moralium 30, Naples: D’Auria.
  358. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  359. The book includes the Greek text, translation and useful introduction and detailed commentary that discuss the rhetorical character of the text and its relation to Plutarch’s biography of Alexander.
  360. Find this resource:
  361. Cook, Brad L. 2001. Plutarch’s use of legetai: Narrative design and source in Alexander. Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies 42.4: 329–360.
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  363. The scholar examines Plutrach’s use of sources and questions the premise that his prefacing a report with legetai (“it is said that”) means that he is relying on historical sources. Instead, Cook suggests that the phrase signals general themes that recur in Plutarch’s other biographies.
  364. Find this resource:
  365. Hamilton, James Robertson. 1999. Plutarch: Alexander, a commentary, 2d ed. Foreword and bibliography by Philip A. Stadter. London: Bristol Classical Press.
  366. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  367. An excellent historical and literary commentary on Plutrach’s Alexander that has not lost its usefulness since it was first published in 1969.
  368. Find this resource:
  369. Plutarch (L. Mestrius Plutarchus). 1994. Plutarchus, Vitae parallelae. Vol. 2 Edited by Konrad Ziegler with addenda by H. Gärtner. Leipzig: Teubner.
  370. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  371. Originally published in 1968 and revised by Gärtner, the volume offers the most authoritative edition of Plutarch’s Alexander.
  372. Find this resource:
  373. Justin (Marcus Iunanius Justinus), Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus
  374.  
  375. In the 2nd or 3rd century CE, Justin summarized and reworked the Philippic history of Pompeius Trogus, which was written around the turn of the 1st century CE. (There is no study that focuses exclusively on Trogus and Alexander, but many of the works cited here and under Quitius Curtius Rufus, Histories of Alexander the Great deal with subject.) Justin covers Alexander’s story in books 11–12. The best edition of Justin is by Seel (Justin 1972). Yardley and Heckel (Justin 1997) offer the best English translation, with extensive annotations. Bracessi, et al. 1993 provides the only compilation available to date on Alexander in Justin. See also Hammond’s work cited under Diodorus of Sicily.
  376.  
  377. Braccesi, Lorenzo, Alessandra Coppola, and Giovannella Cresci Maronne. 1993. L’Alessandro di Giustino: Degli antichi ai moderni. Rome: “L’Erma” di Bretschneider.
  378. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  379. The book comprises articles that focus on Alexander in Justin, imitations of the Macedonian king in Justin and Livy, Justin on Alexander’s successors, and his influence on Petrarch.
  380. Find this resource:
  381. Justin (Marcus Iunanius Justinus). 1997. Justin: Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus. Vol. I. Books 11–12: Alexander the Great. Edited and translated by John C. Yardley and Waldemar Heckel. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
  382. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  383. The translation is a slightly modified version of John C. Yardley and R. Develin, eds., Justin Epitome of the Philippic history of Pompeius Trogus (Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press, 1994). It is well supplemented by critical notes that discuss Justin’s uneven contribution to Alexander’s history.
  384. Find this resource:
  385. Justin (Marcus Iunanius Justinus). 1972. M. Iuniani Iustini Epitoma historiarum Philippicarum Pompeii Trogi. Edited by Otto Seel. Stuttgart: Teubner.
  386. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  387. This edition, with some amendments and revisions, provided the basis for Yardley’s 1997 translation of Justin on Alexander.
  388. Find this resource:
  389. Strabo of Amasia
  390.  
  391. Strabo’s Geographica comprises seventeen volumes of geographic, ethnographic, and historical material on the oekoumene, or the world known to Strabo and his contemporaries of the Augustan age. Although Strabo did not focus on Alexander, he relies on many of Alexander’s historians, especially for the descriptions of Asia and India. Consequently, his Geography is mined for fragments of lost Alexander historians and other pertinent information on the campaign. Strabo also wrote a history, or Historical Notes (Hypomnemata), in forty-seven books from the Roman conquest of Greece to his day, which survives only in a number of fragments. Pédech 1974 discusses his account of Alexander in his lost history, while Engels 1998 and Dueck 2000 claim that Strabo follows in his Geography an established historiographical view of Alexander’s conquest.
  392.  
  393. Dueck, Daniela. 2000. Strabo of Amasia: A Greek man of letters in Augustan Rome. London: Routledge.
  394. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  395. The author’s discussion of Strabo on Alexander is scattered in various places in the book, but she argues that the author combines notions of empire and expansion from Alexander’s and Augustus’s days to describe Alexander’s realm. She also maintains that Strabo’s generally favorable view of Alexander is inspired by Stoic philosophy.
  396. Find this resource:
  397. Engels, Johannes. 1998. Die Geschichte des Alexanderzuges und das Bild Alexanders des Grossen in Strabons Geographika: Zur Interpretation der augusteischen Kulturgeographie Strabons als Quelle seiner historischen Auffassungen. In Alexander der Grosse: Eine Welteroberung und ihr Hintergrund: Vorträge des Internationalen Bonner Alexanderkolloquiums, 19.-21. 12. 1996. Edited by Wolfgang Will, 131–171. Bonn: Habelt.
  398. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  399. When Strabo wrote his Geography there were already two opposing views of Alexander, of which Strabo often followed the positive one. He regarded Alexander’s empire as the best model for the Augustan empire and was keenly aware of Alexandri imitatio.
  400. Find this resource:
  401. Pédech, Paul. 1974. Strabon historien d’Alexandre. Grazer Beiträge 2:129–145.
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  403. The scholar deduces from Strabo’s Geography that his History dealt also with Alexander’s story. He points to Strabo’s unique contribution to our knowledge of the king, especially on his army and administration, and identifies the lost Alexander historians whom Strabo used.
  404. Find this resource:
  405. The Metz Epitome
  406.  
  407. An ancient anonymous summary of a history of Alexander was found in Metz, but the original had been lost during World War II. It covers his campaign from Darius’s death to the arrival in India, and the narrative shows affinity with Curtius and Justin. Thomas 1966 edited the manuscript, and Baynham 1995 discusses the sources of the work and the methods of its composition. Parts of the text are translated by Heckel and Yardley, cited under Collections of Translated Sources.
  408.  
  409. Baynham, Elizabeth. 1995. An introduction to the Metz Epitome: Its traditions and value. Antichton 29:60–77.
  410. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  411. The article investigates the affinity of the epitome with other ancient sources, especially Cleitarchus, and looks at its historical value within popular histories of Alexander.
  412. Find this resource:
  413. Thomas, Peter Hermann, ed. 1966. Incerti auctoris epitoma rerum gestarum Alexandri Magni cum libro de morte testamentoque Alexandri. Leipzig: Teubner.
  414. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  415. The book includes, in addition to the text of the Metz Epitome, Alexander’s itinerary, and the Liber de morte (discussed under Questionable Contemporary Documents).
  416. Find this resource:
  417. Alexander’s Itinerary
  418.  
  419. The Itinerarium Alexandri is a 4th-century CE composition that summarizes, at times inaccurately, Alexander’s military exploits. Tabacco 2000 edited and commented on the text, Davies 1998 translated it into English, and Lane Fox 1997 identified its author as Flavius Polemius, the consul of 338 CE.
  420.  
  421. Davies, Iolo. 1998. Alexander Itinerary: An English translation. Ancient History Bulletin. 12.1–2: 29–54.
  422. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  423. The only English translation available to date of the Itinerary, which is sparsely annotated.
  424. Find this resource:
  425. Lane Fox, Robin. 1997. The Itinerary of Alexander: Constantius to Julian. Classical Quarterly 47.1: 239–252.
  426. DOI: 10.1093/cq/47.1.239Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  427. The scholar argues against previous identifications of the author of the Itinerary and suggests that it belonged a group of writings on Alexander that were produced around the time of the emperor Julian the Apostate.
  428. Find this resource:
  429. Tabacco, Raffaella, ed. 2000. Itinerarium Alexandri. Florence: Olschki.
  430. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  431. With Thomas 1996 (cited under The Metz Epitome), Tabacco provides the most useful edition of Alexander’s Itinerary, which she supplements with historical commentary.
  432. Find this resource:
  433. The Alexander Romance
  434.  
  435. The Alexander Romance (or Roman) is a Greek work that probably dates to the 3rd or 2nd century BCE, and which mixes history with heavy doses of fictional and fantastic elements. The original, falsely attributed to Callisthenes, is now lost, and the different extant Greek versions of the novel make establishing the authoritative text uncertain. The Romance was translated into various languages, including Syrian, Arabic, Ethiopian, and Armenian. The work influenced much of what people knew of Alexander in Antiquity and beyond. Stoneman’s (1991) accessible translation is based on a composite of texts, while Wolohojian 1969 is a translation of the Armenian version of the Romance. Merkelbach 1977 forms the basis for any study of the Romance’s sources, and Stoneman 2007 provides the most recent commentary on it. Stoneman 2008 discusses the varied treatments of Alexander and his exploits in the Romance traditions.
  436.  
  437. Merkelbach, Reinhold. 1977. Die. Quellen des griechischen Alexanderromans, 2d ed. Zetemata 9. Munich: Beck.
  438. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  439. First edition, 1954. The scholar’s attempt to reconstruct the sources of Alexander Roman can be speculative but is always insightful. He identifies the ultimate sources with an epistolary romance, the historian Cleitarchus, and other (in the author’s view inferior) historians. Every investigation of the topic should include this study.
  440. Find this resource:
  441. Stoneman, Richard, ed. and trans. 1991. The Greek Alexander Romance. London & New York: Penguin.
  442. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  443. A translation of a composite of Greek versions of the Romance accompanied by useful introduction and few notes.
  444. Find this resource:
  445. Stoneman, Richard, ed. 2007. Pseudo-Callisthenes: Historia Alexandri Magni/Il romanzo di Alessandro. Translated by Tristano Gargiulo. Milan: Fondazione Lorenzo Valla.
  446. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  447. The book includes both the Greek text of the Alexander Romance and Julius Valerius’s Latin translation of it in the 4th century CE in his Res gestae Alexandri Macedonis. Both the translation of the texts and Stoneman’s commentary on them are in Italian.
  448. Find this resource:
  449. Stoneman, Richard. 2008. Alexander the Great: A life in legend. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press.
  450. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  451. The author follows Alexander’s career chronologically but looks at how the different versions of the Alexander Romance depicted him in a way that often reflected their particular culture and literary traditions.
  452. Find this resource:
  453. Wolohojian, A. M., trans. 1969. The Romance of Alexander the Great by Pseudo-Callisthenes. New York: Columbia Univ. Press.
  454. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  455. A translation of the Armenian version of the Romance from the Byzantine period.
  456. Find this resource:
  457. Collections of Translated Sources
  458.  
  459. The ample ancient evidence on Alexander makes it practically impossible to publish it all in one volume. Of the items below, Heckel and Yardley 2004 is the most useful, while from the translations of the lost histories Auberger 2001 is preferable to Robinson 1953. Gergel 2004, Romm 2005, and Cheshire 2009 follow different criteria in selecting sources for translation, which has resulted in incomplete collections. Battistini and Chavret 2004 has the advantage of added illustrations and supplementary scholarly entries.
  460.  
  461. Auberger, Janick, ed. and trans. 2001. Historiens d’Alexandre. Paris: Les Belles Lettres.
  462. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  463. A collection of fragments of Alexander’s lost histories with the original texts, French translation, and many useful annotations.
  464. Find this resource:
  465. Battistini, Olivier, and Pascal Charvet, eds. 2004. Alexandre le Grand: Histoire et dictionnaire. Paris: R. Laffont.
  466. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  467. A hefty book that includes translations of the main sources on Alexander, a large number of illustrations, and numerous dictionary essays written by experts.
  468. Find this resource:
  469. Cheshire, Keyne Ashley, ed. 2009. Alexander the Great. Greece & Rome: Texts and Contexts. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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  471. The book has good notes and contextualizes the ancient evidence well, but is limited to Arrian and Plutarch.
  472. Find this resource:
  473. Gergel, Tania, ed. and trans. 2004. Alexander the Great: Selected texts from Arrian, Curtius and Plutarch. New York: Penguin.
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  475. This collection of sources, translated by the editor and John Dillon, follows the chronology of the campaign and focuses on its major events or issues. It does not include, however, Diodorus and other important sources.
  476. Find this resource:
  477. Heckel, Waldemar, and John C. Yardley. 2004. Alexander the Great: Historical texts in translation. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
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  479. A very useful selection of ancient literary texts on Alexander. It is arranged by themes, at time annotated, and with some sources translated into English for the first time.
  480. Find this resource:
  481. Robinson, Charles Alexander, ed. 1953. The history of Alexander the Great. 2 vols. Providence, RI: Brown Univ. Press.
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  483. Volume 1 includes English translations of varied quality of the fragments of Alexander lost histories, collected by Jacoby 1923–1958.
  484. Find this resource:
  485. Romm, James S., and Pamela Mensch, eds. 2005. Alexander the Great: Selections from Arrian, Diodorus, Plutarch, and Quintus Curtius. Indianapolis: Hackett.
  486. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  487. A selection of key passages from the main histories of Alexander with useful comments.
  488. Find this resource:
  489. Epigraphic Evidence
  490.  
  491. The epigraphic evidence on Alexander is relatively meager, which should be expected given his short reign. Most the extant inscriptions discuss Alexander’s dealings with various Greek communities in Asia Minor, the Aegean, and the mainland. Heisserer 1980 collected and commented on these inscriptions and is still the most important publication on them. Errington 1998 and Pilhofer 2000 supplement Heisserer 1980 with discussions of an inscription that records Alexander’s dealings with residents in northern Macedonia. Worthington 1990 and Worthington 2004 redate two inscriptions relevant to Alexander’s relations with Athens and Mytilene.
  492.  
  493. Errington, Robert Malcolm. 1998. Neue epigraphische Belege für Makedonien zur Zeit Alexanders des Grossen. In Alexander der Grosse: Eine Welteroberung und ihr Hintergrund. Edited by Wolfgang Will, 77–90. Vorträge des Internationalen Bonner Alexanderkolloquiums 19.-21.12.1996. Bonn: Habelt.
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  495. The author discusses Alexander’s instructions to settlers in northern Macedonia that were recorded on stone and are informative particularly on landownership and local institutions. See Pilhofer 2000 for a newer investigation.
  496. Find this resource:
  497. Heisserer, A. J. 1980. Alexander the Great and the Greeks: The. epigraphic evidence. Norman: Univ. of Oklahoma Press.
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  499. A collection of inscriptions set up by the governments of different Greek states on the mainland, the Aegean, and Asia Minor. They tell of Alexander’s relationship with the Greeks during different times in his career. The book includes the texts, translations, photographs of the inscriptions, and especially sensible analysis of the documents.
