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Mongol Wars (Military History)

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. The Mongol wars of conquest irrevocably changed the world. By the end of the unified Mongol Empire, not only did it disappear from the map, but so did approximately twenty other polities that existed prior to the rise of Chinggis Khan (c. b. 1162–d. 1227). The explanations for the Mongol conquests are multifarious and include rationales ranging from economic motives to divine mandates. There is no single reason, and the reasons for the conquests evolved, as did the Mongol war machine, allowing the Mongols to establish an empire that stretched from the Sea of Japan to the Mediterranean Sea and the Balkan Mountains. While the motives behind the Mongol wars of expansion eventually narrowed to the Decree of the Eternal Blue Heaven (Köke Möngke Tengri), the Mongol war machine continued to develop in terms of tactics, strategy, and increasing complexity in its form as the Mongols entered territory that was no longer suitable to light cavalry. The study of the Mongol wars has evolved as well. Initially, the focus was on the rise of Chinggis Khan and the Mongol irruption. While the war against the Jin Empire lasted over twenty years, Western scholars have tended to pay greater attention to campaigns against the Khwarazamian state in Central Asia and Eastern Iran and to the Western Campaign, which led to the conquest of the Rus’ principalities and the invasion of Hungary and Poland, probably due to the Mongol army’s dramatic swiftness and relatively more accessible sources. While the organization and formation of the Mongol army always receives renewed interest, interest in the Mongol military history has shifted from the period of the conquest to the post-dissolution period (post-1260), with an increased interest in the civil wars within the Mongol Empire, as well as wars with other states, particularly the Mamluk Sultanate (r. 1250–1517) and Japan. While the emphasis of recent scholarship still tends to favor the post-dissolution period, particularly with the Mongol Ilkhanate (r. 1260–1335) in the Middle East and the Yuan Empire (r. 1260–1388) in East Asia, renewed emphasis is returning to the Mongol military, ranging from composition to logistics, as well as the analysis of particular battles and campaigns as new sources are found or made accessible through translation or printed editions.
  4.  
  5. General Overviews
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  7. Knowledge of multiple languages is a key issue with the study of the Mongols. Even the most talented scholars are hamstrung by sources in twenty or so languages. As a result, the scholarship often becomes regionally compartmentalized; thus deep insights into regional events are gained, but the larger picture can be somewhat obscured. Nonetheless, there are a number of works that provide an overview of the empire in its structure and places the wars in the context of the entire empire. While from the 19th century, the multivolumed surveys of D’Ohsson 1834 and Howorth 1888 remain useful in terms of chronology and the depth of coverage even though their interpretations may be outdated. Fletcher 1995 remains an influential work that considers ecological and sociological factors that affected the Mongol Empire throughout its existence. Popular interest in the Mongols remains strong with works such as Weatherford 2004, which has its faults but is the type of work that sparks interest in the Mongols and thus should then lead readers to more scholarly works like Morgan 2007 and Saunders 2001, both newer editions of older works. Jackson 2000 is a bibliographic review and essay that brings one up to date on the scholarship of the 20th century. Jackson 2001 reviews not only the creation of the Mongol Empire, but also the khanates with the dissolution of the empire. Two important reference works have also appeared. Buell 2003 is a historical dictionary that also includes long essays on the Mongol Empire and the post-dissolution empire. Atwood 2004 spans from ancient Mongolia to the 21st century; however, it has considerable coverage of the Mongol Empire. Both are indispensable resources. Biran 2011 examines the rise of the Mongol Empire in its Inner Asian context while exploring the difference between evolutionary changes and those that were truly revolutionary.
  8.  
  9. Atwood, Christopher P. Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire. New York: Facts on File, 2004.
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  11. Excellent maps, genealogy, and chronology accompanies the encyclopedia articles.
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  13. Biran, Michal. “The Mongol Transformation: From the Steppe to Eurasian Empire.” In Eurasian Transformations, Tenth to Thirteenth Centuries: Crystallizations, Divergences, Renaissances. Edited by J. P. Arnason and B. Wittrock. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2011.
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  15. Discusses the Mongol Empire in an Inner Asian context, comparing it with other steppe empires while considering what was an evolutionary change versus a revolutionary innovation. Biran also considers the impact of the empire on the conquered territory and neighboring regions throughout Eurasia. Originally published in Medieval Encounters 10 (2004): 338–361.
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  17. Buell, Paul D. Historical Dictionary of the Mongol World Empire. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow, 2003.
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  19. Six essays precede the dictionary and are accompanied by three appendices and a bibliographic essay. Also appears in paperback as the A to Z of the Mongol World Empire (Landham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2010).
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  21. D’Ohsson, G. Histoire des Mongols: Depuis Tchinguiz-Khan jusqu’à Timour Bey ou Tamerlan. 4 vols. Amsterdam: Les Frères Van Cleef, 1834.
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  23. D’Ohsson, a Hungarian, wrote a massive four-volume work in very accessible French that focuses on the Mongol Wars. The emphasis tends to be the campaigns in the Middle East and Europe.
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  25. Fletcher, Joseph. “The Mongols: Ecological and Social Perspectives.” In Studies on Chinese and Islamic Middle Asia. By Joseph Fletcher. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 1995.
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  27. Centered around five questions, the paper explores how the Mongol Empire began, why it ended, why the Mongols were so destructive, why they did not convert to certain religions, and why their conquests stopped when they did. Serves as an excellent starting point for any study of the Mongols. Originally appeared in Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 46 (1986): 11–50.
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  29. Howorth, Henry H. History of the Mongols: From the 9th to the 19th Century. 3 vols. London: Longmans, Green, 1888.
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  31. Howorth primarily uses sources translated into English and French. The depth of his coverage of the campaigns across the Empire includes detailed biographis of the khans of the united empire and post-dissolution khanates.
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  33. Jackson, Peter. “The State of Research: The Mongol Empire, 1986–1999.” Journal of Medieval History 26 (2000): 189–210.
  34. DOI: 10.1016/S0304-4181(99)00016-0Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  35. An excellent bibliographic essay that surveys the scholarship that was produced after the first edition of David Morgan’s The Mongols in 1986 (see Morgan 2007 for the second edition). Jackson also reflects on how The Mongols influenced the scholarship that came afterwards.
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  37. Jackson, Peter. “From Ulus to Khanate: The Making of the Mongol States, c. 1220–1290.” In The Mongol Empire and Its Legacy. Edited by Reuven Amitai-Preiss and David O. Morgan, 12–38. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2001.
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  39. Excellent study on the transformation of the Mongol Empire into separate states and the civil wars that took place in the process.
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  41. Morgan, David. The Mongols. 2d ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2007.
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  43. Remains the classic introduction to the study of the Mongols. In addition to sections covering the Mongol expansion, it also discusses the military and government structure. The last chapter of the second edition is also useful for its discussion of the historiographical changes since Morgan’s first edition in 1986.
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  45. Saunders, J. J. The History of the Mongol Conquests. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001.
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  47. Originally published in 1971, this work remains the most scholarly account of the Mongol conquests as a narrative history, although other works in this article go into more detail.
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  49. Weatherford, Jack. Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World. New York: Crown, 2004.
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  51. A New York Times bestseller. Weatherford’s writing draws readers into the work. The true value comes from his training in anthropology, but his historical interpretation can get imaginative at times.
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  53. Anthologies
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  55. Several anthologies have appeared with an emphasis on the Mongols. Most are the results of conferences but other select works are the products of other endeavors. Fitzhugh, et al. 2009 is connected to an international museum exhibit and covers all aspects of the Mongol Empire. Di Cosmo, et al. 2009 covers the second half of the history of Inner Asia from the Mongol Conquests to the rise of a number of successor states. Some anthologies are more specialized, such as Tübach, et al. 2012, which examines the Mongols in Transcaucasia. Other works, such as Amitai-Preiss and Morgan 2001, as well as Amitai and Biran 2005, stem from conferences and symposiums. Of course, other anthologies also deal with the Mongol empire but also reflect a shift away from military history.
  56.  
  57. Amitai, Reuven, and Michal Biran, eds. Mongols, Turks, and Others: Eurasian Nomads and the Sedentary World. Brill’s Inner Asian Library 11. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2005.
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  59. A conference proceedings with the majority of the chapters examining events in the century prior to the rise of the Mongols, as well as the Mongol Empire.
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  61. Amitai-Preiss, Reuven, and David O. Morgan, eds. The Mongol Empire and Its Legacy. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2001.
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  63. The product of a conference, this work yields articles from the pre-dissolution period to the empire’s dissolution, as well as articles that reflect on the legacy. A critical work that examines the entire breadth of the empire and beyond.
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  65. Di Cosmo, Nicola, Allen J. Frank, and Peter B. Golden. The Cambridge History of Inner Asia: The Chinggisid Age. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2009.
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  67. Places the Mongol Empire and its legacy in the larger context of Inner Asia. Chapters on individual khanates are very useful for their narratives.
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  69. Fitzhugh, William, Morris Rossabi, and William Honeychurch, eds. Genghis Khan and the Mongol Empire. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institute, 2009.
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  71. Lavishly illustrated and intended to accompany a museum exhibit, this volume has chapters that examine some campaigns as well as warfare. It provides an adequate overview of the Mongol Empire and provides context for the conquests.
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  73. Tübach, Jürgen, Sophia G. Vashalomidze, and Manfred Zimmer, eds. Caucasus during the Mongol Period: Der Kaukasus in der Mongolenzeit. Wiesbaden, Germany: Reichert Verlag, 2012.
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  75. A collection of articles in English and German on the Mongols and their activities in Transcaucasia. The collection as a whole is an excellent study in not only the actual conquest, but also Mongol occupation and rule of the region. Articles directly related to the conquests are addressed separately.
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  77. Biographies
  78.  
  79. Surprisingly, there are very few biographies on personalities from the Mongol Empire, with the exception of Chinggis Khan, who has several scholarly works and a host of popular biographies. Among those dealing with Chinggis Khan, three stand alone. Dunnell 2010 is succinct but well suited for classroom use, as is Biran 2007. Ratchnevsky 1992 is the most scholarly work and the best for its deep analysis. Curiously, a true biographical study of Ögödei has yet to be written, but a brief study of Güyük Khan and his brief reign is examined in Kim 2005. Khubilai Khan has had a few biographies, but Rossabi 2009 remains the gold standard even after twenty-five years of its first publication. Clements 2010, a more recent popular history of Khubilai Khan, is dependent on Rossabi. Finally, Rachewiltz, et al. 1993 provides concise biographies of many of the leading non-Chinggisid personalities who served the Mongol Empire in military and civilian capacities.
  80.  
  81. Biran, Michal. Qaidu and the Rise of the Independent Mongol State in Central Asia. Richmond, UK: Curzon, 1997.
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  83. Biography and history of the era of Qaidu. Covers his wars against Khubilai as well as his efforts to unify Central Asia under his rule.
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  85. Biran, Michal. Chinggis Khan. Makers of the Muslim World. London: Oneworld, 2007.
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  87. This work places the life and actions of Chinggis Khan in the context of the Muslim world and how he affected it. Despite this angle, it is also an excellent biography.
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  89. Clements, Jonathan. A Brief History of Khubilai Khan: Lord of Xanadu, Emperor of China. Philadelphia: Running Press, 2010.
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  91. General history and biography, but useful for establishing course of events and campaigns during the lifetime of Khubilai Khan.
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  93. Dunnell, Ruth W. Chinggis Khan: World Conqueror. Library of World Biography. Boston: Longman, 2010.
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  95. Concise biography of Chinggis Khan, with excellent consideration given to the milieu of Chinggis Khan and his early life. The maps and glossary of names are particularly useful and appreciated. Proper attention is given to the campaigns of Chinggis Khan.
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  97. Kim, Hodong. “A Reappraisal of Güyüg Khan.” In Mongols, Turks, and Others: Eurasian Nomads and the Sedentary World. Edited by Reuven Amitai and Michal Biran, 309–338. Brill’s Inner Asian Library 11. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2005.
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  99. Reconsiders the life of Güyüg Khan, who has been viewed as a fairly ineffective ruler and as a troublemaker, because of his feud with Batu, prior to becoming the third Khan of the Empire. Kim’s reappraisal dismisses this interpretation and presents a convincing new view.
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  101. Rachewiltz, Igor de, Hok-lam Chan, Hsiao Ch’i-ch’ing, and Peter W. Geier, eds. In the Service of the Khan: Eminent Personalities of the Early Mongol-Yüan Period (1200–1300). Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz, 1993.
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  103. A collection of biographies of leading administrators and military commanders of the Mongol Empire, including Sübedei, Muqali, and Chinqai. The biographies include the basic biography compiled from the primary sources but an analysis of the subjects’ service.
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  105. Ratchnevsky, Paul. Genghis Khan: His Life and Legacy. Translated by Thomas Nivison Haining. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1992.
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  107. A scholarly treatment of the life of Chinggis Khan. It remains the standard work, but not without challenges. It is particularly useful for understanding the wars of unification and motives in expansion outside of Mongolia. It is also an improvement over the German original, Činggis-Khan: sein Leben und Wirken (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1983) as Haining moved much of the footnote material into the text without interrupting the flow of the work.
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  109. Rossabi, Morris. Khubilai Khan: His Life and Times. 20th ed. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009.
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  111. Primarily useful for the discussion of the conquest of the Song Empire, civil wars, and Khubilai’s campaigns in Japan, Java, and Southeast Asia. Orginally published in 1988.
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  113. Primary Sources
  114.  
  115. Primary sources on the Mongol Wars come in a wide array of languages. This section includes accessible sources in English translation. Dawson 1980 consists of several letters and travel accounts from missionaries, many of which discuss military matters. Hetoum 1988 has been disseminated in the West and encouraged an alliance between Christians and the Ilkhans. Rachewiltz 2004 is the most erudite translation of The Secret History of the Mongols, the anonymous Mongolian account of Chinggis Khan’s life written in the 13th century; Onon 2001 is also very good and among the most important for military matters, but without the detailed notes that Rachewiltz contains. Skelton, et al. 1965, which includes a translation of the account of a Franciscan monk who traveled to Güyük’s court, is often overshadowed by Carpini’s account (see Dawson 1980). Three key Persian sources can be found in excellent translations: Juvaini 1996, Juzjani 2010, and Rashiduddin 2012. Also in translation is a 19th-century compilation by Elliot and Dowson 1869–1877, which includes numerous Muslim accounts of the Mongol invasions of India.