  500. Find this resource:
  501. Pilhofer, Peter. 2000. Philippi: Katalog der Inschriften von Philippi. WUNT 119. Tübingen: Mohr.
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  503. The author on pages 185–192 provides the Greek text, a German translation, and detailed commentary and bibliography on an inscription recording Alexander’s letter to the inhabitants of Philippi.
  504. Find this resource:
  505. Worthington, Ian A. 2004. Alexander the Great and the Greeks in 336? Another reading of IG II2 329. Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 147.1: 59–71.
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  507. The inscription IG II2 329 records a treaty between Alexander the Great and the Greeks that regulated their relationship, and which is often dated to 336. Worthington argues, however, that the inscription should be dated to 333 because it reflected better Alexander’s and Athens’s foreign policy in that year.
  508. Find this resource:
  509. Worthington, Ian A. 1990. Alexander the Great and the date of the Mytilene Decree. Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 83:194–214.
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  511. The author sides with scholars who date to 332–330 a decree from Mytilene in Asia Minor that deals with Alexander’s instructions to restore exiles home rather than to his more general exile decree of 324. Worthington based his argument on historical reconstructions of the circumstances attending these respective years and on numismatic and epigraphic evidence.
  512. Find this resource:
  513. Numismatic Evidence
  514.  
  515. Under Alexander’s regime, mints on the Greek mainland and the western part of the empire issued coins that resembled early Macedonian coinage but also new types. Rulers often used coins to propagate messages, and Alexander and those who succeeded him were no exception. Price 1991 has set the standard for the treatment of Alexander’s coinage. Bellinger 1963 and Alexandercoins can serve as an introduction to the subject, but they are less useful than Price 1991. The focuses of Troxell 1997, Arnold-Biucchi 2006, and Holt 2003 are narrower and constrained by their respective source material. While Le Rider 2007 is chiefly interested in the financial aspects of Alexander’s coinage, Dahmen 2007 deals in the main with its artistic and political meanings.
  516.  
  517. Alexandercoins.
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  519. An online bibliography and discussion list of Alexander coins run by Andrew McIntyre of Coins of Time.
  520. Find this resource:
  521. Arnold-Biucchi, Carmen. 2006. Alexander’s coins and Alexander’s image. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Art Museums.
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  523. The work provides a good introduction to Alexander coins throughout Antiquity, but is limited to the coin collection of the Sackler Museum, Harvard.
  524. Find this resource:
  525. Bellinger, Alfred R. 1963. Essays on the coinage of Alexander the Great. Numismatic Studies 11. New York: American Numismatic Society.
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  527. A sound analysis of the development of Alexander coins down to the Successors, but it has been surpassed by Price 1991.
  528. Find this resource:
  529. Dahmen, Karsten. 2007. The legend of Alexander the Great on Greek and Roman coins. London & New York: Routledge.
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  531. The author offers a well-informed investigation of the portraits of Alexander on coins issued shortly after his death and up to the 5th century CE. He both analyzes the different renditions of the king and shows how his image was used by the authorities that minted the coins.
  532. Find this resource:
  533. Holt, Frank Lee. 2003. Alexander the Great and the mystery of the elephant medallions. Berkeley, CA: Univ. of California Press.
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  535. A well-written history of several medallions depicting a rider attacking a mounted war elephant and related scenes. The author reasserts the view that they commemorated Alexander’s victory over Porus in India.
  536. Find this resource:
  537. Le Rider, Georges. 2007. Alexander the Great: Coinage, finances, and policy. Translated by W. E. Higgins. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society.
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  539. A revised edition of the 2003 French original that examines the economics of Alexander’s campaign and his administration and the role of coinage in both.
  540. Find this resource:
  541. Price, Martin Jessop. 1991. The coinage in the name of Alexander the Great and Philip Arrhidaeus. 2 vols. Zurich: Swiss Numismatic Society in association with British Museum.
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  543. The work catalogues more than four thousand types of coins related to Alexander and his immediate successor, which amounts to the most comprehensive collection of its kind. The study forms the basis and frame of reference to any investigation of Alexander’s coinage.
  544. Find this resource:
  545. Troxell, Hyla A. 1997. Studies in the Macedonian coinage of Alexander the Great. New York: American Numismatic Society.
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  547. An important and well-illustrated study that focuses on the silver coins issued by the Amphipolis mint and gold coins from Alexander’s time.
  548. Find this resource:
  549. Artistic Evidence
  550.  
  551. There are numerous depictions of Alexander in almost all genres of art, including Numismatic Evidence. Often, artists used the figure of Alexander to project images of power, fame, and manliness, both of the king and of rulers who followed him. The most familiar artistic depictions of Alexander in battle are the Pompeii mosaic now in the National Archaeological Museum at Naples, and the so-called Alexander Sarcophagus, now in the Istanbul Archaeology Museum. Many scholars identify the scene on the mosaic with the battle of Issus and ascribe the sarcophagus to Abdalonymus, a contemporary ruler of Sidon, where the sarcophagus was found. The most comprehensive and erudite study of the subject is Stewart 1993. Bieber 1964 is no match to the much more sophisticated examinations of Alexander’s portraits in Stewart 1993 or von Schwarzenberg 1976. Mihalopoulos 2009 offers a sound survey of Alexander’s portraits in the Hellenistic age, and Stewart 2003 expands the discussion to other periods. Cohen 1997, a study of the Alexander mosaic, and von Graeve 1970, an examination of the Alexander sarcophagus (which is largely adopted by Pasinli 1997) are the most useful on their respective topics, although their interpretations have not been universally accepted.
  552.  
  553. Bieber, Margarete. 1964. Alexander the Great in Greek and Roman art. Chicago: Argonaut.
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  555. The author offers an introduction to the portraits of Alexander, which is not always accurate, and now surpassed by Stewart 1993 and Stewart 2003.
  556. Find this resource:
  557. Cohen, Ada. 1997. The Alexander mosaic: Stories of victory and defeat. Studies in Classical Art and Iconography. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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  559. Most scholars believe that the scene on the Pompeii mosaic is based on a painting done by a contemporary of Alexander. Not everyone may agree with the author’s suggestion to change the common identification of the battle from Issus to an amalgam of motifs, but the analysis of the narrative is insightful.
  560. Find this resource:
  561. Mihalopoulos, Catie. 2009. In Alexander the Great: A new history. The construction of new ideal: The official portraiture of Alexander the Great. Edited by Waldemar Heckel and Lawrence Tritle, 274–293. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
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  563. The author surveys the varied depictions of Alexander, their artistic expressions and significant scholarly interpretations of them.
  564. Find this resource:
  565. Moreno, Paolo. 2001. Apelles: The Alexander mosaic. Translated by David Stanton. Milan: Skira.
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  567. This English translation of the 2000 Italian original offers a close reading of the mosaic, which the author traces back to an artwork by Apelles. This and other conclusions of the books do not represent a scholarly consensus.
  568. Find this resource:
  569. Pasinli, Alpay. 1997. The Book of Alexander Sarcophagus. Istanbul: Turizm Yayinlari.
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  571. The book provides excellent color photos of the sarcophagus, but the text lacks notes or references and it relies heavily on von Graeve 1970.
  572. Find this resource:
  573. Stewart, Andrew F. 1993. Faces of power: Alexander’s image and Hellenistic politics. Berkeley, CA: Univ. of California Press.
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  575. This is the best account to date of the politics of Alexander’s image and its artistic representations. The work is well researched and illustrated.
  576. Find this resource:
  577. Stewart, Andrew F. 2003. Alexander in Greek and Roman art. In Brill’s companion to Alexander the Great. Edited by Joseph Roisman, 31–66. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  578. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  579. The author presents a succinct survey of the different manifestations of Alexander’s image in their historical contexts. The investigation commences with Alexander and goes into the Roman Empire.
  580. Find this resource:
  581. von Graeve, Volkmar. 1970. Der Alexandersarkophag und Seine Werkstatt. Berlin: Gebr. Mann.
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  583. A detailed and well-illustrated investigation, even if too speculative, of the history of the sarcophagus and the different martial scenes on it.
  584. Find this resource:
  585. von Schwarzenberg, Ekinger. 1976. The portraiture of Alexander. In Alexandre le Grand: Image et réalité. Edited by E. Badian, 223–278. Vandœuvres & Geneva: Fondation Hardt.
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  587. This is a useful and learned investigation of Alexander’s portraits but is weak on illustrations.
  588. Find this resource:
  589. Archaeological Evidence
  590.  
  591. Alexander stayed in Macedonia and Greece too short a time to leave any significant archaeological remains behind him. (Regardless of the controversy over the dates of the famous royal tombs at Vergina, they tell little about the king). Alexander’s campaign in Asia similarly left few permanent marks because of its itinerant nature. Of his archaeological legacy, the foundation of cities, including the Asian settlement of Ay Kanom, are discussed under a separate heading (Foundation of Cities). More destructive was his setting buildings on fire at Persepolis, which archaeology has confirmed. For this act, see under Fire at Persepolis and Sancisi-Weerdenburg 1993, which discusses the material evidence. Recently, Alexander’s tomb stood at a center of controversy. Bianchi 2004 sufficiently dismisses the unfounded claim that Alexander’s corpse was found in Siwa. Chugg 2007 is a more serious investigation of what happened to Alexander’s body and his tombs since his death in Babylon.
  592.  
  593. Bianchi, Robert S. 2004. The elusive tomb of Alexander. Archaeology, November 11, 2004.
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  595. The short article discusses failed attempts to identify Alexander’s tomb in various places and, in particular, Liani Souvaltzi’s erroneous claim to have found it in Siwa. This “discovery” tells us much about the links between ancient history and modern media and nationalism.
  596. Find this resource:
  597. Chugg, Andrew M. 2007. The quest for the tomb of Alexander the Great. London: Lulu Com.
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  599. The author, who is an autodidact, tries to reconstruct the history of Alexander’s various resting places, especially in Memphis and Alexandria, Egypt, and the history of his mummified body in the Roman and later eras. The book is well researched but, by necessity, speculative.
  600. Find this resource:
  601. Sancisi-Weerdenburg, Heleen. 1993. Alexander and Persepolis. In Alexander the Great: Reality and myth. Edited by Jesper Carlsen, Bodil Due, Otto Steen Due and Birte Poulsen, 177–188. Rome: L’Erma di Bretschneider.
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  603. The author examines the literary and especially archaeological evidence for Alexander’s destruction of buildings at Persepolis in an attempt to show that the king was in essence a marauding conqueror. Needless to say, her opinion of the king is controversial.
  604. Find this resource:
  605. Topography and Alexander’s March
  606.  
  607. Attempts to follow the footsteps of Alexander’s march have been made for years and are still going strong. Yet the most extensive efforts were taken in the 20th century, with Stein 1929 in Central Asia and Stark 1958 in Asia Minor as the leading examples. Their books are especially useful for the topography of these regions and for identifications, which could be open to dispute, of sites on Alexander’s path. Karttunen 1997 (cited under Alexander in Central Asia and India) is useful for the geography of the Indian campaign. MacDermot and Schippman 1999 illustrate attempts to identify the route taken by Alexander on one particular leg, here in Persis. The brief notes of Milns 1966 and Neumann 1971 are in disagreement over the speed of a forced march that the army had to make at times. See also Engels 1976, pages 46–53 (cited under Alexander’s Army and Generalship), for estimates of the average rate of march. Fraser 1996, pp. 78–86, 132–133 (cited under Foundation of Cities) discusses the bematists, Alexander’s royal surveyors, and their records.
  608.  
  609. MacDermot, B. C., and Klaus Schippmann. 1999. Alexander’s march from Susa to Persepolis. Iranica Antiqua 34:283–308.
  610. DOI: 10.2143/IA.34.0.519116Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  611. Arrian and Curtius Rufus report, at times differently, on Alexander’s march from Susa to Persepolis. Based on observations of the terrain the authors dispute the ancient accounts and offer an alternative route for the march.
  612. Find this resource:
  613. Milns, R. D. 1966. Alexander’s pursuit of Darius through Iran. Historia 15:256.
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  615. The author argues against earlier estimates of the speed of a forced march made by Alexander’s army. He regards as impossible the reports of its covering a distance ranging between thirty-six and fifty-two miles in a day. See, however, Neumann 1971.
  616. Find this resource:
  617. Neumann, Christian. 1971. A note on Alexander’s march-rates. Historia 20:196–198.
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  619. The authors produces examples of speedy daily march by both ancient and more modern armies that show that going the distance of between thirty-six and fifty-two miles was possible.
  620. Find this resource:
  621. Stark, Freya. 1958. Alexander’s path: From Caria to Cilicia. London: J. Murray.
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  623. The author reconstructs Alexander’s path in Asia Minor from Xanthus to Phaselis. She discusses the king’s sources of inspiration and ambition as well as his successful plan to deprive the Persians of naval bases in Asia Minor. The writing is personal, and this formidable woman, a natural-born nomad, met only a few challenges that she did not overcome.
  624. Find this resource:
  625. Stein, Aurel. 1929. On Alexander’s track to the Indus: Personal narrative of explorations on the North-West Frontier of India. London: Macmillan.
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  627. Stein was an archaeologist and traveler and very much a product of his Victorian age. He made rich discoveries in Central Asia of ancient local culture, native and Greco-Indian, and helped identify important sites associated with the campaign. Although some of his findings have been disputed, no discussion of, say, Alexander’s siege of Aornus or his battle with Porus can ignore his observations. Reprinted, New York: Benjamin Blom, 1972.
  628. Find this resource:
  629. Macedonian Background
  630.  
  631. There is little room in a bibliography on Alexander for citations of works on ancient Macedonia, where he grew up, or on the history of his father, Philip II. The following items discuss selected Macedonian institutions and cultural practices that played a significant role in his story. Errington 1978, Griffith 1979, Anson 1991, and Hatzopoulos 1996 discuss the nature of the Macedonian state and its political structure, but while they all recognize the power of the kings, they disagree on the role of the popular assembly in the kingdom. Carney 2007, Carney 2009, and Palagia 2000 investigate the nature of Macedonian elite groups and cultural institutions and their relations to royalty. Carney 2000 deals with the historical significance of royal Macedonian women, many of whom were associated with Alexander’s house. For discussions of the king’s companions (hetairoi) and his close circle of “bodyguards” (somatophylakes), see also Heckel’s publications under Bibliographies and Catalogues and Alexander and the Macedonian Elite and Troops.
  632.  
  633. Anson, Edward, M. 1991. The evolution of the Macedonian army assembly (331–315 B.C.) Historia 40:230–247.
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  635. Similarly to Errington 1978, the author downplays the role of the assembled Macedonians in the politics of the regime, and shows the changing significance of the assembly over time. The essay is particularly useful for the functioning of the army assembly under Alexander.
  636. Find this resource:
  637. Carney, Elizabeth Donnelly. 2000. Women and monarchy in Macedonia. Norman: Univ. of Oklahoma Press.
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  639. The most comprehensive study of the status of and the roles played by Macedonians royal women, including Alexander’s mother and sisters. The book includes individual biographical entries on Macedonian queens and princesses.
  640. Find this resource:
  641. Carney, Elizabeth Donnelly. 2007. Symposia and the Macedonian elite: The unmixed life. Syllecta Classica 18:129–180.
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  643. The paper looks at the role banqueting and wine drinking played in the culture of the Macedonian elite under Philip and Alexander. It also describes how these practices and institutions differed from their Greek counterparts, and suggests what these differences tell about both societies. See also Borza 1983, cited under Alexander’s Court.
  644. Find this resource:
  645. Carney, Elizabeth Donnelly. 2009. The role of the BASILIKOI PAIDES at the Argead court. In Macedonian legacies: Studies in ancient Macedonian history and culture in honor of Eugene N. Borza. Edited by Timothy Howe and Jeanne Reames, 145–164. Claremont, CA: Regina.
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  647. The essay offers a detailed examination of the so-called royal pages (or boys), sons of Macedonian nobles who were brought up in the royal court under the king’s supervision and in his service. Much of the discussion focuses on Hermolaus’s and his fellow pages’ conspiracy against Alexander in 327.
  648. Find this resource:
  649. Errington, Robert Malcolm. 1978. The nature of the Macedonian state under the monarchy. Chiron 7:77–133.
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  651. The scholar examines the role played by popular and army assemblies in Macedonian history, and especially under Alexander, and concludes that they had only a small impact on Macedonian politics (but see Hatzopoulos 1996).
  652. Find this resource:
  653. Griffith, Guy Thompson. 1979. The reign of Philip the Second: The government of the kingdom. In A history of Macedonia. Vol. 2. Edited by Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière Hammond and Guy Thompson Griffith, 383–404. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
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  655. Griffith provides a balanced discussion of the Macedonian governmental structure that focuses on the relationship between the king and the Macedonians, his judicial powers, and his companions.
  656. Find this resource:
  657. Hatzopoulos, Miltiades B. 1996. Macedonian institutions under the kings. 2 vols. Paris: de Boccard.
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  659. A well-documented and extensive study of ancient Macedonian kingship, of Macedonian social and political institutions and of officeholders who served under the king. Much of the investigation is based on the history of Alexander and later epigraphical evidence. The author grants the Macedonian assembly significant powers (but see Errington 1978).
  660. Find this resource:
  661. Palagia, Olga. 2000. Hephaestion’s pyre and the royal hunt of Alexander. In Alexander the Great in fact and fiction. Edited by Albert Brian Bosworth and Elizabeth Baynham, 176–206. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  662. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198152873.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  663. A substantial part of the essay discusses the culture of hunting in Macedonia and Persia, and Alexander’s hunts in Asia; see also Carney 2009.
  664. Find this resource:
  665. Alexander’s Youth and Philip II
  666.  
  667. Relatively little is known about Alexander’s youth, but Worthington 2004, Thomas 2007, and Carney 2003 discuss the evidence and the impact of his youth and the Macedonian setting on his later career. Both Hamilton 1973 and Baynham 1995 deal with Alexander’s famous taming of his horse Bucephalus. Scholarly interest has focused chiefly on Alexander’s complex relations with his family. He was Philip II’s designated heir until his position was questioned shortly before Philip’s death. Fredricksmeyer 1990 examines Alexander’s feelings toward his father, and Badian 1963 controversially argues that the son was involved in his father’s death. Carney 2006 discusses Alexander’s much better relationships with his mother, Olympias.
  668.  
  669. Badian, Ernst. 1963. The murder of Philip II. Phoenix 17:244–250.
  670. DOI: 10.2307/1086377Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  671. The paper implicates Alexander in his father’s death and has generated a number of publications that vigorously contest the thesis, including Carney 2006.
  672. Find this resource:
  673. Baynham, Elizabeth, 1995. Who put the ‘romance’ in the Alexander Romance?: The Alexander Romances within Alexander historiography. Ancient History Bulletin 9.1: 1–13.
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  675. Part of the essay examines the evidence on the taming of Alexander’s famous horse Bucephalus by the young prince, and relates early accounts of the episode to the Alexander Romance.
  676. Find this resource:
  677. Carney, Elizabeth Donnelly. 2003. Elite education and high culture in Macedonia. In Crossroads of history: The age of Alexander. Edited by Waldemar Heckel and Lawrence Tritle, 47–63.Claremont, CA: Regina.
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  679. The study includes a discussion of Alexander’s education by, and relationship with, his tutor, Aristotle.
  680. Find this resource:
  681. Carney, Elizabeth Donnelly. 2006. Olympias: Mother of Alexander the Great. New York: Routledge.
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  683. Written by a scholar who is an authority on Macedonian royal women, the book discusses Olympias’s relationship with her son and the men who tried to succeed him.
  684. Find this resource:
  685. Fredricksmeyer, Ernst A. 1990. Alexander and Philip: Emulation and resentment. Classical Journal 85:300–315.
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  687. The article deals with the relationship between father and son from Alexander’s point of view. The author detects a range of attitudes from a wish to imitate Philip to a resentful rivalry and a striving to do better than the father.
  688. Find this resource:
  689. Hamilton, James Robertson. 1992. Alexander the Great. Pittsburgh, PA: Univ. of Pittsburgh Press.
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  691. First edition, 1973. The author gives a clear account (pp. 23–43) of the Macedonian background and Alexander’s youth and accession, which relies much on Plutarch.
  692. Find this resource:
  693. Thomas, Carol G. 2007. Alexander the Great in his world. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
  694. DOI: 10.1002/9780470774236Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  695. In addition to discussing Alexander’s youth, the book firmly anchors Alexander’s entire story in its Macedonian background.
  696. Find this resource:
  697. Worthington, Ian. 2004. Alexander the Great, man and god, revised ed. New York: Longman.
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  699. An extensive investigation (pp. 30–43) of Alexander’s youth, including his education, his relationship with his father, the positions he held under him, the Macedonian court, and Alexander’s possible involvement in Philip’s assassination.
  700. Find this resource:
  701. Alexander and the Greeks
  702.  
  703. Alexander marched on Asia as a champion of the Greeks, claiming that he intended to avenge the Persian invasion of Greece in 480–479. His relationships with the Greek states, however, were more pragmatic than ideological. The following works discuss the issues that dominated his dealings with European and Asian Greeks and with Greeks who accompanied him to Asia. Fundamental to the subject is Heisserer’s work cited under Epigraphic Evidence. For Alexander’s panhellenism, see also Alexander’s Aims, and for Greek intellectuals in his camp, see Alexander’s Court.
  704.  
  705. Alexander’s Relationships with the Greeks
  706.  
  707. The Corinthian League, which was set up by Philip II, provided the framework for Alexander’s relationships, especially with the European Greeks. His treatment of the Greeks of Asia Minor varied from city to city. Badian 1967, Faraguna 2003, and Podhige 2009 provide the most useful introductions to the subject. Ehrenberg 1938, however, is less useful. Landucci Gatinnoni 1995 and Landucci Gatinnoni 1995 discuss Greeks who actively fought Alexander, while Trittle 2009 deals with Greeks who served him in various capacities. Nawotka 2003 focuses on Alexander’s dealings with the Asian Greeks, and Squillace 2004 looks at the Macedonian ideology of conquest and hegemony and its reception in Greece.
  708.  
  709. Badian, Ernst. 1967. Alexander the Great and the Greeks of Asia. In Ancient society and institutions: Studies presented to Victor Ehrenberg on his 75th birthday. Edited by Ernst Badian, 37–69. Oxford: Blackwell.
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  711. According to Badian, Alexander closely supervised both the democratic regimes and the freedom that he granted the Asian Greeks out of utilitarian considerations.
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  713. Ehrenberg, Victor. 1938. Alexander and the Greeks. Translated by Ruth Fraenkel von Velsen. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
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  715. The book is a collection of individual studies, now dated. Ehrenberg proposes that Alexander did not incorporate the Asian Greeks into the Corinthian League. He also examines his relationship with Aristotle.
  716. Find this resource:
  717. Faraguna, Michele. 2003. Alexander and the Greeks. In Brill’s companion to Alexander the Great. Edited by Joseph Roisman, 99–132. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
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  719. Faraguna provides a useful and accessible discussion of the Macedonian hegemony over Greeks in Europe and Asia.
  720. Find this resource:
  721. Landucci Gattinoni, Franca. 1994. I mercenari nella politica ateniese dell’età di Alessandro: I, Soldati e ufficiali mercenari ateniesi al servizio della Persia. Ancient Society 25:33–61.
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  723. Along with Landucci Gattinoni 1995, the article discusses Athenian troops and, especially, commanders who served in Darius’s army against Alexander and who, according to the author, led the democratic opposition to the king.
  724. Find this resource:
  725. Landucci Gattinoni, Franca. 1995. I mercenari nella politica ateniese dell’età di Alessandro. 2, Ritorno in patria dei mercenari. Ancient Society 26:59–91.
  726. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  727. Along with Landucci Gattinoni 1994, the article discusses Athenian troops and, especially, commanders who served in Darius’s army against Alexander and who, according to the author, led the democratic opposition to the king.
  728. Find this resource:
  729. Nawotka, Krzysztof. 2003. Freedom of the Greek cities in Asia Minor in the age of Alexander the Great. Klio 85:15–41.
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  731. The article discusses Alexander’s relationship with Greek elites and masses and argues that they enjoyed freedom from taxation and satrapal control.
  732. Find this resource:
  733. Podhige, Elisabetta, 2009. Alexander and the Greeks: The Corinthian League. In Alexander the Great: A new history. Edited by Waldemar Heckel and Lawrence Tritle, 99–120. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
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  735. In spite of the title, this well-annotated essay goes beyond the Corinthian League to discuss the entirety of Alexander’s relationships with especially the Greeks on the mainland.
  736. Find this resource:
  737. Squillace, Giuseppe. 2004. Basileis e tyrannoi: Filippo II e Alessandro Magno tra opposizione e consenso. Soveria Mannelli, Italy: Rubbettino.
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  739. The author tries to reconstruct the various means of propaganda, in word and action, that Philip and Alexander used in order to influence Greek and Macedonian public opinion.
  740. Find this resource:
  741. Tritle, Lawrence, E. 2009. Alexander and the Greeks: Artists and soldiers, friends and enemies. In Alexander the Great: A new history. Edited by Waldemar Heckel and Lawrence Tritle, 121–140. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
  742. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  743. The essay describes Alexander’s dealings with Greeks who served in his administration, court, and the army.
  744. Find this resource:
  745. Alexander in Europe (338–336), the Destruction of Thebes (335), and Agis III’s Revolt (331)
  746.  
  747. Between 338 and 336 Alexander consolidated his power in Macedonia and the Macedonian power in the north and in Greece. Two major Greek uprisings took place during his rule. In 335 Thebes tried to lead a Greek war against Macedonia, but Alexander punished the city quickly and most severely. In 331 the Spartan king Agis III led a revolt against Macedonian rule but was defeated by Alexander’s deputy, Antipater. Many of the works cited under Alexander’s Relationships with the Greeks also discuss these affairs. Bosworth 1982 and Bloedow 1996 focus on selected events in Alexander’s campaign in the north before he descended on Thebes. Thebes’s destruction and the politics surrounding it are examined by Rubinsohn 1997. Badian 1994 argues forcefully that Agis’s revolt significantly affected the course of Alexander’s Asian campaign, while McQueen 1978 focuses narrowly on Alexander’s dealings with Peloponnesian states in relation to this crisis. Baynham 1998 examines Alexander’s position vis-à-vis the Macedonian nobles at this time. See under Alexander’s Final Years for the Harpalus affair and the Exiles Decree that upset Alexander’s relationship with several Greek cities toward the end of his reign.
  748.  
  749. Badian, Ernst. 1994. Agis III: Revisions and reflections. In Ventures into Greek history: Second Australian Symposium on Ancient Macedonian Studies held at the University of Melbourne in July 1991, dedicated to Professor Nicholas Hammond. Edited by Ian Worthington, 258–293. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
  750. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  751. The author reasserts his previously published, but controversial, thesis that the Agis’s war in 331 posed a serious threat to Alexander and Macedonian power in Greece, and that it even moved the king to sack Persepolis in order to demonstrate to the Greeks that he was still their champion.
  752. Find this resource:
  753. Baynham, Elizabeth. 1998. Why didn’t Alexander marry before leaving Macedonia?: Observations on factional politics at Alexander’s court in 336–334 B.C. Rheinische Museum 141.2: 141–152.
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  755. Alexander did not take his friends’ advice to marry before going to Asia so as not to antagonize nobles who might have been upset by his choice of a bride.
  756. Find this resource:
  757. Bloedow, Edmund F. 1996. On wagons and shields: Alexander’s crossing of Mount Haemus in 335 B.C. Ancient History Bulletin 10:119–130.
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  759. The article describes Alexander’s tactics against northern Thracian tribes and argues that their ingenuity has been overestimated.
  760. Find this resource:
  761. Bosworth, Albert Brian. 1982. The location of Alexander’s campaign against the Illyrians in 335 B.C. In Macedonia and Greece in late Classical and early Hellenistic times. Edited by Beryl Barr-Sharrar and Eugene N. Borza, 175–184. Studies in the History of Art 10. Washington, DC: National Gallery of Art.
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  763. The paper deals with Alexander’s northern campaign in 336–335 and especially with the location of Pelion, which was a center of local resistance on the Epirote border.
  764. Find this resource:
  765. McQueen, Earl I. 1978. Some notes on the anti-Macedon movement in the Peloponnese in 331 B.C. Historia 27:40–64.
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  767. The article describes the different positions held by Peloponnesian states vis-à-vis Sparta and Macedonia and the settlements imposed on them following the battle of Megalopolis that ended Agis’s war.
  768. Find this resource:
  769. Rubinsohn, Wolfgang Zeev. 1997. Macedon and Greece: The case of Thebes. Journal of Ancient Civilizations 12:99–123.
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  771. The scholar suggests that the destruction of Thebes benefited Alexander strategically, politically, and economically.
  772. Find this resource:
  773. Alexander’s Aims and Plans
  774.  
  775. The Asian expedition was officially presented as a war of revenge against the Persians. Yet scholars are divided about how Alexander envisioned the campaign and what were his goals at its outset and after he conquered the Persians. Brunt 1965 is a sensible introduction to the subject. Austin 1993 suggests economic stimuli as the basis of the expedition. Seibert 1998 regards Alexander’s panhellenic ideology of avenging Persian past wrongs as a mere pretext, but Flower 2000 claims the he sincerely advocated this goal. Badian 1958 and Brunt 1965 demonstrate why there are no followers today for Tarn’s 1948 view that, after crossing to Asia, Alexander envisioned an empire guided by the principle of brotherhood of men. Bloedow 1995 and Fredricksmeyer 2000 examine Alexander’s better-attested self-perception as a king of Asia. See Högemann’s work under The Planned Arabian Campaign and Alexander’s Death for Alexander’s unfulfilled project of conquering Arabia. For his “last plans,” see under Questionable Contemporary Documents.