  116.  
  117. Chan, Hok-lam, trans. The Fall of the Jurchen Chin: Wang O’s Memoir on the Ts’ai-Chou under the Mongol Siege (1233–1234). Münchener Ostasiatische Studien Band 66. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1993.
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  119. Wang O’s memoir logs the last stand of the Jin Empire and reveals from an eyewitness’ perspective the incompetence and desperation of the Jin and the methodical approach of the Mongol.
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  121. Dawson, Christopher, ed. Mission to Asia. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1980.
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  123. Contains translations of John of Plano Carpini’s and William of Rubruck’s accounts of travel as missionaries to the court of Möngke. Mission to Asia also includes Güyük Khan’s letter to Pope Innocent IV, and letters of other Catholic missionaries. Carpini’s text contains his recommendations on how to fight the Mongols.
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  125. Elliot, H. M., and John Dowson. The History of India as Told by Its Own Historians. 8 vols. London: Trübner, 1869–1877.
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  127. The first four volumes of this eight-volume compilation are relevant to the Mongol invasions. Most of the selections come from larger chronicles like those of Juvaini 1996, Rashiduddin 2012, and Juzjani 2010. Some selections deal only with India. Regardless, the compilation is an extremely useful tool for the study of Mongol actions involving South Asia.
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  129. Hetoum. A Lytell Cronycle. Translated by Richard Pynson. Edited by Glenn Burger. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1988.
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  131. An edited edition of a 16-century translation of Hetoum’s La fleur des histoires de la terre d’Orient, written in 1307. The work discusses the rise of the Mongols in the Middle East and their wars, culminating with a call for Crusade and an alliance between Europe and the Ilkhanid Mongols.
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  133. Juvaini, Ala al-Din. History of the World Conqueror. Translated by J. A. Boyle. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1996.
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  135. A key Persian sources from an author employed by the Hülegü. Covers the rise of Chinggis Khan and ends with the destruction of the Ismailis in 1256.
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  137. Juzjani, Minhaj Siraj. Tabakat-i-Nasiri: A General History of the Muhammadan Dynasties. 2 vols. Translated by H. G. Raverty. Kolkata: Asiatic Society, 2010.
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  139. Originally published in the 19th century, Raverty’s translation remains the only translation of this important work. Although Juzjani writes a history of every major Muslim dynasty, the bulk of the work deals with the Mongols. Juzjani lived through Chinggis Khan’s destruction of the Khwarazmian Empire and fled to the Sultanate of Delhi. Although a hostile source, Juzjani corroborates many accounts that appear in other works.
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  141. Onon, Urgunge, trans. The Secret History of the Mongols: The Life and Times of Chinggis Khan. London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2001.
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  143. A very readable translation. The author does provide some analysis of the text in footnotes as well as providing a lengthy introduction and an appendix. The appendix is a translation of a study of the “Art of War under Chinggis Qahan” by the Inner Mongolian scholar Dalantai.
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  145. Rachewiltz, Igor de, trans. The Secret History of the Mongols: A Mongolian Epic Chronicle of the Thirteenth Century. Brill’s Inner Asian Library 7. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2004.
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  147. The best translation of The Secret History, Rachewiltz’s version consists of two volumes with a third volume forthcoming. The majority of the work is erudite notes on the passages of The Secret History. This is one of the most important scholarly contributions to the study of the Mongol Empire.
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  149. Rashiduddin. The Compendium of Chronicles. Translated by Wheeler M. Thackston. London: I. B. Tauris, 2012.
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  151. A complete translation bound in one volume. Rashiduddin used Mongol informants to write one of the first world histories as well as a detailed account of the Mongol Empire.
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  153. Skelton, R. A., Thomas Marston, and George O. Painter, eds. The Vinland Map and the Tartar Relation. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1965.
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  155. Two works are included in this volume, but only the “Tartar Relation” pertains to the Mongols. Thought to be Benedict the Pole’s travel account of the Mongol Empire when he accompanied the more famous John de Plano Carpini, the “Tartar Relation”; while brief does provide a first-hand account of Mongol military gear and tactics.
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  157. Journals
  158.  
  159. Because of the immense size of the Mongol Empire, historians of the empire publish in a wide variety of journals; however; a few journals have consistently published articles on the Mongols. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society covers all of Asia, but regularly features research on the Mongol Empire, as well as including book reviews. Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies has declined in its publication of works dealing with the Mongol Empire, but during the 20th century it was not usual for entire volumes to devoted to the Mongol Empire. Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi specializes, as the title indicates, on medieval Eurasian history, with a significant number of articles dealing with the Mongol Empire. ЗОЛОТООРДЫНСКОЕ ОБОЗРЕНИЕ is a newer journal published by the University of Kazan in Russia. As the title indicates, it focuses on the Golden Horde. Journal of Song-Yuan Studies is an excellent journal not only for the study of the Yuan Empire, but also Mongol interactions with China prior to the establishment of the Yuan Dynasty. Finally, Mongolian Studies is the journal of the Mongolia Society, housed at Indiana University. It remains important for its work dealing with all aspects of Mongolian history and inclusion of scholarship produced in Mongolia.
  160.  
  161. Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi.
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  163. Founded by leading scholars of medieval Central Eurasia, AEMA routinely publishes articles on the Mongol Empire, although its publication can be erratic.
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  165. Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies.
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  167. During Francis W. Cleaves’s (1911–1995) time on the editorial board, it routinely published scholarship on Mongolia and the Mongol Empire, including many translations of primary sources.
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  169. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society.
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  171. Now in its third series and published by Cambridge University Press, the JRAS has been in publication since 1820 as the flagship publication of the Royal Asiatic Society in London.
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  173. Journal of Song-Yuan Studies.
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  175. Despite its title, the JSYS publishes on additional dynasties that are also connected to the Mongol Empire, such as the Xi Xia, Jin, and Liao.
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  177. Mongolian Studies: The Journal of the Mongolia Society.
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  179. In publication since 1974, Mongolian Studies covers the entire academic study of Mongolia, but the Mongol Empire makes frequent appearances, particularly with the study of Mongolian sources and by Mongolian scholars.
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  181. ЗОЛОТООРДЫНСКОЕ ОБОЗРЕНИЕ.
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  183. First published in 2013 by the Academy of Sciences in the Republic of Tatarstan in Russia, this journal (also known as Golden Horde Review) focuses on the history of the Golden Horde.
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  185. The Mongol Military
  186.  
  187. There are many studies on the Mongol military. A full-length study during the pre-dissolution period is May 2007, which analyzes all aspects of the Mongol art of war and challenges many of the conclusions of other works in this section. May 2012 examines the global impact of the Mongol military and how it influenced warfare. Smith 1993–1994 ventures into siege warfare and how the Mongols used captured populations. Smith 2000 investigates weaponry and whether the Mongols truly developed an arms industry. Nicolle 1990 provides four lengthy biographies of Mongol leaders but focuses on their performance in warfare. Reid 2002 provides a very useful chronology with brief summaries of all of the Mongol campaigns. Two classic works by the late Denis Sinor, who essentially created the study of Inner Asia in the United States, are Sinor 1971 and Sinor 1981. Sinor 1971 illuminates the sophistication of Mongol planning, while Sinor 1981 examines the steppe-warrior archetype, with particular emphasis on the Mongols.