  776.  
  777. Austin, M. M. 1993. Alexander and the Macedonian invasion of Asia. In War and society in the Greek world. Edited by John Rich and Graham Shipley, 197–223. London: Routledge.
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  779. The article examines the sources’ reflections on Alexander’s reasons to go to Asia in light of the treatment of causation of war in ancient historiography. In discussing the case of Alexander, the scholar emphasizes the role of economic incentives in going to war on the part of the ruler and his troops.
  780. Find this resource:
  781. Badian, Ernst. 1958. Alexander the Great and the unity of mankind. Historia 7:425–444.
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  783. A close examination of the relevant sources shows that Tarn’s thesis (Tarn 1948) that Alexander sought to attain universal harmony in his empire is groundless. Together with others of Badian’s publications, this paper helped to break Tarn’s spell over Alexander’s historiography.
  784. Find this resource:
  785. Bloedow, Edmund F. 1995. Diplomatic negotiations between Darius and Alexander: Historical implications of the first phase at Marathus in Phoenicia in 333/332 B.C. Ancient History Bulletin 9.1:93–110.
  786. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  787. Alexander exchanged letters with Darius between 333/2 and 331, in which he presents himself as the king of Asia. The authenticity of the letters has been questioned, but the author finds the report about the first exchange largely authentic.
  788. Find this resource:
  789. Brunt, Peter A. 1965. The aims of Alexander the Great. Greece & Rome, 2d ser. 12: 205–215.
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  791. The author suggests that Alexander followed Philip’s plan of invading Persia but went farther east because of the momentum of the conquest and his religious beliefs. Similarly to Badian 1958, he rejects Tarn’s 1948 idea that Alexander wanted to promote unity of mankind under his rule.
  792. Find this resource:
  793. Flower, Michael. 2000. Alexander the Great and panhellenism. In Alexander the Great in fact and fiction. Edited by Albert Brian Bosworth and Elizabeth Baynham, 96–135. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  794. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198152873.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  795. The author goes against the common view that regards Alexander’s championing the Greek cause against the Persians as mere propaganda (e.g. Seibert 1998). Instead, he argues that Alexander took his panhellenic mission seriously.
  796. Find this resource:
  797. Fredricksmeyer, Ernst A. 2000. Alexander the Great and the kingdom of Asia. In Alexander the Great in fact and fiction. Edited by Albert Brian Bosworth and Elizabeth Baynham,136–166. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  798. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198152873.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  799. According to the scholar, Alexander saw himself since at least 332 not as the heir to the Achaemenid Empire, but as a ruler of a greater kingdom of Asia that would supplant it. The idea that Alexander fashioned a new kind of monarchy was expounded earlier by N. G. L. Hammond (1986. The King of Asia and the Persian throne. Antichton 20: 73-85).
  800. Find this resource:
  801. Seibert, Jakob 1998. ‘Panhellenischer’ Kreuzzug, Nationalkrieg, Rachefeldzug oder makedonischer Eroberungskrieg?: Überlegungen zu den Ursachen des Krieges gegen Persien. In Alexander der Grosse: Eine Welteroberung und ihr Hintergrund. Edited by Wolfgang Will, 5–58.Vorträge des Internationalen Bonner Alexanderkolloquiums, 19.-21. 12. 1996. Bonn: Habelt.
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  803. A well-documented discussion of how panhellenic or Greek-centered Alexander’s campaign was. The author distinguishes between “real” and “official” causes for the invasion, and downplays Alexander’s belief in, and use of, panhellenic themes. His argument that the king appealed largely to Macedonian and Persian audiences is less attractive (see, however, Flower 2000).
  804. Find this resource:
  805. Tarn, William Woodthorpe. 1948. Alexander the Great. Vol. 2. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  806. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  807. Inspired by earlier German scholarship that ascribed to Alexander an ambition to mix Greeks and barbarians in his realm, Tarn forcefully maintains (pp. 243–286), but with little evidence, that Alexander dreamt of creating a world in which all races would live in harmony and equality under his rule (see, however, Badian 1958 and Brunt 1965).
  808. Find this resource:
  809. The Gordian Knot
  810.  
  811. The story of Alexander cutting the Gordian knot in 333 is one of the more famous episodes of his career. Scholars have discussed the historiocity and meaning of the event as well as the prophecy associated with the knot that promised the rule of Asia or the inhabited world to the one who would untie it. The incident, then, is relevant to Alexander’s ambitions at this early stage of his campaign. Munn 2009 is very useful for the scholarly interpretations of the episode. Tarn’s 1948 treatment of the subject tells chiefly on Tarn’s moral code, while Fredricksmeyer 1961 tried to set the incident in an early Macedonian context.
  812.  
  813. Fredricksmeyer, Ernst. 1961. Alexander, Midas, and the oracle at Gordium. Classical Philology 56:160–168.
  814. DOI: 10.1086/364593Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  815. The scholar argues that Midas, the king who tied the knot, was said to have led his people from Macedonia to Asia. By cutting the knot Alexander affirmed his rule in a tradition that had Macedonian origins and legacy (see, however, Munn 2009).
  816. Find this resource:
  817. Munn, Mark. 2009. Alexander, the Gordian knot, and the kingship of Midas. In Macedonian legacies: Studies in ancient Macedonian history and culture in honor of Eugene N. Borza. Edited by Timothy Howe and Jeanne Reames, 107–143.Claremont, CA; Regina.
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  819. This expansive essay examines the legend of Midas and the oracle associated with his cart in both Asia and Europe. Although the scholar disputes Fredricksmeyer’s 1961 thesis, his conclusion that Alexander aimed to attain a royal, pre-Persian legitimacy, symbols of success, and dominion over Asia is not that far away from it.
  820. Find this resource:
  821. Tarn, William Woodthorpe. 1948. Alexander the Great. Vol. 2. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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  823. The author accepts as historic the untying of the knot (pp. 262–265), but refuses to acknowledge Alexander’s cutting it with a sword because it would be cheating. Scholars were quick to protest that Alexander should not be judged by Victorian rules of fair play.
  824. Find this resource:
  825. Alexander’s Army and Generalship
  826.  
  827. Engels, Donald W. 1976. Alexander the Great and the logistics of the Macedonian army. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
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  829. A detailed and original study of provisions, distances, and other logistical challenges that, according to the author, Alexander met with great success.
  830. Find this resource:
  831. Fuller, John Frederick Charles. 1960. The generalship of Alexander the Great. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers Univ. Press.
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  833. The book was written by a military historian and strategist of modern warfare whose admiration for Alexander and full trust in Arrian interfered with the analysis. Yet it is still valuable for any military study of the campaign.
  834. Find this resource:
  835. Heckel, Waldemar, and Ryan Jones. 2006. Macedonian warrior: Alexander’s elite infantryman. Oxford: Osprey.
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  837. Along with Sekunda and Wary 2004, this is a brief, well-illustrated introduction to Alexander’s forces and operations. Heckel, however, does not discuss Alexander’s cavalry.
  838. Find this resource:
  839. Heckel, Waldemar. 2008. The conquests of Alexander the Great. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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  841. The emphasis of this monograph is on the military and selected political aspects of Alexander’s campaign. The discussion is balanced, and well supplements (and in some points should replace) Fuller 1960.
  842. Find this resource:
  843. Lonsdale, David J. 2004. Alexander the Great, killer of men: History’s greatest conqueror and the Macedonian art of war. New York: Carroll & Graf.
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  845. The author examines Alexander’s generalship in light of modern strategic theories and judges it favorably until the later part of the campaign, when his leadership deteriorated. The analysis, however, fails to discuss significant aspects of the war and the conclusions are unsurprising.
  846. Find this resource:
  847. Markle, M. M. 1982. Macedonian arms and tactics under Alexander the Great. In Macedonia and Greece in late Classical and early Hellenistic times. Edited by Beryl Barr-Sharrar and Eugene N. Borza, 87–111. Studies in the History of Art 10. Washington, DC: National Gallery of Art.
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  849. An authoritative study especially of Macedonian armor, although the author’s description of the Macedonian pike (sarrissa) has been disputed.
  850. Find this resource:
  851. Milns, Robert D. 1976. The army of Alexander the Great. In Alexandre le Grand: Image et réalité. Edited by Ernst Badian, 87–136. Vandœuvres & Geneva: Fondation Hardt.
  852. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  853. A detailed and useful account of the organization of Alexander’s army and how it evolved.
  854. Find this resource:
  855. Ruffin, J. F. 1992. The efficacy of medicine during the campaigns of Alexander the Great. Military Medicine 157.9:467–475.
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  857. The author surveys the state of Greek medicine in Alexander’s time and examines the meager evidence on medical treatment of patients in his army. The author notes the evident progress of such treatment since Homer’s time and argues that the wounded had a better chance of survival than the sick.
  858. Find this resource:
  859. Sekunda, Nick, and John Wary. 2004. Alexander the Great: His armies and campaigns 334–323 BC. Oxford: Osprey.
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  861. Along with Heckel 2006, this is a brief, well-illustrated introduction to Alexander’s forces and operations. These slim books appeal to nonspecialist readers but are written with expertise.
  862. Find this resource:
  863. Alexander took to Asia a Macedonian army that was largely the creation of his father, Philip II, as well as Greek and other troops. He changed the composition and the organization of his forces in the course of the campaign. Although his record of military successes was not perfect, Alexander’s generalship formed the basis for his lasting reputation. Markle 1982 provides a valuable description of Macedonian weapons and tactics, which should be updated, however, in light of Sekunda and Wary 2004 and Heckel and Jones 2006. Fuller 1960 is arguably the most cited book on Alexander’s generalship, but his observations call at times for revision, as shown by Heckel 2008 and evenLonsdale 2004. Milns 1976 traces the development of Alexander’s army, and Engels 1976 is an invaluable study of its logistics and the realities of the march. Ruffin 1992 deals with a neglected aspect of the campaign that involves the medical treatment of the troops. In addition to above works, Bosworth 1988 (cited under General Overviews and Monographs) provides an authoritative discussion of Alexander’s army. See also The Major Battles and Alexander in Central Asia and India for Alexander’s confronting regular and irregular forces.
  864.  
  865. The Units of Alexander’s Army
  866.  
  867. The following works supplement and update the studies of Alexander’s army mentioned under Alexander’s Army and Generalship. Rzepka 2008 is useful for the internal organization of both Alexander’s cavalry and infantry, and Erskine 1989 focuses on Alexander’s early infantry. Although older, Brunt 1963 is preferable (with some modifications) to Hammond 1998 on Alexander’s cavalry. See also Heckel’s works under Bibliographies and Catalogues for the individual careers of many of Alexander’s generals and troops. Heckel 1992 under Bibliographies and Dictionaries, pp. 244–258, has an informed discussion of the hypaspists, an elite infantry unit, which Alexander used for special missions or when the fighting was tough.
  868.  
  869. Brunt, Peter A. 1963. Alexander’s Macedonian cavalry. Journal of Hellenic Studies 83:27–46.
  870. DOI: 10.2307/628452Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  871. Although some of the author’s conclusions have been challenged, especially his late dating of Alexander’s integration of Iranians into the force, this is still an important study of Alexander’s cavalry.
  872. Find this resource:
  873. Erskine, Andrew. 1989. The PEZHETAIROI of Philip II and Alexander III. Historia 38:385–394.
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  875. The author examines the military and political history of the pezhetairoi infantry unit from Philip’s to Alexander’s early reign, claiming that Alexander transferred their elite status and functions to the hypaspists.
  876. Find this resource:
  877. Hammond, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière. 1998. Cavalry recruited in Macedonia down to 322 B.C. Historia 47.4:404–425.
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  879. The author discusses the recruitment, organization, and use of cavalry before Alexander and then how Alexander transformed this force.
  880. Find this resource:
  881. Rzepka, Jacek. 2008. The units of Alexander’s army and the district divisions of late Argead Macedonia. Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 48.1:39–56.
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  883. The study analyzes in detail the different cavalry and infantry units in Alexander’s army, their composition, organization, and the possible recruiting methods used by the kings.
  884. Find this resource:
  885. The Major Battles
  886.  
  887. Most of the works cited under General Overviews and Monographs and Alexander’s Army and Generalship also discuss his big set-piece battles. Harl 1997 looks at Alexander’s first great battle against local Persian generals, which took place on the river Granicus in Asia Minor. Both Devine 1985 and Hammond 1992 deal (at times, uninspiringly) with Alexander’s second major battle against Darius III in Issus in Syria (333). Kastinger 2005 is preferable to Marsden 1964 for Alexander’s next battle against Darius in Gaugamela (or Arbela) in Mesopotamia (331). Alexander fought his last great battle on the Hydaspes River in India against the ruler Porus (326). The conflict is analyzed by Devine 1987 and vividly described by Holt 2003.
  888.  
  889. Devine, Albert M. 1985. The strategies of Alexander the Great and Darius III in the Issus campaign (333 B.C.); and grand tactics at the battle of Issus. Ancient World 12:25–38, 39–59.
  890. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  891. The article examines the preliminaries of the battle, which gave advantage to Darius, and the battle plans of the opposing kings.
  892. Find this resource:
  893. Devine, Albert M. 1987. The battle of the Hydaspes: A tactical and source-critical study. Ancient World 16:91–113.
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  895. An analysis of the battle on the Indian river from its preliminaries and topographical setting to its conclusion.
  896. Find this resource:
  897. Hammond, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière. 1992. Alexander’s charge at the battle of Issus. Historia 41:395–409.
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  899. The article relies primarily on Arrian and argues that Alexander’s plan of attack with the cavalry at Issus was an afterthought.
  900. Find this resource:
  901. Harl, Kenneth W. 1997. Alexander’s cavalry at the Granicus. In Polis and polemos: Essay on politics, war and history in ancient Greece in honor of Donald Kagan. Edited by Charles Hamilton and Peter Krentz, 303–326.Claremont, CA: Regina.
  902. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  903. The author reexamines the sources on the battle and defends the ancient account of fighting at the riverbed.
  904. Find this resource:
  905. Holt, Frank Lee. 2003. Alexander the Great and the mystery of the elephant medallions. Berkeley, CA: Univ. of California Press.
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  907. Chapters 3, 4, and 7 are especially relevant to the battle on the Hydaspes and present a lucid account, which the author links to the Porus medallions.
  908. Find this resource:
  909. Kanstinger, Bertram. 2005. Alexanders Asienfeldzug bis zum Schlacht am Granikos. Marburg: Tectum Verlag.
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  911. A detailed and well-organized analysis of the opposing forces at Granicus, their movements, and the results.
  912. Find this resource:
  913. Marsden, Eric William. 1964. The campaign of Gaugamela. Liverpool: Liverpool Univ. Press.
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  915. A discussion of Alexander’s campaign through the battle of Gaugamela that is marred by speculations and excessive confidence in the credibility of the “mercenary source,” whose historicity is in doubt.
  916. Find this resource:
  917. The Naval Campaign and the Siege of Tyre
  918.  
  919. The Persians responded to Alexander’s land offensive by conducting a naval campaign in the Aegean. The city of Tyre, which provided many ships to the Persian fleet, refused to surrender to Alexander, and he captured it after a hard-fought, seven-month siege. Bloedow 1998, Hauben 1976, Murray 2008, and Romane 1987 all discuss these military challenges.
  920.  
  921. Bloedow, Edmund F. 1998. The siege of Tyre in 332 BC: Alexander at the crossroads in his career. La Parola del Passato 301:255–293.
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  923. The article discusses the strategic significance of Alexander’s siege of Tyre. The description of the fighting over the city should be supplemented by the works cited in the article.
  924. Find this resource:
  925. Hauben, Hans. 1976. The expansion of Macedonian sea-power under Alexander the Great. Ancient Society 7:79–105.
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  927. The paper argues that Alexander’s strategy was primarily land-oriented until 326, when he used the fleet to expand his empire.
  928. Find this resource:
  929. Murray, William M. 2008. The development of naval siege unit under Philip II and Alexander III. In Macedonian legacies: Studies in ancient Macedonian history and culture in honor of Eugene N. Borza. Edited by Timothy Howe and Jeanne Reames, 31–56. Claremont, CA: Regina.
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  931. After discussing Phillip’s naval warfare and siege, that author shows how Alexander effectively used but also improved upon them in ways that were imitated by later commanders.
  932. Find this resource:
  933. Romane, Julian Patrick. 1987. Alexander’s siege of Tyre. Ancient World 16:79–90.
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  935. The article discusses Alexander’s versatile use of different weapons and tactics against the besieged city.
  936. Find this resource:
  937. The Administration of the Empire
  938.  
  939. Many agree that Alexander’s field of excellence was war rather than administration, probably because his interest in continuing conquest was much greater. The king did not substantially change the governmental system that he inherited from the Achaemenid empire, on which see Badian 1965, Briant 2009, Collins 2001, Klinkott 2000, and Higgins 1980. Back home, he left the veteran marshal Antipater as a regent whose duties included sending reinforcements to Asia. Scholars such as Bosworth 1986 and Billows 1995 are divided on how much Alexander’s demand for troops depleted Macedonian manpower. For other works dealing with his administration see Berve 1926, vol. 1 (cited under Bibliographies and Dictionaries) and Badian 1961 (cited under The Harpalus Affair and the Exiles Decree).
  940.  
  941. Badian, Ernst. 1965. The administration of the empire. Greece & Rome 12:166–182.
  942. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  943. The author provides a useful review of Alexander’s administrative and financial measures and policies.
  944. Find this resource:
  945. Baynham, Elizabeth J. 1994. Antipater: Manager of kings. In Ventures into Greek history. Edited by Ian Worthington, 331–356. Second Australian Symposium on Ancient Macedonian Studies held at the University of Melbourne in July 1991, dedicated to Professor Nicholas Hammond. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
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  947. Although the essay goes beyond Alexander’s reign, much of it deals with Antipater’ s means of controlling Macedonia and Greece during Alexander’s expedition, his feuds with Alexander’s mother and sister, and how he managed his relationship with the king.
  948. Find this resource:
  949. Billows, Richard A. 1995. Kings and colonists: Aspects of Macedonian imperialism. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  950. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  951. The author on pages 184–205 disputes Bosworth’s 1986 thesis that Alexander caused a decline in Macedonian manpower. Using largely the same evidence, Billows concludes that there were enough Macedonians to go around.
  952. Find this resource:
  953. Bosworth, Albert Brian. 1986. Alexander the Great and the decline of Macedon. Journal of Hellenic Studies 106:1–12.
  954. DOI: 10.2307/629639Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  955. The author argues that Alexander’s great demand for Macedonian troops during the campaign drained Macedonian manpower in a way that ill affected the state’s military fortune long after his death (but see Billows 1995).
  956. Find this resource:
  957. Briant, Pierre. 2009. In Alexander the Great: A new history. Alexander and the Persian empire, between “decline” and “renovation.” Edited by Waldemar Heckel and Lawrence Tritle, 171–189. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
  958. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  959. A summary of the author’s earlier published thesis (which has met some criticism) that Alexander became in fact the last Achaemenid king, as shown, inter alia, by his adopting their administration.
  960. Find this resource:
  961. Collins, Andrew W. 2001. The office of chiliarch under Alexander and the Successors. Phoenix 55.3–4: 259–283.
  962. DOI: 10.2307/1089121Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  963. In contrast to the view that Alexander borrowed from the Persian administration an office that resembled a grand vizier, the author looks at the chiliarch’s functions before, during, and after Alexander and concludes that it had limited administrative powers and should be distinguished from the commander of the cavalry.
  964. Find this resource:
  965. Higgins W. E. 1980. Aspects of Alexander’s imperial administration: Some modern methods and views reviewed. Athenaeum, 2d ser. 58:129–152.
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  967. The scholar argues again interpreting Alexander’s administrative measures in terms of power politics and persecution of generals and suggests that it reflected a sound policy required by the circumstances.
  968. Find this resource:
  969. Klinkott, Hilmar. 2000. Die Satrapienregister der Alexander- und Diadochenzeit. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner.
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  971. The study reconstructs the list of satraps who served under Alexander and his successors and their careers, based on Greek and Babylonian sources.
  972. Find this resource:
  973. Economy and Finance
  974.  
  975. Arguably, the economic aspect of Alexander’s regime is one of the least-developed topics in his historiography, probably because the ancient sources had limited interest in the subject. The most useful works on the economy and finance of the empire are Le Rider 2007 (cited under Numismatic Evidence) and Millette 2010. Engels 1976 (cited under Alexander’s Army and Generalship) deals with the logistic aspect of the campaign, and Milns 1987 with its budget. Simpson 1957 and Bing 1973 discuss Cyinda in Asia Minor, which was one of Alexander’s royal treasuries. Badian 1961 (cited under The Harpalus Affair and the Exile Decree) discusses the career of Alexander’s chief treasurer, Harpalus, while Austin 1993 (cited under Alexander’s Aims and Plans) argues that economic gains motivated the invaders.
  976.  
  977. Bing, J. D. 1973. A further note on Cyinda/Kundi. Historia 22:346–350.
  978. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  979. The article develops Simpson’s examination of the royal treasury of Cyinda in Asia Minor (Simpson 1957) by presenting its history since the Assyrian Empire.
  980. Find this resource:
  981. Milns, R. D. 1987. Army pay and the military budget of Alexander the Great. In Zu Alexander d. Gr.: Festschrift G. Wirth zum 60. Geburtstag am 9.12.86. Edited by Wolfgang Will and Johannes Heinrichs, 233–256. Amsterdam: Adolf M. Hakkert.
  982. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  983. Milns’s article is one of the very few studies of the financial cost of Alexander’s campaign and of the maintenance of the army. The investigation provides useful information on Alexander’s sources of revenues, the different scales of wages in his army, and his military and nonmilitary expenses.
  984. Find this resource:
  985. Millette, Paul. 2010. The political economy of Macedonia. In Blackwell’s companion to ancient Macedonia. Edited by Joseph Roisman and Ian Worthington, 427–504. Oxford: Blackwell.
  986. DOI: 10.1002/9781444327519Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  987. Although the scope of the article goes beyond Alexander, much of the evidence and hence the discussion, revolves around the resources and revenues of Macedonia during his time and the finances of his campaign.
  988. Find this resource:
  989. Simpson, R. H. 1957. A note on Cyinda. Historia 6:503–504.
  990. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  991. A brief discussion of the location and the amount of money in the royal treasury of Cyinda that served Alexander and his successors.
  992. Find this resource:
  993. Foundation of Cities
  994.  
  995. Most scholars regard the ancient claim that Alexander founded more than seventy cities as impossible and try to distinguish his historical Alexandrias from the rest of them. Alexander’s most famous and successful foundation was Alexandria in Egypt, for which see Fraser 1972 along with Green’s 1996 revisions. The king’s motives for founding cities ranged from military and logistic considerations to the wish to replace the Achaemenid Empire with a Macedonian one (so Fraser 1996). Only a few scholars hold to the once prevalent belief that he founded cities in order to spread Hellenic culture in Asia. Fraser 1996 is the most informative discussion of Alexander’s foundations and surpasses Tarn 1948. Lerner 2003–2004 focuses on a settlement in Afghanistan which is known only from its material remains. See also Cohen’s works under the heading Royal Colonization in the article Greek History: Hellenistic, which catalogue settlements that are attributed to Alexander and his veterans.
  996.  
  997. Fraser, Peter Marshall. 1996. Cities of Alexander the Great. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
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  999. The book is essential to any investigation of Alexander’s foundations, but it is also impaired by an overly skeptical reading of the evidence, which resulted in the author’s limiting the number of Alexander’s historic foundations to fewer than ten.
  1000. Find this resource:
  1001. Fraser, Peter Marshall. 1972. Ptolemaic Alexandria. 3 vols. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
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  1003. A monumental work that is necessary reading for any study of Alexandria in Egypt. The first chapter of the first volume deals with the city’s topography and the traditions about its foundation.
  1004. Find this resource:
  1005. Green, Peter. 1996. Alexander’s Alexandria. In Alexandria and Alexandrianism: Papers delivered at a symposium organized by the J. Paul Getty Museum and the Getty Center for the History of Art and the Humanities and held at the Museum, April 22–25, 1993. Edited by John Walsh and T. F. Reese, 3–25. Malibu, CA: J. Paul Getty Museum.
  1006. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1007. The scholar discusses Alexander’s motives for founding Alexandria in Egypt and the traditions about its foundation, and offers sensible criticism of earlier interpretations of Alexander’s motives and plans for the city. Reprinted in Peter Green, From Ikaria to the stars: Classical mythification, ancient and modern (Austin: Univ. of Texas Press, 2004), pp. 172–196.
  1008. Find this resource:
  1009. Lerner, Jeffery D. 2003–2004. Correcting the early history of Ay Kanom. Archäologische Mitteilungen aus Iran und Turan 35–36:373–410.
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  1011. Ay Kanom (or Ai Khanum) on the river Oxus in Afghanistan is an excavated site of a Hellenic settlement that prospered in the Hellenistic age, and whose foundation has been attributed to Alexander. The author examines previous views about the settlement’s origins and early history and offers some corrections.
  1012. Find this resource:
  1013. Tarn, William Woodthorpe. 1948. Alexander the Great. Vol. 2. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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  1015. Although somewhat dated, Tarn’s discussion of Alexander’s foundations (pp. 232–259) is still useful when it is not handicapped by his one-sided view of the sources.
  1016. Find this resource:
  1017. Alexander’s Court
  1018.  
  1019. The personal nature of the Macedonian and the Persian royalty accounted for the significant role that Alexander’s court played in the campaign. The court provided the king with a major venue for incorporating Iranian elements into his regalia. It was a site for interactions with his elite, people and subjects, and it enhanced his status as a ruler in general (see under Alexander and the Iranians). The court also allowed persons whose authority was not military-based to have a say, usually by influencing the king. Finally, Alexander’s court offers rich material for scholars who are interested in the political, cultural, and anthropological aspects of the campaign. Especially useful for Alexander’s court are Spawforth 2007, Völcker-Janssen 1993, and Weber 2009. Borza 1981 and Brunschwig 1992 deal with Greek intellectuals who sat at the king’s table and tried to advise him as well as young Macedonians of the elite. Vössing 2004 expands Borza’s 1983 investigation of the royal banquet, and see also Spawforth 2007. For women in Alexander’s family and court, see Carney under The Macedonian Background, and for the royal pages, or boys, see Carney under The Macedonian Background.
  1020.  
  1021. Borza, Eugene N. 1981. Anaxarchus and Callisthenes: Intrigue at Alexander’s court. In Ancient Macedonian studies in honor of Charles F. Edson. Edited by H. J. Dell, 73–86. Thessaloniki: Institute for Balkan Studies.
  1022. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1023. The study deals with the rivalry in Alexander’s court among Greek intellectuals, and in particular between Anaxarchus and Callisthenes, over who would be Alexander’s advisor. It shows how this rivalry affected Callisthenes’s fate. Reprinted in Makedonika: Essays by Eugene N. Borza, edited by Carol G. Thomas (Claremont, CA: Regina, 1995), pp. 173–188.
  1024. Find this resource:
  1025. Borza, Eugene N. 1983. The symposium at Alexander’s court. Ancient Macedonia/ Archaia Makedonia 3:45–55.
  1026. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1027. The paper deals with the social, political and cultural functions of Alexander’s royal banquets in Macedonia and Asia. Reprinted in Makedonika: Essays by Eugene N. Borza, edited by Carol G. Thomas (Claremont, CA: Regina, 1995), pp. 159–172. For newer and additional perspectives, see Vössing 2004 and Carney 2007 under The Macedonian Background.
  1028. Find this resource:
  1029. Brunschwig, Jacques. 1992. The Anaxarchus case: An essay on survival. Proceedings of the British Academy 82:59–88.
  1030. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1031. The essay discusses the evidence for Anaxarchus’s career and philosophy and argues that his ancient depiction as Alexander’s flatterer does injustice to his subversive attitude toward the king’s policy.
  1032. Find this resource:
  1033. Spawforth, Antony J. S. 2007. The court of Alexander the Great between Europe and Asia. In Court and court society in ancient monarchies. Edited by Antony J. S. Spawforth, 82–120. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1034. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511482939.004Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1035. The study offers a sociocultural analysis of Alexander’s imperial court that highlights its itinerant character, with special attention given to royal banquets and audiences.
  1036. Find this resource:
  1037. Völcker-Janssen, Wilhelm. 1993. Kunst und Gesellschaft an den Höfen Alexanders d. Gr. und seiner Nachfolger. Munich: Tuduv.
  1038. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1039. A well-thought-out investigation of the sociology of the court of Alexander and some of his successors that unfortunately has gone under the radar of many scholars.
  1040. Find this resource:
  1041. Vössing, Konrand. 2004. Mensa regia: Das Bankett beim hellenistischen König und beim römischen Kaiser. BzA 193. Munich and Leipzig: K. G. Saur.
  1042. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1043. Only the second chapter of this book discusses Alexander at banquet, but the detailed and fair presentation makes it important reading. The author shows how the king continued the Macedonian tradition of relatively unadorned hospitality but also mixed it with the Persian hierarchical, luxurious, and abundant style, creating thus a model for Hellenistic kings.