  188.  
  189. May, Timothy. The Mongol Art of War: Chinggis Khan and the Mongol Military System. Barnesly, UK: Pen & Sword, 2007.
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  191. The only book-length study of all aspects of the Mongol military system. The Mongol Art of War examines recruitment, training, organization, logistics, medical care, espionage, tactics, strategy, and leadership within the Mongol military system.
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  193. May, Timothy. The Mongol Conquests in World History. London: Reaktion, 2012.
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  195. Has an overview of the conquests from the rise of Chinggis Khan to the end of all of the Mongol Empire’s successors, as well as a chapters on the Mongol impact and legacy on warfare.
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  197. Nicolle, David. The Mongol Warlords. Poole, UK: Firebird, 1990.
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  199. Consists of four biographies: Genghis Khan, Kublai Khan, Hülegü, and Timur. While the latter was not technically a Mongol, his inclusion assists in showing continuity. Excellent illustrations by modern artists, as well as period artwork. Includes succinct analysis of campaigns, along with attention to arms and armor.
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  201. Reid, Robert W. A Brief Political and Military Chronology of the Mediaeval Mongols, from the Birth of Chinggis Qan to the Death of Qubilai Qaghan. Occasional Papers No. 24. Bloomington: The Mongolia Society 2002.
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  203. A useful chronology that is formatted with Gregorian dates (including date and month when possible), along with the twelve-month animal calendar used by the Mongols and Chinese. Entries are detailed. The book is organized chronologically, as one would expect, but also by campaign for ease of use.
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  205. Sinor, Denis. “On Mongol Strategy.” In Proceedings of the Fourth East Asian Altaistic Conference. Edited by Ch’en Chieh-hsien. Taipei, China, December 1971.
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  207. Sinor’s classic examination of Mongol strategy brings to light a key element—the Mongols’emphasis on planning and maintaining a schedule for their campaigns.
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  209. Sinor, Denis. “The Inner Asian Warriors.” Journal of the American Oriental Society 101.2 (1981): 133–144.
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  211. Sinor examines the Inner Asian Warrior through time, with particular emphasis on what made Inner Asian nomads such excellent warriors regardless of time and empire during the ancient and medieval period.
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  213. Smith, John Masson, Jr. “Demographic Considerations in Mongol Siege Warfare.” Archivum Ottomanicum 13 (1993–1994): 329–335.
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  215. The demographic consideration focuses on who participated in the Mongol sieges.
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  217. Smith, John Masson, Jr. “The Nomads’ Armament: Home-Made Weaponry.” In Religion, Customary Law, and Nomadic Technology. Edited by Michael Gerver and Wayne Schlepp, 51–61. Toronto: Joint Centre for Asia Pacific Studies, 2000.
  218. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  219. Smith argues that the Mongols primarily made their own weaponry individually, thus resulting in an overall inferior accoutrement for the average Mongol soldier. Although Smith’s view is not uncontested, his methodology, as always, is intriguing and thought provoking.
  220. Find this resource:
  221. Military Units
  222.  
  223. The basic organizational structure of the Mongol military can be found in virtually every book on the Mongol Empire. Discussions of unique units within the Mongol military system can also be found. Borbone 2009 considers a little-known specialist unit, within Hülegü’s army, that may have also been used elsewhere. Melville 2006 provides an excellent study of the bodyguard of the Khans, which also served as a training academy for Mongol generals. Buell 1980, Ostrowski 1998, and Qu 2001 explore the crucial military institution known as tamma or tanma and its role in conquest and governance. In the Ilkhanate the sources indicate that the Mongol military underwent reforms during the reign of Ghazan Khan. Martinez 1986 explores these reforms and how they possibly transformed the nature of the Mongol military. Allsen 2002 discusses how the Mongols acquired technical expertise and used those experts for war and other projects. Amitai 2001 considers the use of the iqta, or land grant, by nomads and if it transformed their military function.
  224.  
  225. Allsen, Thomas T. “Technician Transfers in the Mongolian Empire.” The Central Eurasian Studies Lectures 2. Bloomington: Department of Central Eurasian Studies of Indiana University, 2002.
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  227. Examines the transfer of people and populations throughout the Mongol Empire. Allsen pays particular attention to the transfer of those with technical expertise, including naval-warfare and siege-warfare experts.
  228. Find this resource:
  229. Amitai, Reuven. “Turco-Mongolian Nomads and the iqṭ ā’ System in the Islamic Middle East (1000–1400 AD).” In Nomads in the Sedentary World. Edited by André Wink and Anatoly M. Khazanov, 152–171. London: Curzon, 2001.
  230. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  231. The iqta, or land grant, usually provided income for armies within the Islamic world. Amitai explores how this institution affected nomadic armies—did it prevent them from plundering peasants and did it transform them into semi-sedentary units?
  232. Find this resource:
  233. Borbone, Pier Giorgio. “Hülegü’s Rock-Climbers; A Short-Lived Turkic Word in 13th–14th Century Syriac Historical Writing.” In Studies in Turkic Philology: Festschrift in Honour of the 80th Birthday of Professor Geng Shimin. Edited by Zhang Dingjing and Abdurishid Yakup, 285–294. Beijing: Minzu University Press, 2009.
  234. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  235. A study of a unit of mountaineers in Hülegü’s army as it advanced into the Middle East. The qāyāyice were an ethnicity known as Mākrin, from the mountains of Uyghuristan. These specialists were still in existence in the later 14th century as Timur used them in Georgia.
  236. Find this resource:
  237. Buell, Paul D. “Kalmyk Tanggaci People: Thoughts on the Mechanics and Impact of Mongol Expansion.” Mongolian Studies 6 (1980): 41–59.
  238. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  239. Although Buell’s analysis is primary devoted to exploring the term “Tanggaci” in relation to the 17th-century Kalmyks, his etymology traces the term back to the Mongol tanma military units that played an integral role in the Mongol conquests. Buell’s study details their origins and uses.
  240. Find this resource:
  241. Martinez, A. P. “Some Notes on the Il-Xanid Army.” Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi 6 (1986): 129–242.
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  243. Martinez posits that with the reforms of Ghazan, the Ilkhanid army transitioned from the traditional light cavalry of the Mongols to a medium or heavy cavalry, which was more common in the Middle East.
  244. Find this resource:
  245. Melville, Charles. “The Keshigh in Iran: The Survival of the Royal Mongol Household.” In Beyond the Legacy of Genghis Khan. Edited by Linda Komaroff, 135–164. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2006.
  246. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  247. A study of the keshig, or household body of the Mongol Khans. Melville traces its development from Chinggis Khan through the Yuan Dynasty and Ilkhanate to its final incarnates in post-Mongol Iran.
  248. Find this resource:
  249. Morgan, David O. “The Mongol Armies in Persia.” Der Islam 56 (1976): 80–96.
  250. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  251. Although specifically about the Mongol armies operating in Persia, Morgan’s work still pertains to the overall Mongol military. Morgan considers not only the numbers of men, but also the problems of feeding and controlling large armies, from the period of Chinggis Khan through the Ilkhanid period.
  252. Find this resource:
  253. Ostrowski, Donald. “The Tamma and the Dual-Administrative Structure of the Mongol Empire.” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 61 (1998): 262–278.
  254. DOI: 10.1017/S0041977X0001380XSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  255. The tamma (or tanma) was a key institution for the Mongol not only in conquering territory, but also in controlling it. Ostrowski examines the ties between the units and the dual government (civilian and military) used by the Mongols over the long term.
  256. Find this resource:
  257. Qu Dafeng. “On the Qusiqul Army and the Tamaci Army.” Central Asiatic Journal 45.2 (2001): 266–272.
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  259. A study of the tamma institution and its relationship with the Qusiqul Army, which was another special unit. The two institutions had similar features and appeared during the lifetime of Chinggis Khan. The Qusiqul army was comprised of two out of every ten men in the Mongol army.
  260. Find this resource:
  261. Logistics
  262.  
  263. Logistics are vital to any study of war. Sinor 1972 explores the logistical issues that may have prevented the Mongols from occupying Hungary. John Masson Smith Jr. has contributed more than any other scholar to the study of the logistics of the Mongol military. Smith 2001 and Smith 2006 examine how pasture affected military operations during Hülegü’s invasion of the Middle East, as does Morgan 1985, albeit by different means. Smith 1984 investigates, with a wonderfully titled article, the feeding of the Mongol military. Amitai 2006 has reached alternate conclusions regarding logistical challenges.
  264.  
  265. Amitai, Reuven. “Some More Thoughts on the Logistics of the Mongol-Mamluk War (with Special Reference to the Battle of Wadī al-Khaznadīr.” In Logistics of War in the Age of the Crusades. Edited by John Pryor, 25–42. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2006.
  266. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  267. Considers the logistics of the Mongol-Mamlukl war and, by focusing on the 1299 battle of Wadi al-Khaznadar, challenges some of the assertions of, for example, Morgan 1985 and Smith 2001 concerning the viability of a Mongol army in Syria.
  268. Find this resource:
  269. Morgan, David O. “The Mongols in Syria, 1260–1300.” In Crusade and Settlement: Papers Read at the First Conference of the Society for the Study of the Crusades and the Latin East and Presented to R. C. Smail. Edited by P. Edbury, 231–235. Cardiff, Wales: University College Cardiff Press, 1985.
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  271. Although this article examines the duration of Mongol activity in Syria, among Morgan’s most important conclusions deals with the logistics of maintaining an army in Syria. While he agrees with Smith, Morgan’s approaches the matter from a different route (Smith 2001).
  272. Find this resource:
  273. Morgan, David O. “Reflections on Mongol Communications in the Ilkhanate.” In Studies in Honour of Clifford Edmund Bosworth. Vol. 2. Edited by Carole Hillenbrand, 375–385. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2000.
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  275. The yam, or postal relay, has always been an integral part of the Mongol government and military for urgent dispatches. Morgan’s study of the yam during the Ilkhanate period discusses its continuation in the Ilkhanate, but also the logistics involved to maintain it.
  276. Find this resource:
  277. Sinor, Denis. “Horse and Pasture in Inner Asian History.” Oriens Extremus 19 (1972): 171–184.
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  279. In this piece, Sinor examines the Mongol invasion of Hungary and why the Mongols did not occupy it. Through calculation of pasture area and production, he concludes that there was insufficient pasture for the Mongol army to remain. While the question and even the methodology are important, Morgan’s conclusions are still debated.
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Smith, John Masson, Jr. “Mongol Campaign Rations: Milk, Marmots, and Blood?” Journal of Turkish Studies 8 (1984): 223–228.
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  283. An innovative study of Mongol rations, including kilocaloric counts on horse blood and marmots. A valuable study on the logistics of medieval warfare.
  284. Find this resource:
  285. Smith, John Masson, Jr. “Mongol Nomadism and Middle Eastern Geography: Qīshlāqs and Tümens.” In The Mongol Empire and Its Legacy. Edited by Reuven Amitai-Preiss and David O. Morgan, 39–56. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2001.
  286. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  287. A detailed and nuanced study on the use of pasture by the Mongol army during Hülegü’s campaign in the Middle East.
  288. Find this resource:
  289. Smith, John Masson, Jr. “Hülegü Moves West: High Living and Heartbreak on the Road to Baghdad.” In Beyond the Legacy of Genghis Khan. Edited by Linda Komaroff, 111–135. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2006.
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  291. Detailed analysis of Hülegü’s march to Baghdad. The focus of the work is on logistics, the route, and the campaign against the Ismailis in Northern Iran. In short, it is a complete analysis of all aspects of an army on the move as well as what went well, and what went very wrong.
  292. Find this resource:
  293. Ideology
  294.  
  295. During the reign of Ögödei, the Mongols developed a true ideology, Tenggerism, in which the earth was bequeathed to the heirs of Chinggis Khan by the Eternal Blue Heaven. One of the first studies of this ideology is Voegelin 1940–1941. Rachewiltz 1973 resumes the study of the ideology and remains one of the key studies on the topic. Bira 2003 argues that Tenggerism was not simply an ideology, but a religious motivation making the conquests akin to the crusades. Atwood 2004 explores religious toleration and its place within the Mongol ideology of conquest. Amitai-Preiss 2001 examines how this ideology remained in place even after the dissolution of the empire. Allsen 2009 further examines the ideology as well as the historiography.
  296.  
  297. Allsen, Thomas T. “A Note on Mongol Imperial Ideology.” In The Early Mongols: Language, Culture, and History; Studies in Honor of Igor de Rachewiltz on the Occasion of his 80th Birthday. Edited by Volker Rybatzki, Alessandra Pozzi, Peter W. Geier, and John R. Krueger, 1–8. Bloomington, IN: Denis Sinor Institute for Inner Asian Studies, 2009.
  298. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  299. Ideology is always an important motivator in warfare. Allsen’s brief study examines not only Mongol ideology but also the historiography behind it.
  300. Find this resource:
  301. Amitai-Preiss, Reuven. “Mongol Imperial Ideology and the Ilkhanid War against the Mamluks.” In The Mongol Empire and Its Legacy. Edited by Reuven Amitai-Preiss and David O. Morgan, 57–72. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2001.
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  303. An expansion of themes in Amtai-Preiss’ Mongols and Mamluks (Amitai-Preiss 1995), with an emphasis on how the Mamluks viewed the conflict with the Ilkhanid Mongols.
  304. Find this resource:
  305. Atwood, Christopher P. “Validation by Holiness or Sovereignty: Religious Toleration as Political Theology in the Mongol World Empire of the Thirteenth Century.” The International History Review 26.2 (2004): 237–256.
  306. DOI: 10.1080/07075332.2004.9641030Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  307. While relevant to religious policies of the Mongol Empire, this work also sheds some light on the political ideology of the Mongol Empire in terms of conquests, as well as on interactions with other states and religious leaders.
  308. Find this resource:
  309. Bira, Shagdaryn. “Mongolian Tenggerism and Modern Globalism: A Restrospective Outlook on Globalisation.” Inner Asia 5 (2003): 107–117.