  1044. Find this resource:
  1045. Weber, Gregor. 2009. The court of Alexander the Great as social system. In Alexander the Great: A new history. Edited by Waldemar Heckel and Lawrence Tritle, 83–98. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
  1046. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1047. A well-researched paper that focuses on the changing nature of Alexander’s court. The author claims that, in addition to adopting Iranian practices, the king also borrowed the Iranian perception of the court as a place from which power emanated.
  1048. Find this resource:
  1049. Non-Military Aspects of Alexander’s Campaign
  1050.  
  1051. Until not too long ago, historians’ interest in Alexander tended to focus on the military and political aspects of his career. Recently, increasing attention has been given to the cultural environment that influenced the conduct of the king and his men. Adams 2009, Carney 2002, Ogden 2009, and Roisman 2003 all deal with selected aspects of this culture.
  1052.  
  1053. Adams, W. Lindsay. 2009. Sport and ethnicity in ancient Macedonia. In Macedonian legacies: Studies in ancient Macedonian history and culture in honor of Eugene N. Borza. Edited by Timothy Howe and Jeanne Reames, 57–78. Claremont, CA: Regina.
  1054. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1055. The author discusses how the Macedonian kings, and Alexander in particular, made political use of athletic games. Adams argues that the kings intended thus to broadcast their and their people’s Greek identity in Europe and Asia.
  1056. Find this resource:
  1057. Carney, Elizabeth Donnely. 2002. Hunting and the Macedonian elite: Sharing the rivalry of the chase (Arr. 4.13.1). In The Hellenistic world: New perspectives. Edited by Daniel Ogden, 59–80. London: Duckworth.
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  1059. This and Palagia 2000 (cited under The Macedonian Background) both discuss the competitive nature of the royal hunts and the rivalry over their commemorations among Alexander’s followers.
  1060. Find this resource:
  1061. Ogden, Daniel. 2009. Alexander’s sex life. In Alexander the Great: A new history. Edited by Waldemar Heckel and Lawrence Tritle, 203–217. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
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  1063. After examining the meager evidence on Alexander’s sexuality, the author concludes that we can learn from the sources less on the king’s sexual experiences and preferences and more on how these sources viewed the king and on his depiction in the Alexander tradition.
  1064. Find this resource:
  1065. Roisman, Joseph. 2003. Honor in Alexander’s camp. In Brill’s companion to Alexander the Great. Edited by Joseph Roisman, 279–321.Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
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  1067. The article discusses the different types of honor that were accorded to the king and his followers. It examines Alexander’s control and distribution of honor in camp and cases where honor led to clashes between him and individual Macedonians and Greeks.
  1068. Find this resource:
  1069. Alexander and the Macedonian Elite and Troops
  1070.  
  1071. Alexander’s relationships with the Macedonians in his army cannot be separated from his generalship or his policy toward the conquered, yet his interactions with the Macedonians will be dealt with here separately for convenience. A number of crises brought the king’s relations with the Macedonians and their politics into sharp focus. These were the elimination of the senior generals Philotas and his father Parmenio on charges of conspiracy against the king (330); Alexander’s drunken killing of the general Cleitus (328); the royal pages’ (or boys’) conspiracy against Alexander (327); and the army’s mutinies on the river Hyphasis (Beas) in 326 and at Opis, Mesopotamia, in 324. While Badian 2000 and Müller 2003 regard the relationships between the king and his generals as based on mutual fear, Rubinsohn 1977 and Heckel 2003 call attention to internal rivalries among the elite. Tritle 2003 and Alonso 2007 provide, respectively, psychological and cultural explanations of Alexander’s killing of Cleitus and its aftermath. For Hermolaus and the royal pages’ conspiracy, see also Roisman 2003 under Non-Military Aspects of Alexander’s Campaign and Carney under The Macedonian Background. Carney 1996 examines the conduct Alexander’s rebellious troops and how he handled them. For Alexander and the Macedonian army assembly, see studies under The Macedonian Background. For more specific studies of the army’s mutinies see Alexander in Central Asia and India and The Opis Mutiny.
  1072.  
  1073. Alonso, Victor. 2007. Alexander, Cleitus and Lanice: Upbringing and maintenance. In Alexander’s empire: Formulation to decay. Edited by Waldemar Heckel, Lawrence Tritle and Pat Wheatley, 109–124. Claremont, CA: Regina.
  1074. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1075. The author explains Alexander’s remorse and conduct following his killing of Cleitus as related to his heroic self-perception and special relationship with Lanice, his nurse and Cleitus’s sister.
  1076. Find this resource:
  1077. Badian, Ernst. 2000. Conspiracies. In Alexander the Great in fact and fiction. Edited by Albert Brian Bosworth and Elizabeth Baynham, 37–62. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  1078. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198152873.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1079. The scholar reasserts, supplements, and, less frequently, modifies his earlier published view that Alexander used plots against his life, real or manufactured, in order to get rid of men whom he believed could weaken his rule (but see Heckel 2003).
  1080. Find this resource:
  1081. Carney, Elizabeth Donnely. 1996. Macedonians and mutiny: Discipline and indiscipline in the Macedonian army. Classical Philology 91:19–44.
  1082. DOI: 10.1086/367490Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1083. The author offers an analysis of the troops’ displays of indiscipline especially in India, where, according to the author, the army did not mutiny. At Opis, however, the Macedonians protested against the king’s increased reliance on the Iranians.
  1084. Find this resource:
  1085. Heckel, Waldemar. 2003. King and ‘companions’: Observations on the nature of power in the reign of Alexander. In Brill’s companion to Alexander the Great. Edited by Joseph Roisman, 197–225. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  1086. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1087. The author examines Alexander’s relationships with different generals and coalitions of commanders. He argues against viewing Alexander as a king who plotted destruction on those he deemed, rightly or wrongly, as a threat to him (see, however, Badian 2000).
  1088. Find this resource:
  1089. Müller, Sabine. 2003. Massnahmen der Herrschaftssicherung gegenüber der makedonischen Opposition bei Alexander dem Grossen. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang.
  1090. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1091. The book is a published dissertation that explains much of Alexander’s policy toward the Macedonian elite as rooted in his fear of Macedonian nobles. The author also discusses the harsh measures he took to protect himself.
  1092. Find this resource:
  1093. Rubinsohn, Wolfgang Zeev. 1977. The ‘Philotas affair.’ Ancient Macedonia/ Archaia Makedonia 2:409–420.
  1094. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1095. In contrast to the view (e.g., in Badian 2000) that Alexander plotted the elimination of Philotas and Parmenion, Rubinsohn argues that they were plotted against by opportunistic Macedonian generals who wanted to replace them in power (cf. Heckel 2003).
  1096. Find this resource:
  1097. Tritle, Lawrence A. 2003. Alexander and the killing of Cleitus the Black. In Crossroads of history: The age of Alexander. Edited by Waldemar Heckel and Lawrence Tritle, 127–146. Claremont, CA: Regina.
  1098. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1099. According to the sources, Alexander’s killed Cleitus in a drunken feud that exposed tensions between him and the Macedonian elite. The author argues that the crisis was occasioned by battle fatigue and post-traumatic responses to the continuous fighting.
  1100. Find this resource:
  1101. Alexander and the Iranians
  1102.  
  1103. Alexander met the Iranians and their king, Darius III, first on the battlefield and then as their master. His treatment of them ranged from burning and looting the city of Persepolis (see under The Fire at Persepolis) to his integration of them into the army and government. He adopted Iranian practices and symbols of power, and in 324 in Susa he married Persian princesses and his officers married Persian noblewomen (see under The Mass Marriages in Susa). Alexander’s “going Asian” provoked resentment among the conquering Macedonians and damned him in some ancients’ eyes as a man who fell victim to foreign corrupting influence. Bosworth 1980 and Briant 2003 are especially useful studies of the topic. Badian 1985 is an intelligent survey of the Asian campaign, while Hamilton 1987 and Brosius 2003 focus on the different ways the king treated the Iranians. Badian 2000 and Briant 2003 discuss the last Achaemenid king, Darius III, whose depiction in the sources is often biased. Olbrycht 2008 expands on, and at times disagrees with, Bosworth 1980 about Alexander’s integration of Iranians into the army. See also Shahbazi 2003 (under Alexander’s Posthumous Image) for an attempt to reconstruct Iranian views of the conquest from later Iranian texts.
  1104.  
  1105. Badian, Ernst. 1985. Alexander in Iran. In The Cambridge history of Iran, vol. 2. Edited by Ilya L. Gershevitch, 420–501. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1106. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1107. This is the closest to a monograph on Alexander that a scholar who dominated Alexander studies through much of the second half of the last century has written. The focus is on the Asian campaign, and the description is both general and nuanced.
  1108. Find this resource:
  1109. Badian, Ernst. 2000. Darius III. Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 100:241–268.
  1110. DOI: 10.2307/3185218Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1111. A careful reading of the sources, including on Darius’s early career, suggests that his undignified portrait, especially in Arrian, is unwarranted. The author discusses the rationale of Darius’s decisions during the campaign.
  1112. Find this resource:
  1113. Bosworth, Albert Brian. 1980. Alexander and the Iranians. Journal of Hellenic Studies 100:1–21.
  1114. DOI: 10.2307/630729Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1115. This is one of the author’s most influential studies of Alexander history. It argues that Alexander’s integration of Iranians into his realm had nothing to do with a cosmopolitan vision, but was pragmatic in nature and actually preserved the military and social hierarchy in camp that privileged the Macedonians. (See, however, Olbrycht 2008, arguing for an earlier and more extensive use of the Iranians.)
  1116. Find this resource:
  1117. Briant, Pierre. 2003. Darius dans l’ombre d’Alexandre. Paris: Fayard.
  1118. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1119. The book offers a critical reading of the figure of Darius III in the ancient sources, Egyptian and Persian included, and in the post-Alexander literature up to the modern era. It includes an analysis of Darius’s political and military decisions in response to Alexander’s invasion.
  1120. Find this resource:
  1121. Brosius, Maria. 2003. Alexander and the Persians. In Brill’s companion to Alexander the Great. Edited by Joseph Roisman, 169–196. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
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  1123. The author presents a thematic study of Alexander’s treatment of the Iranians. She examines his ambivalent attitudes toward them, provides an Achaemenid perspective of his kingship, and describes Alexander’s dealings with Persian cities and satraps.
  1124. Find this resource:
  1125. Hamilton, James Robertson 1987. Alexander’s Iranian Policy. In Zu Alexander d. Gr.: Festschrift G. Wirth zum 60. Geburtstag am 9.12.86. Edited by Wolfgang Will and Johannes Heinrichs, vol. 1, 467–486. Amsterdam: Adolf M. Hakkert.
  1126. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1127. The author offers a useful, although not particularly novel, account of Alexander’s policy toward the Iranians up to his death.
  1128. Find this resource:
  1129. Olbrycht, Marek Jan. 2008. Curtius Rufus, the Macedonian mutiny at Opis and Alexander’s Iranian policy in 324 BC. In The children of Herodotus: Greek and Roman historiography and related genres. Edited by Jakob Pigón, 231–252. Newcastle upon Tyne, UK: Cambridge Scholars.
  1130. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1131. The author defends Curtius Rufus’s version of the Opis mutiny against its critics. But he also discusses the history of Alexander’s integration of Iranians into his army, which the author predates to the Central Asia campaign and which he deems as substantial. He goes on to describe the reactions of the Macedonian troops to Alexander’s policy.
  1132. Find this resource:
  1133. The Fire at Persepolis
  1134.  
  1135. In spring 330 Alexander set palaces on fire in the Persian “spiritual” capital of Persepolis. The sources give conflicting accounts of who was responsible for the act and whether it was deliberate or semi-spontaneous, with some making the courtesan Thais the initiator. Scholars, accordingly, disagree on which version to adopt and on Alexander’s purpose. Bloedow 1995 largely argues against premeditation, and Morrison 2001 suggests that it was due to combat psychology. Yet Wirth 1993 thinks that Alexander wanted to send a message to Greece, Nawotka 2003 to Iran, and Borza 1972 to both. Badian 1994 (cited under Alexander in Europe (338–336)) thinks that Alexander signaled thus to Greece during the Agis revolt that he was loyal to the Greek cause, while Flower 2000 (cited under Alexander’s Aims and Plans) ties the act to the king’s panhellenic mission.
  1136.  
  1137. Bloedow, Edmund F. 1995. That great puzzle in the history of Alexander: Back into ‘the primal pit of historical murk.’ In Rom und der griechische Osten: Festschrift für Hatto H. Schmitt zum 65. Geburtstag. Edited by Charlotte Schubert and Kai Brodersen, 23–41. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner.
  1138. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1139. After examining the conflicting sources on the fire and their different modern interpretations, the author suggests that the action was largely impulsive.
  1140. Find this resource:
  1141. Borza, Eugene N. 1972. Fire from heaven: Alexander at Persepolis. Classical Philology 67:233–245.
  1142. DOI: 10.1086/365895Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1143. The author attempts to place the fire in the context of Alexander’s pursuit of Darius and argues that it both signaled an end to Darius’s rule and that the king avenged Xerxes’s invasion of Greece.
  1144. Find this resource:
  1145. Morrison, Gary. 2001. Alexander, combat psychology, and Persepolis. Antichton 35:30–44.
  1146. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1147. Rather than focusing on Alexander’s possible aims in setting the fire, the author detects in the burning and pillaging the troops’ traumatic reaction to the fighting and even to boredom, with Thais’s initiative triggering the event.
  1148. Find this resource:
  1149. Nawotka, Krzysztof. 2003. Alexander the Great in Persepolis. Acta Antiqua Hungarica 43:67–76.
  1150. DOI: 10.1556/AAnt.43.2003.1-2.7Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1151. While some scholars (e.g., Flower 2000) think that Alexander burned buildings at Persepolis in a panhellenic gesture, this paper may represent the camp that sees it as a declaration to the Iranians that the Achaemenid rule was over.
  1152. Find this resource:
  1153. Wirth, Gerhard. 1993. Der Brand von Persepolis: Folgerungen zur Geschichte Alexanders des Grossen. Amsterdam: Hakkert.
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  1155. The author believes that the message of the fire at Persepolis was directed primarily toward the Greeks, but the book includes much more, especially on how Alexander dealt with the many challenges of becoming the ruler of Asia.
  1156. Find this resource:
  1157. Alexander’s Religion and Divinity
  1158.  
  1159. Alexander’s aspiration to superhuman status came into the foreground following his visit to the oracle of the Egyptian god Ammon in Siwa, Libya, where he heard that Ammon was his divine father. His quest for divine stature resurfaced when he unsuccessfully tried to introduce proskynesis (obeisance) into the court, and once again in his deification in Greece shortly before his death. Fredricksmeyer 2003 provides a good and accessible introduction to this complex topic, and Balsdon 1950’s discussion, although flawed, is still valuable. Habicht 1970, Edmunds 1971, and Badian 1996 situate Alexander’s deification in its Greco-Macedonian context, while Goukowsky 1978–1981 contextualizes it in the Asian campaign. Kuhlmann 1988 joins material and literary evidence for an examination of Alexander’s visit of the oracle of Ammon, and Bosworth 1995 has an illuminating discussion of Alexander’s request for proskynesis. Because Alexander’s divine aspirations affected the politics of the court and his relationships with Macedonians and Iranians, it is advisable to consult works that deal with these topics in the sections on Alexander’s Court, Alexander and the Macedonian Elite and Troops and Alexander and the Iranians.