  310. DOI: 10.1163/146481703793647299Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  311. Considers Tenggerism as a casus belli and ideology for the Mongol conquests.
  312. Find this resource:
  313. Rachewiltz, Igor de. “Some Remarks on the Ideological Foundations of Chingis Khan’s Empire.” Papers in Far Eastern History 7 (1973): 21–36.
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  315. One of the foundational studies on the ideology of the Mongol Empire; considers the ideology as it develops during the rise of Chinggis Khan. All ideological studies that follow have been influenced to a degree by Rachewiltz’s study.
  316. Find this resource:
  317. Voegelin, Eric. “The Mongol Orders of Submission to European Powers, 1245–1255.” Byzantion 15 (1940–1941): 378–413.
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  319. A thorough study of the Mongol orders of submission from the period just prior to Güyük’s ascension to the middle of Möngke’s reign. Voegelin’s work, while dated, remains an important study through his methodology and systematic approach to the documentary evidence.
  320. Find this resource:
  321. Gunpowder
  322.  
  323. The use of gunpowder remains a much debated topic by historians of the Mongol Empire. The Mongols did use it, but to what extent is the question and if gunpowder was used outside of China. Haw 2013 argues that the Mongols did indeed use gunpowder outside of China. Khan 1996 agrees, but much of its evidence is circumstantial and focuses on the spread of gunpowder rather than the Mongols’ use. Raphael 2009 focuses on siege warfare in the Ilkhanate but also explores the question of whether or not the Mongols used gunpowder.
  324.  
  325. Haw, Stephen G. “Cathayan Arrows and Meteors: The Origins of Chinese Rocketry.” Journal of Chinese Military History 2 (2013): 28–42.
  326. DOI: 10.1163/22127453-12341243Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  327. Looks at the development of rockets in Chinese military warfare, with an emphasis on the Mongol era.
  328. Find this resource:
  329. Khan, Iqtidar Alam. “Coming of Gunpowder to the Islamic World and North India: Spotlight on the Role of the Mongols.” Journal of Asian History 30.1 (1996): 27–45.
  330. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  331. In addition to discussing the spread of gunpowder as part of the ramifications of the Mongol conquests, Khan’s article also summarizes campaigns into India by the Mongols. Furthermore, the author reviews the sources and the possible use of gunpowder by the Mongols.
  332. Find this resource:
  333. Raphael, Kate. “Mongol Siege Warfare on the Banks of the Euphrates and the Question of Gunpowder (1260–1312).” The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 19.3 (2009): 355–370.
  334. DOI: 10.1017/S1356186309009717Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  335. Discusses the evolution of Mongol siege warfare and the role of Chinese engineers in Mongol siege warfare. Raphael then focuses on siege warfare in the Ilkhanate and whether or not the Mongols used gunpowder. He deftly incorporates archaeological evidence in addition to textual sources into her study.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. Campaigns in China
  338.  
  339. Northern China was divided between the Jin Empire in the east and the Tangut kingdom of Xi Xia in the west. The most detailed work about the conquest of the Jin Empire is Martin 1971, but as it was originally published in 1950, works such as Allsen 1994 and Franke 1994 are recommended for updated analysis and narrative for Martin’s work. Buell 1978 shifts the attention back to the Sino-Mongolian frontier and reviews how the borderlands impacted not only the rise of Chinggis Khan but his relations with the Jin Empire. Qu 1998 explores one of Jebe’s expeditions and its ramifications. Unfortunately, similar studies that explore more detailed aspects of the war are few and far in between. Despite a series of wars over forty-five years, the conquest of the Song Empire is also one of the least studied. Waterson 2013 provides an excellent remedy as a narrative history. Herman 2002 discusses the conquest of Dali in relation to operations against the Song Empire. Wright 2002, Wright 2007, and Wright 2008 deal with Khubilai Khan’s destruction of the Song Empire, particularly the campaigns of the general Bayan.
  340.  
  341. Allsen, Thomas. “The Rise of the Mongolian Empire and Mongolian Rule in North China.” In The Cambridge History of China. Vol. 6, Alien Regimes and Border States, 907–1368. Edited by Denis Twitchett and John K. Fairbank, 321–413. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
  342. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  343. A thorough examination of the unification of the Mongol steppe, particularly in terms of interactions between the Mongols and the Jin Empire. Allsen also discusses the conquest of the Jin Empire and the Mongols’ shift from conquest to ruling their conquests.
  344. Find this resource:
  345. Buell, Paul D. “The Role of the Sino-Mongolian Frontier Zone in the Rise of Cinggis-Qan.” In Studies on Mongolia: Proceedings of the First North American Conference on Mongolian Studies. Edited by Henry G. Schwarz, 63–76. Bellingham: Western Washington University Press, 1978.
  346. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  347. Examines how the border of the Jin Empire and Mongolia influenced the rise of Chinggis Khan and then as a staging area for the invasion of the Jin Empire. Of particular importance is Buell’s emphasis of the various groups that lived on the border and their role in ruling the conquered Jin territories.
  348. Find this resource:
  349. Franke, Herbert. “The Chin Dynasty.” In The Cambridge History of China. Vol. 6, Alien Regimes and Border States, 907–1368. Edited by Denis Twitchett and John K. Fairbank, 215–320. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
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  351. Provides an excellent introduction to the Jin Dynasty (Chin is the Wade-Giles transliteration), including their political and military structure, in addition to a discussion of the annihilation of the Jin Empire by the Mongols.
  352. Find this resource:
  353. Herman, John E. “The Mongol Conquest of Dali: The Failed Second Front.” In Warfare in Inner Asian History. Edited by Nicola Di Cosmo, 295–334. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2002.
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  355. A close examination of Khubilai’s expedition to Dali on the southwestern border of the Song Empire. Under Möngke’s directives, Khubilai was to open a second front against the Song after conquering Dali. The conquest, however, proved to be more difficult than planned.
  356. Find this resource:
  357. Martin, H. Desmond. The Rise of Chingis Khan and His Conquest of North China. New York: Octagon, 1971.
  358. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  359. Originally published in 1950, Martin’s Rise of Chingis Khan is a detailed account of the Mongol conquest of the Jin Empire. Although Martin does discuss the rise of Chingis Khan in Mongolia and a study of the Mongol Military, the book’s primary value is on his analysis, based on Chinese sources, of the war against the Jin Empire. The book also comes with detailed maps showing campaign movements.
  360. Find this resource:
  361. Qu, Da-Feng. “A Study of Jebe’s Expedition to Tung Ching.” Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientaiarum Hungaricum 51 (1998): 171–177.
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  363. A study of a brief but major military action that had large repercussions for Chinggis Khan’s campaigns against the Jin Empire. The Tung Ching expedition affected the political situation of Liaotung, exposed the corruption of the Jin Rulers, and finally separated Manchuria from the rest of the Jin Empire.
  364. Find this resource:
  365. Waterson, James. Defending Heaven: China’s Mongol Wars 1209–1370. London: Frontline, 2013.
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  367. A narrative history, taken largely from the Chinese perspective, of the Mongol conquest of China. While Waterson does write on the defeat of the Jin Empire, the vast majority of the work is dedicated to the fall of the Song Empire, with particular emphasis paid to the organization and logistics of the Song military. This is the most detailed study of the conquest of the Song currently available.