  1160.  
  1161. Badian, Ernst. 1996. Alexander the Great between two thrones and heaven: Variations on an old theme. In Subject and ruler: The cult of the ruling power in Classical Antiquity: Papers presented at a conference held in the University of Alberta on April 13–15, 1994, to celebrate the 65th anniversary of Duncan Fishwick. Edited by Alastair Small, 11–26. Journal of Roman Archaeology Supplementary Series 17. Ann Arbor, MI: Journal of Roman Archaeology.
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  1163. The author places Alexander’s divine quest against its Macedonian and Asian backgrounds. He traces the evolution of this quest from Philip to the Greeks’ initiative of worshipping the king. He also argues against the view that Alexander formally replaced local kings in Egypt and Babylon.
  1164. Find this resource:
  1165. Balsdon, John Percy Vyvian Dacre. 1950. The “divinity” of Alexander. Historia 1:363–388.
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  1167. Although dated and in part mistaken, especially about Alexander’s allegedly decreeing his own divinity, the work is still valuable both for its lucid presentation of the relevant evidence and for its explanation of Alexander’s introduction of proskynesis as a reaction to Persian expectations.
  1168. Find this resource:
  1169. Bosworth, Albert Brian. 1995. Historical commentary on Arrian, vol. 2. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
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  1171. One of the best analyses of Alexander’s attempt to have Greeks and Macedonians adopt the Persian practice of obeisance (proskynesis), and which they interpreted as sacrilegious, pages 77–90.
  1172. Find this resource:
  1173. Edmunds, Lowell. 1971. The religiosity of Alexander. Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies 12:363–391.
  1174. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1175. The article situates Alexander’s religious beliefs and claims for divine status in the Greco-Macedonian culture that promoted the quest for heroic excellence (aretê) and fame.
  1176. Find this resource:
  1177. Fredricksmeyer, Ernst A. 2003. Alexander’s religion and divinity. In Brill’s companion to Alexander the Great. Edited by Joseph Roisman, 253–278. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  1178. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1179. The author provides a clear and succinct examination of Alexander’s religious beliefs, including the political ramifications of his divine status and the request that he be recognized as a god.
  1180. Find this resource:
  1181. Goukowsky, Paul. 1978–1981. Essai sur les origines du mythe d’Alexandre (336–270 av. J.-C.). 2 vols. Nancy: Université de Nancy II.
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  1183. Large portions of this book discuss Alexander’s posthumous image, but the first volume deals also with Alexander’s deification and his special relationship with Dionysus.
  1184. Find this resource:
  1185. Habicht, Christian. 1970. Gottmenschentum und griechische Städte, 2d ed. Zetemata 14. Munich: Beck.
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  1187. The 1970 edition includes a supplement that updates the first (1956) edition of this groundbreaking book. Habicht clearly shows that ruler cults in Greek cities were not imposed or even initiated by the ruler but originated in local communities that often acknowledged thus his heroic status and benefactions. The discussion goes beyond Alexander but is essential to studies of his deification.
  1188. Find this resource:
  1189. Kuhlmann, K. P. 1988. The oracle of Amun at Siwa and the visit of Alexander the Great. Ancient History 18:65–85.
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  1191. The author discusses the archaeological evidence of the temple of Ammon at Siwa and applies it to the ancient literary accounts about Alexander’s visit, which suggests the unlikelihood that those outside the oracle’s chamber heard what went on inside.
  1192. Find this resource:
  1193. Alexander in Central Asia and India (330/329–326/325)
  1194.  
  1195. Alexander met his toughest military challenge in Bactria and Sogdiana, which he overcame only with great difficulty. In India, his officers and troops opposed crossing the river Hyphasis and thus put an end to the march farther east. Spann 1999 suggests that Alexander outwitted his army to turn away from India (but see Carney 1996 under Alexander and the Macedonian Elite and Troops). Alexander then went down the river Indus in a bloody campaign before turning back to Iran and Mesopotamia. Hahn 2000 collected the literary evidence for the Indian expedition, and Karttunen 1997 is most useful for Greek knowledge of India following the campaign. Holt 1988, Holt 2005, and Bosworth 1996, in spite of their disagreements, provide the most valuable discussions of Alexander’s campaigns in Central Asia and India. Narain 1965 is an accessible but simplified survey of the Indian chapter of the campaign. Brunt 1976–1983, vol. 2, pp. 435–483 (cited under Arrian), discusses issues related to the Indian campaign, including traditions that associate Heracles and Dionysus with India and their relation to Alexander’s history; see also Goukowsky 1978–1981 under Alexander’s Religion and Divinity. Stoneman 1995 describes Alexander’s dealings with local sages, the historicity of which is uncertain. Both Eggermont 1975 and Charvet, et al. in Arrian (Lucius Flavius Arrianus) 2002 discuss the Indian campaign and Alexander’s later march through the Gedrosian desert to Carmania. See also Major Battles for Alexander’s battle with Porus on the Hydaspes. Flower 2000, pp. 117–118 (cited under Alexander’s Aims and Plans) discusses the Macedonians’ massacre of the Branchidae. They were descendents of alleged Greek traitors living in Sogdiana, and Flower explains the act as a propaganda ploy to curry favor with Greeks back home.
  1196.  
  1197. Arrian (Lucius Flavius Arrianus). 2002. Arrien, Le voyage en Inde d’Alexandre le Grand. Translated by Pascal Charvet with commentary by Fabrizia Baldissera and Klaus Karttunen. Paris: NiL.
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  1199. The book offers a reliable commentary on Arrian’s account of Alexander’s Indian campaign, but is less thorough than Bosworth 1995, vol. 2.
  1200. Find this resource:
  1201. Bosworth, Albert Brian. 1996. Alexander and the East: The tragedy of triumph. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
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  1203. The author provides a thematic examination of Alexander’s invasion of Bactria and Sogdiana, the war in the India, and his journey down the Indus and across the Makran (Gedrosia). He emphasizes the murderous nature of Alexander’s war against local opposition.
  1204. Find this resource:
  1205. Eggermont, Pierre Herman Leonard. 1975. Alexander’s campaigns in Sind and Baluchistan and the siege of the Brahmin town of Harmatelia. Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 3. Leuven: Leuven Univ. Press.
  1206. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1207. The book examines in detail Alexander’s route in the East and identifies, at times too confidently, sites mentioned in the sources with their modern names.
  1208. Find this resource:
  1209. Hahn, Johannes. 2000. Alexander in Indien 327–325 v. Chr. Stuttgart: Thorbeke.
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  1211. The author collected, translated, and annotated the ancient accounts of Alexander’s Indian campaign, including the more peaceful encounters with this wondrous land and its people.
  1212. Find this resource:
  1213. Holt, Frank Lee. 1988. Alexander the Great and Bactria: The formation of a Greek frontier in Central Asia. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
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  1215. The scholar provides an informative account of the history of Bactria before and especially during Alexander’s campaign, adopting, when possible, the local perspective, and suggesting Alexander’s strategic view of the region. Reprinted 1995.
  1216. Find this resource:
  1217. Holt, Frank Lee. 2005. Into the land of bones: Alexander the Great in Afghanistan. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
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  1219. If modern historians are children of their own epoch when it comes to interpreting the past, this work is a good illustration of the school. With some revisions and additions to his previous work on Bactria (1988), Holt finds resemblances, sometimes too readily, between Alexander’s enemies in Bactria and Sogdiana and modern, war-torn Afghanistan and argues that military powers should learn from Alexander’s experience there.
  1220. Find this resource:
  1221. Karttunen, Klaus. 1997. India and the Hellenistic world. Helsinki: Finnish Oriental Society.
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  1223. This volume continues Karttunen’s India in early Greek literature (Helsinki: Finnish Oriental Society, 1989) on classical knowledge of India prior to Alexander. The book’s scope spans from Alexander to the early Roman Empire, and especially relevant are the first three chapters that focus on Alexander’s invasion of India and Western knowledge of Indian geography, ethnography, and natural history.
  1224. Find this resource:
  1225. Narain, Abodh K. 1965. Alexander and India. Greece & Rome 12:155–165.
  1226. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1227. The author offers a brief survey of Alexander’s campaign in India and its ephemeral impact on the land.
  1228. Find this resource:
  1229. Spann, Philip O. 1999. Alexander at the Beas: Fox in a lion’s skin. In The eye expanded: Life and the arts in Greco-Roman Antiquity. Edited by Frances B. Titchener and Richard F. Moorton, 62–74. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  1230. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1231. The author contends that Alexander did not really wish to march beyond the river Hyphasis and so maneuvered the army to oppose him. Although Heckel 2008 (cited under Alexander’s Army and Generalship) concurs with this view (pp. 122–125), there is strong ancient evidence in favor of a spontaneous unrest and a disappointed king.
  1232. Find this resource:
  1233. Stoneman, Richard. 1995. Naked philosophers: The Brahmans in the Alexander historians and the Alexander Romance. Journal of Hellenic Studies 115:99–114.
  1234. DOI: 10.2307/631646Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1235. Among the more celebrated episodes of Alexander’s Indian journey was his encounter with Indian philosophers and his learning wisdom from them. The story is told in different accounts, including the Romance, and often has aroused disbelief, but the author regards the information on the Indian teachings as historic.
  1236. Find this resource:
  1237. The Final Years and Death (325–323)
  1238.  
  1239. The last two years of Alexander’s reign were quite eventful, even though his military activity subsided in comparison to the previous years. The key events in these years were: his march from the Indus to Iran through the Gedrosian desert and his sending Nearchus on a naval mission to the Persian Gulf; conducting mass marriages in Susa between Europeans and Asians; the mutiny of the army in Opis; the flight of Alexander’s treasurer, Harpalus, to Greece, which unsettled Athens in particular; Alexander’s issuing a decree instructing Greek cities to take back their exiles; the death of Alexander’s close friend, Hephaestion; and Alexander’s death. For the Greeks and the request in 324 that Alexander should be worshipped as a god, see the studies cited under Alexander’s Religion and Divinity.
  1240.  
  1241. The Gedrosian March and Nearchus’s Voyage (325)
  1242.  
  1243. Alexander’s march from the Indus through the Gedrosian desert (Markan) back to Iran resulted in many casualties, especially among the noncombatants. He also sent his friend Nearchus at the head of a fleet from the Indus Delta to explore the coast of the Arabian Sea and the Persian Gulf. Arrian used Nearchus’s self-serving description of the mission in his Indica. Badian 1975 and Wirth 1988 are divided about the purpose and reliability of Nearchus’s account. For Nearchus’s report see also the works cited under Lost Alexander Histories. Schepens 1989 is preferable to Strasburger 1952 for discussion of the causes and effects of the march through Gedrosia, for which see also Badian’s work under The Harpalus Affair and the Exiles Decree and Bosworth’s work under Alexander in Central Asia and India. Eggermont’s and Charvet’s works under Alexander in Central Asia and India deal (among other topics) with Nearchus’s voyage and its depiction in the sources, while Šofman and Cibukidis 1987 examines its strategic significance.
  1244.  
  1245. Badian, Ernst. 1975. Nearchus the Cretan. Yale Classical Studies 24:147–170.
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  1247. The author regards Nearchus’s description of Alexander’s friendship with him and his own accomplishments as disingenuous and as a reaction to the criticism of Onesicritus, who also took part in the voyage. The thesis is overcritical of Nearchus, and see Wirth 1988 for a very different view.
  1248. Find this resource:
  1249. Schepens, Guido. 1989. Zum Problem der ‘Unbesiegbarkeit’ Alexanders des Grossen. Ancient Society 20:15–53.
  1250. DOI: 10.2143/AS.20.0.2011326Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1251. A discussion of Alexander’s invincible image in relation to his march through the Gedrosian desert. The author examines the king’s motives and the depictions of the march by modern historians, and dispels misconceptions about the military challenges he faced and the losses incurred.
  1252. Find this resource:
  1253. Šofman, A. S., and D. I. Cibukidis. 1987. Nearchus and Alexander. Ancient World 16:71–77.
  1254. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1255. The authors discuss how Nearchus’s naval mission fitted in with Alexander’s military plans following his return from India.
  1256. Find this resource:
  1257. Strasburger, Hermann. 1952. Alexanders Zug durch die Gedrosische Wüste. Hermes 80:456–493.
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  1259. A somewhat dated and at times speculative discussion of the sources on Alexander’s march through Gedrosia.
  1260. Find this resource:
  1261. Wirth, Gerhard. 1988. Nearch, Alexander und die Diadochen: Spekulationen über einen Zusammenhang. Tyche 3:241–259.
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  1263. The author examines Nearchus’s account in the chronological context of its composition under the Successors. He argues that Nearchus tried both to correct inaccurate descriptions of Alexander and to protest the splitting of Alexander’s empire into independent realms.
  1264. Find this resource:
  1265. The Mass Marriages in Susa
  1266.  
  1267. In 324 Alexander married both the daughter of Darius and the daughter of Darius’s predecessor, Artaxerxes III. Eighty-seven Companions joined him when they married Iranian noblewomen, and about ten thousand troops who cohabitated with Asian women received wedding gifts from the king. The king’s motives are debated. Marchini 2004 suggests that he sought thus to gain legitimacy from the Iranians, while Ogden 1999 directs attention also to dynastic polygamist precedents in Macedonia. Tarn 1948, vol. 2, pp. 438–439 (cited under General Overviews and Monographs) regards the event as a step toward attaining universal harmony and racial fusion, but many scholars reject this view and regard the celebrations as an attempt to create a Macedonian-Iranian elite for the empire. Bosworth 1980 (cited under Alexander and the Iranians) and Vössing 2004, pp. 82–92 (cited under Alexander’s Court) well analyze the ceremony and the hierarchical seating arrangement of the participants at Susa. See also Payen 2007 (cited under Individual Lost Historians) for Chares’s account of the event.
  1268.  
  1269. Marchini, Monica. 2004. Alessandro, Sisingambri e le nozze di Susa. Rivista Storica del’Antichita 34:267–284.
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  1271. The author regards Alexander’s marriages and his treatment of Darius’s mother as means of acquiring hereditary legitimacy, which was obtained also by conducting the ceremony on the Persian New Year.
  1272. Find this resource:
  1273. Ogden, Daniel. 1999. Polygamy, prostitutes and death: The Hellenistic dynasties. London: Duckworth.
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  1275. The author on pages 44–45 situates Alexander’s marriages in the context of dynastic polygamy in Macedonia and elsewhere.
  1276. Find this resource:
  1277. The Opis Mutiny
  1278.  
  1279. When the army reached Opis in Mesopotamia in 324, the Macedonians mutinied and demanded to be discharged home. Resentment against Alexander’s incorporation of Iranians in his army was in the background of, or surfaced during, the mutiny. Alexander put down the mutiny with relative ease. Much scholarly interest has focused on the speech he gave to the assembled army. While Wüst 1953 and Bosworth 1988 argue against its authenticity, Hammond 1993 strongly defends it, and Nagle 1996 thinks that the speech was largely historic. For the dynamics of the mutiny see also Carney 1996 under Alexander and the Macedonian Elite and Troops and Olbrycht 2008 under Alexander and the Iranians.
  1280.  
  1281. Bosworth, Albert Brian. 1988. From Arrian to Alexander: Studies in historical interpretation. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
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  1283. The author on pages 101–113 accepts as genuine only a small kernel of Alexander’s speech to the Macedonians at Opis. The rest, he argues, is made of rhetorical and literary motifs that Arrian borrowed for the purpose of composing the speech.
  1284. Find this resource:
  1285. Hammond, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière. 1993. Sources for Alexander the Great: An analysis of Plutarch’s Life and Arrian’s Anabasis Alexandrou. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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  1287. The scholar’s attempt (pp. 287–291) to refute Bosworth’s 1988 arguments against the historicity of Alexander’s speech at Opis is, at best, only partially convincing.
  1288. Find this resource:
  1289. Nagle, D. Brendan. 1996. The cultural context of Alexander’s speech at Opis. Transactions of American Philological Association 126:151–172.
  1290. DOI: 10.2307/370176Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1291. The author focuses on the part of Alexander’s speech where he describes his father’s benefits to the Macedonians. The scholar believes that Alexander tried indeed to defend Philip’s record at Opis.
  1292. Find this resource:
  1293. Wüst, Friedrich. 1953. Die Rede Alexanders des Grossen in Opis, Arrian VII.9–10. Historia 2:177–188.
  1294. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1295. The scholar argues strongly against the authenticity of Alexander’s speech, which he regards as a rhetorical composition, and which he tries (not always successfully) to show as incompatible with the events surrounding it.
  1296. Find this resource:
  1297. Wüst, Friedrich. 1954. Die Meuterei von Opis (Arrian VII, 8 ; 11,1–7). Historia 2:418–431.
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  1299. A sound analysis of the troops’ grievances at Opis and Alexander’s reaction to them, although the scholar’s judgment of value of the sources for the event is at times too rigid.
  1300. Find this resource:
  1301. The Harpalus Affair and the Exiles Decree
  1302.  
  1303. Harpalus was Alexander’s chief treasurer. In 324 he fled to Greece with much money and asked Athens for shelter. Scholars disagree on Harpalus’s motives and aims and on whether he planned to incite the Greeks against the king. His arrival in Athens threw the city into political turmoil. In 324 Alexander also issued a decree that ordered Greek cities to take their exiles back. Many of the exiles were mercenaries who were looking for employment, including by his potential opponents. The decree met strong opposition in several cities, where the exiles’ return portended a redistribution of lands and political crises. Many scholars place the exiles decree at the roots of the Hellenic or Lamian war that broke out after Alexander’s death. The most important work on Harpalus’s flight is Badian 1961, while Worthington 1994 and Blackwell 1999 should be consulted for the situation in Athens at that time. Zahrnt 2003 and Dmitriev 2004 are divided on the extent of the damage done to the Greeks by Alexander’s exiles decree and on how much it violated their autonomy.
  1304.  
  1305. Badian, Ernst. 1961. Harpalus. Journal of Hellenic Studies 81:16–43.
  1306. DOI: 10.2307/628074Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1307. A seminal work that examines the threats to Alexander’s rule in Asia and Greece toward the end of his reign, his harsh measures against those he suspected of disloyalty, and the role that Harpalus played in these tumultuous events.
  1308. Find this resource:
  1309. Blackwell, Christopher William. 1999. In the absence of Alexander: Harpalus and the failure of Macedonian authority. New York: Peter Lang.
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  1311. The monograph focuses on Antipater’s regency during Alexander’s Asian campaign and especially on the relationship between Macedonia and Athens at the time of the Harpalus affair.
  1312. Find this resource:
  1313. Dmitriev, Sviatoslav. 2004. Alexander’s Exiles Decree. Klio 86:348–381.
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  1315. Following a reexamination of the evidence, the author questions the prevailing view that Alexander’s exile decree constituted an interference in Greek internal affairs or that it triggered the Lamian war.
  1316. Find this resource:
  1317. Worthington, Ian. 1994. The Harpalus affair and the Greek response to Macedonian hegemony. In Ventures into Greek history: Second Australian Symposium on Ancient Macedonian Studies held at the University of Melbourne in July 1991, dedicated to Professor Nicholas Hammond. Edited by Ian Worthington, 307–330. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
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  1319. The author discusses the Greeks’ reaction to Alexander’s exiles decree and how Harpalus’s arrival complicated their efforts to settle the issue with Alexander peacefully.
  1320. Find this resource:
  1321. Zahrnt, Michael. 2003. Versöhnen oder Spalten?: Überlegungen zu Alexanders Verbanntendekret. Hermes 131.4: 407–432.
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  1323. The scholar suggests that Alexander issued the exiles decree to ensure the security of his realm and to gain the support of the returnees, even though it created difficult problems for Greek city-states, in particular for Athens and the Aetolians.
  1324. Find this resource:
  1325. The Death of Hephaestion
  1326.  
  1327. Hephaestion was Alexander’s most trusted friend, and, according to late traditions, his lover. He died in 324, and some ancient authors thought that Alexander’s display of grief over his death was excessive. The king hoped to deify his friend but settled for heroization. While McKechnie 1995 questions ancient traditions about the monumentality of Hephaestion’s posthumous honors, Hammond 1995, Palagia 2000, and Reames-Zimmerman 2001 defend the sources, although they differ about Alexander’s motives and about what the honors meant for Alexander’s contemporaries.
  1328.  
  1329. Hammond, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière. 1995. The death and obsequies of Hephaestion. Liverpool Classical Monthly 20.3–4: 36–41.
  1330. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1331. The author defends Alexander against ancient and modern detractors who argued that he gave Hephaestion undeserved and inflated honors. Hammond claims that Alexander’s actions followed Macedonian and even Persian rituals.
  1332. Find this resource:
  1333. McKechnie, Paul. 1995. Diodorus Siculus and Hephaistion’s pyre. Classical Quarterly 45.2: 418–432.
  1334. DOI: 10.1017/S0009838800043494Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1335. The author argues against the historicity of Diodorus’s description of the elaborate pyre and monument for Hephaestion, claiming that they are based on a literary composition (but see Palagia 2000).
  1336. Find this resource:
  1337. Palagia, Olga. 2000. Hepaestion’s pyre and the royal hunt of Alexander. In Alexander the Great in fact and fiction. Edited by Albert Brian Bosworth and Elizabeth Baynham, 176–206. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  1338. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198152873.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1339. Unlike McKechnie 1995, the author argues that Hephaestion’s pyre and monument were historic and discusses their artistic and cultural significance.
  1340. Find this resource:
  1341. Reames-Zimmerman, Jeanne. 2001. The mourning of Alexander the Great. Syllecta Classica 12:98–141.
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  1343. The author examines Alexander’s mourning of his friend in light of social studies of grief over loss of a dear one and finds nothing unusual in his conduct, save that his gestures were on a royal scale.
  1344. Find this resource:
  1345. The Planned Arabian Campaign and the Death of Alexander
  1346.  
  1347. Alexander made plans to conquer Arabia, which were cut short by his death. Högemann 1985 discusses his aims and preparations. Alexander died in Babylon on 11 (or 10) June 323, at the age of thirty-three. Speculations about the causes of his death sprang up shortly afterward and are still going strong. One of the more widespread rumors was that he was poisoned, but Engels 1978 and Oldach, et al. 1998 blame his death on one or another disease. O’Brien 1992 and Borza and Reames-Zimmerman 2000 look for alcohol and anguish as possible reasons. See Questionable Contemporary Documents for accounts of Alexander’s last days and their possible propagandist purpose. For the events following Alexander’s death see the heading The Wars of the Successors in the article Greek History: Hellenistic. For Alexander’s so-called last plans, which were canceled by the army after his death, see Badian 1968 under Questionable Contemporary Documents.
  1348.  
  1349. Borza, Eugene, and Jeanne Reames-Zimmerman. 2000. Some new thoughts on the death of Alexander the Great. Ancient World 31.1: 22–30.
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  1351. The authors suggest that a combination of excessive drinking and grief over the death of Hephaestion led to Alexander’s death.
  1352. Find this resource:
  1353. Engels, Donald W. 1978. A note on Alexander’s death. Classical Philology 73:224–228.
  1354. DOI: 10.1086/366434Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1355. Postulates that Alexander died of a variant of malaria, a disease attested as prevalent in the region, especially in the summer.
  1356. Find this resource:
  1357. Erskine, Andrew. 2002. Life after death: Alexandria and the body of Alexander. Greece & Rome 49:163–179.
  1358. DOI: 10.1093/gr/49.2.163Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1359. The author discusses the feud between Alexander’s former generals Perdiccas and Ptolemy over the possession of his body, which could legitimize their positions and ambitions, and which ended in Ptolemy’s acquiring it.
  1360. Find this resource:
  1361. Högemann, Peter. 1985. Alexander der Grosse und Arabien. Zetemata 82. Munich: Beck.
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  1363. In 324/323 Alexander made plans to conquer Arabia that were aborted following his death. Högemann’s detailed study examines what knowledge was available to the king about Arabia, his motives to go to there (among others, to join the Arabs’ pantheon), and the extent of his preparations. For the Arabian campaign, see also Bosworth 1988, pp. 187–196 (cited under General Overviews and Monographs).
  1364. Find this resource:
  1365. O’Brien, John Maxwell. 1992. Alexander the Great: The invisible enemy, a biography. London: Routledge.
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  1367. The monograph suggests that Alexander’s fondness for wine and his alcohol abuse affected his conduct relatively early in the campaign and were responsible for his death.
  1368. Find this resource:
  1369. Oldach, David W., Robert E. Richard, Eugene N. Borza, and R. Michael Benitez. 1998. A mysterious death. New England Journal of Medicine 338:24.
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  1371. The authors of the article are physicians from the University of Maryland School of Medicine, and Borza, an ancient historian. The physicians suggest the likelihood that Alexander died of typhoid fever, but Borza cautiously notes the problematic nature of the evidence.
  1372. Find this resource:
  1373. Alexander’s Posthumous Image
  1374.  
  1375. This section does not include works on Alexander’s image beyond Antiquity. Meeus 2009 deals with memories of Alexander shortly after his death. Goukowsky 1978–1981 (cited under Alexander’s Religion and Divinity) is especially valuable for Alexander’s image and myths in the early Hellenistic age. Bohm 1989 and Koulakiotis 2006 take the investigation to the entire Hellenistic age and beyond and to aspects other than politics. Green 1978 focuses on the meaning of Alexander to Rome’s great republican generals Pompey and Caesar. Spencer 2002 expands the inquiry to the entire Roman Republic and early Empire, and Kühnen 2008 to an even later period. Shahbazi 2003 presents Iranian perspectives on Alexander’s memory, and Mossé 2004 investigates the role of myth in his legacy up to modern times. In addition to these works, many items cited under Artistic Evidence are relevant to the topic.
  1376.  
  1377. Bohm, Claudia. 1989. Imitatio Alexandri im Hellenismus: Untersuchungen zum politischen Nachwirken Alexanders des Grossen in hoch- und späthellenistischen Monarchien. Munich: Tuduv.
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  1379. The author collected cases, all of Hellenistic and especially Seleucid rulers, who, according to Bohm, imitated Alexander in action or in image and ideology.
  1380. Find this resource:
  1381. Green, Peter. 1978. Caesar and Alexander: Aemulatio, imitatio, comparatio. American Journal of Ancient History 3:1–26.
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  1383. A highly influential study that argues that Alexander was known to Roman leaders chiefly as a conqueror, whom Pompey tried to imitate but Caesar tried to surpass. Reprinted in Peter Green, Classical bearings: Interpreting ancient history and culture (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1989), 193–209.
  1384. Find this resource:
  1385. Koulakiotis, Elias. 2006. Genese und Metamorphosen des Alexandermythos: Im Spiegel der griechischen nichthistoriographischen Überlieferung bis zum 3. Jh. n.Chr. Konstanz: Universitätsverlag Konstanz.
  1386. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1387. For the author, nonhistorical sources such as rhetorical, philosophical, and biographical writings and the Alexander Romance provide material for a literary and anthropological analysis of traditions about Alexander in the Hellenistic and Roman world.
  1388. Find this resource:
  1389. Kühnen, Angela. 2008. Die Imitatio Alexandri in der römischen Politik (1. Jh. v.Chr. - 3. Jh. n.Chr.). Münster: Rhema.
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  1391. The author investigates how Roman leaders and commanders made political use of Alexander’s image. While Spencer 2002 relies chiefly on the literary evidence, Kühnen also makes extensive use of iconography and takes the discussion up to the Severans and even later.
  1392. Find this resource:
  1393. Meeus, Alexander. 2009. Alexander’s image in the age of the Successors. In Alexander the Great: A new history. Edited by Waldemar Heckel and Lawrence Tritle, 235–250. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
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  1395. Disputing the view that after Alexander’s death his popularity declined as opposed to Philip, the author demonstrates that the Macedonian troops continued to hold Alexander in high regard, hence the manipulation of his image by his successors.
  1396. Find this resource:
  1397. Mossé, Claude. 2004. Alexander: Destiny and myth. Translated by Janet Lloyd. Edinburgh: Edinburgh Univ. Press.
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  1399. An English translation of the 2001 French original (which has also been translated into German and Italian). The book’s most significant contribution is in showing how myths about Alexander, often more than historiography, shaped his memory in later periods all the way to the modern era.
  1400. Find this resource:
  1401. Shahbazi, A. Shapur. 2003. Irano-Hellenic notes 3: Iranians and Alexander. American Journal of Ancient History 2.1: 5–38.
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  1403. The author discusses the changes in the Iranians’ perceptions of Alexander throughout the Islamic period, and dates his initial negative image to pre-Zoroastrian times.
  1404. Find this resource:
  1405. Spencer, Diana. 2002. The Roman Alexander: Reading a cultural myth. Exeter, UK: Univ. of Exeter Press.
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  1407. The book shows how the Romans of the Republic and the early Empire read the story of Alexander and added to it. The investigation focuses on literary texts and illustrates Roman use of Alexander at times as a model but also to examine and criticize contemporary politics and morality.
  1408. Find this resource:
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