  368. Find this resource:
  369. Wright, David Curtis. “The Mongol General Bayan and the Massacre of Changzhou, 1275.” Altaica 7 (2002): 108–121.
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  371. Explores General Bayan’s activities at Changzhou during a critical moment during the last years of the Song campaign.
  372. Find this resource:
  373. Wright, David Curtis. “Navies in the Mongol Yuan Conquest of Southern Song China, 1274–1279.” Mongolian Studies 29 (2007): 207–216.
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  375. One does not normally associate a navy with the Mongols, but Wright adroitly demonstrates its importance and necessity in defeating the Song Empire. Wright examines its creation and composition, as well as the tactics that the Mongols used, which were quite different from traditional Chinese naval warfare.
  376. Find this resource:
  377. Wright, David Curtis. “Artillery Is Not Needed to Cross a River: Bayan’s Swift Riparian Campaigns against the Southern Song Chinese, 1274–1276.” Calgary Papers in Military and Strategic Studies 2 (2008): 91–104.
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  379. A study of the general Bayan’s river campaigns. Wright’s work considers how the Mongols crossed rivers and used them to tactical and strategic advantage during the conquest of the Song Empire.
  380. Find this resource:
  381. Campaigns in Korea
  382.  
  383. The kingdom of Koryo proved to an obstinate foe and vassal of the Mongols, as well as one of its most important kingdoms. Henthorn 1963 provides the basic narrative along with analysis of the Mongol invasions from the time of Chinggis Khan through the Yuan era, although Rockstein 1972 is useful, with a brief overview of the campaigns. More detailed discussions of the Mongol wars in Korea and Mongolian rule can be found in Huang 2000, Ledyard 1964, and Ledyard 1961.
  384.  
  385. Henthorn, W. E. Korea: The Mongol Invasions. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1963.
  386. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  387. Despite its age, Henthorn’s detailed account of the Mongol conquest of Korea remains an important work, particularly for those without access to the Korean sources.
  388. Find this resource:
  389. Huang, K’uan-chung. “Mountain Fortress Defence: The Experience of the Southern Sung and Korea in Resisting the Mongol Invasions.” In Warfare in Chinese History. Edited by Hans Van de Ven, 222–251. Sinica Leidensia 47. Edited by W. L. Idema. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2000.
  390. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  391. In addition to exploring how the mountain fortresses shaped the Mongol campaigns against the Song Empire and Korea, the author explores which state used them most effectively.
  392. Find this resource:
  393. Ledyard, Gary. “The Establishment of Mongolian Military Governors in Korea in 1231.” Phi Theta Papers 6 (1961): 1–17.
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  395. Discusses the establishment of tammachin in Korea and the difficulties the military governors faced in ruling Korea.
  396. Find this resource:
  397. Ledyard, Gary. “The Mongol Campaigns in Korea and the Dating of ‘The Secret History of the Mongols’.” Central Asiatic Journal 9 (1964): 1–22.
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  399. Ledyard’s study summarizes the campaigns and then attempts to make sense of the campaigns, as mentioned in The Secret History of the Mongols with its often imprecise and vague dating system.
  400. Find this resource:
  401. Rockstein, Edward. “The Mongol Invasions of Korea.” Mongolia Society Bulletin 11.2 (1972): 55–75.
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  403. A brief overview of the invasions; serves as nice starting point for the study of the Mongol campaigns there.
  404. Find this resource:
  405. Campaigns in Central Asia
  406.  
  407. First published at the turn of the 20th century, Bartold 1992 remains a standard study of the region and provides the basic interpretation of events for the Mongol conquest of the region. Prior to the great Western campaign, the Mongols were active in the Kipchak steppes from the time of Chinggis Khan. Allsen 1983 examines these actions. There is a curious lack of publication on the Mongol conquest of Central Asia, perhaps because of the reverence given to Bartold’s interpretation. Some additional works do move beyond his work, though. Buell 1992 challenges the standard chronology of events for the Mongols’ campaign against the Khwarazmian Empire. Buell’s argument is convincing and brings in elements from Chinese sources that Bartold did not consider. Boyle 1964 examines the Mongol occupation of Afghanistan. Manz 2010 takes the perspective of how the Mongol invasion impacted the Muslim population.
  408.  
  409. Allsen, Thomas T. “Prelude to the Western Campaigns: Mongol Military Operations in the Volga-Ural Region, 1217–1237.” Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi III (1983): 5–23.
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  411. A study of Mongol operations in the Kipchak Steppe prior to the Great Western Campaign that conquered the Kipchak Steppe and the Russian Principalities between 1237 and 1240. Allsen’s work clearly demonstrates that contrary to the Russian sources, the Mongols did not appear out of nowhere and had been active in the region for two decades.
  412. Find this resource:
  413. Bartold, Vasili Vladimirovich. Turkestan down to the Mongol Invasion. 3d ed. Translated by T. Minorsky. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1992.
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  415. Although the study covers the region from the 7th century and remains a classic example of Russian academic brilliance, the second half of this work is devoted to the Mongol period and remains useful. More recently, however, some scholars have begun to challenge Bartold.
  416. Find this resource:
  417. Boyle, John Andrew. “The Mongol Commanders in Afghanistan and India According to the Tabaqat-i-Nasiri of Juzjani.” Central Asiatic Journal 9 (1964): 235–247.
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  419. Boyle explores the names listed in this Persian source and attempts to identify them with those mentioned in other Persian sources. As the spellings often varied widely, this was no simple task. Boyle then provides a biographical accompaniment where appropriate.
  420. Find this resource:
  421. Buell, Paul D. “Early Mongol Expansion into Western Siberia and Turkestan (1207–1219): A Reconstruction.” Central Asiatic Journal 36 (1992): 1–32.
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  423. In addition to examining the early Mongol campaigns into Siberia, led by Jochi, and Jebe’s invasion of Kara Khitai, Buell also argues that the first contact between the Khwarazmian Empire and the Mongols occurred prior to 1219. His argument rests on a detailed analysis of Mongolian and Chinese sources.
  424. Find this resource:
  425. Manz, Beatrice Forbes. “The Rule of Infidels: The Mongols and the Islamic World.” In The New Cambridge History of Islam. Vol. 3, The Eastern Islamic World Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries. Edited by David O. Morgan and Anthony Reid, 128–168. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
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  427. A nice survey of Mongol conquest and rule in Central Asia and the Middle East. While Manz primarily focuses on the overall impact, this work serves as an excellent starting point for Mongol military history in the region.
  428. Find this resource:
  429. Campaigns in Transcaucasia (Armenia, Georgia)
  430.  
  431. The Mongols first entered Transcaucasia during Sübedei’s and Jebe’s famous reconnaissance en force. The Mongol army later conquered the region in the 1230s, and it remained a crucial area in the post-dissolution era. Dashdondog 2011 provides a complete history of Mongol activity in region, while Dashdondog 2012 provides additional insight. Galstyan 1975 offers a very solid overview of the conquests, but May 2012, which focuses on Chormaqan, the Mongol general who conquered the region in the late 1230s, challenges some of Galstyan’s conclusions.
  432.  
  433. Dashdondog, Bayarsaikhan. The Mongols and the Armenians (1220–1335). Brill’s Inner Asian Library 24. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2011.
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  435. A complete history of Mongol interactions with Armenia from the “Reconnaissance en force” of Sübedei and Jebe to the fall of the Ilkhanate. The work considers not only Mongol campaigns in the region but also the Armenians who served in the Mongol army as auxiliary troops and vassals in the Middle East theater. Excellent maps.
  436. Find this resource:
  437. Dashdondog, Bayarsaikhan. “The Mongol Conquerors in Armenia.” In Caucasus during the Mongol Period: Der Kaukasus in der Mongolenzeit. Edited by Jürgen Tübach, Sophia G. Vashalomidze, and Manfred Zimmer, 53–82. Wiesbaden, Germany: Reichert Verlag, 2012.
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  439. A study of the Mongol military activity in Transcausia. In many ways it is a brief summary of The Mongols and Armenians (Dashdondog 2011) but still provides additional insights and discussion of the Mongol conquest of the region.
  440. Find this resource:
  441. Galstyan, A. G. “The Conquest of Armenia by the Mongol Armies.” The Armenian Review 27 (1975): 356–377.
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  443. A review of the primary sources and compilation of the conquest of Armenia. A commendable work, particularly because of the difficulty in dating the Armenian sources. Now somewhat outdated in chronology, it remains useful in its analysis.
  444. Find this resource:
  445. May, Timothy. “The Conquest and Rule of Transcaucasia: The Era of Chormaqan.” In Caucasus during the Mongol Period: Der Kaukasus in der Mongolenzeit. Edited by Jürgen Tübach, Sophia G. Vashalomidze, and Manfred Zimmer, 129–152. Wiesbaden, Germany: Reichert Verlag, 2012.
  446. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  447. A study of Chormaqan Noyan’s conquest of Transcaucasia. Emphasis is given to the reasons that the Mongols came to the region and the invasion’s connection with Mongol military operations in other parts of the expanding empire.
  448. Find this resource:
  449. Campaigns in the Middle East
  450.  
  451. The Mongol conquest of the Middle East has been a particularly productive area of scholarship, because of the richness of the primary sources in Arabic and Persian, as well as the fascination with two of the Mongols’ targets: the Ismaili Nizaris (also known as the Assassins) and the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad. Regarding the Ismailis, Boyle 1977, although difficult to find, still provides the best survey. May 2006 examines the more cordial military relations that the Mongols had prior to the reign of Möngke Khan. Somogyi 1936, an older study, again demonstrates why historians should not ignore “old” research, as the author examines the reliability of a source on the fall of the Abbasid Caliphate. The Mongols, however, also conquered a number of smaller entities. While conquest was often easy, ruling can be more tumultuous, as is evident in Kolbas, et al. 2011 and Melville 2009, the latter of which examines events in Anatolia from conquest to rebellions during the Ilkhanid period. Cahen 1939 also deals with Anatolia on the eve of the Mongol invasion and, despite its age, demonstrates that Cahen’s many works still hold great value to present-day scholars. Cahen 2001 is an updated translation of La Turquie Pré-Ottomane and provides a succinct narrative of Anatolia’s various historical actors until the rise of the Ottomans. Although numerous other studies of the Mongol invasion of the Middle East exist, Goitein 1956 is included, as it discusses the Hebrew sources for the invasion—a still underutilized source of study. Smith 1996 provides an in-depth study of the Mongols in the Middle East and what adjustments the Mongols had to make once they arrived.
  452.  
  453. Boyle, John A. “The Ismāʿīlis and the Mongol Invasion.” In Ismāʿīlī Contribution to Islamic Culture. Edited by Seyyid Hossein Nasr, 7–22. Teheran, Iran: Imperial Iranian Academy of Philosophy, 1977.
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  455. A consideration of the Mongol destruction of the Ismailis and discussion on the entire campaign against the Ismailis. Most works tend to focus on the siege of Alamut. Although dated, Boyle’s work remains a useful starting point for research.
  456. Find this resource:
  457. Cahen, Claude. “Quelques textes négligés concernant les Turcomans de Rūm au moment de l’invasion mongole.” Byzantion 14 (1939): 131–139.
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  459. This article, as with all of Cahen’s work, is foundational for any work dealing with the Mongol conquest of the Seljuks of Rum. Here, Cahen reviews Arabic sources that discuss the Seljuks of Rum prior to the Mongol invasions. Cahen’s work provides a snapshot of the kingdom just as the Mongols invaded in 1243.
  460. Find this resource:
  461. Cahen, Claude. The Formation of Turkey: The Seljukid Sultanate of Rūm: Eleventh to Fourteenth Century. Translated by P. M. Holt. London: Pearson, 2001.
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  463. A narrative of two centuries of Seljukid history in Anatolia, it also provides a clear understanding of events of the Mongol conquest of the region, as well as how the Seljuks fit into the Mongol Empire.
  464. Find this resource:
  465. Goitein, Shelomo Dov. “Glimpses from the Cairo Geniza on Naval Warfare in the Mediterranean and on the Mongol Invasion.” Studi Orientalistic in onore di Levi della Vida 1 (1956): 393–408.
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  467. An account and analysis, based on correspondence found in the Cairo Geniza, of the Mongol invasions of the Middle East. The letters are included in the original Hebrew and in translation in appendices at the end of the article.
  468. Find this resource:
  469. Kolbas, Judith, Timothy May, and Vlastimil Novak. Anatolian Early 14th Century Coin Hoard. Prague: National Museum, 2011.
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  471. Difficult-to-find work but useful for military history, with its overview of rebellions in Anatolia against Ilkhanid rule and demonstration of the link with the silver mines.
  472. Find this resource:
  473. May, Timothy. “A Mongol-Ismaili Alliance? Thoughts on the Mongols and Assassins.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 14.3 (2006): 1–9.
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  475. Explores a possible alliance against the Khwarazmshah, Jalal al-Din, and the intelligence given to Chormaqan during his invasion of the Middle East.
  476. Find this resource:
  477. Melville, Charles. “Anatolia under the Mongols.” In The Cambridge History of Turkey. Vol. 1, Byzantium to Turkey 1071–1453. Edited by Kate Fleet, 51–101. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2009.
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  479. Covers the Mongol conquest of the Saljuq Sultanate of Rum in 1243 until the end of the Ilkhanate in 1335. Excellent study of Mongol rule of this often rebellious province of the Ilkhanate.
  480. Find this resource:
  481. Smith, John Masson, Jr. “Mongol Society and Military in the Middle East: Antecedents and Adaptations”. In War and Society in the Eastern Mediterranean, 7th and 15th Centuries. Edited by Yaacov Lev, 249–266. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1996.
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  483. Study of the Mongols after conquest and their adaption to settling in the Middle East during the last united Empire and then the Ilkhanid period. Smith includes a detailed examination of the post-dissolution Mongol military in the Middle East.
  484. Find this resource:
  485. Somogyi, Joseph De. “Adh-Dhahabi’s ‘Ta’rikh al-Islam’ as an Authority on the Mongol Invasion of the Caliphate.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Soceity 4 (1936): 595–604.
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  487. Discusses the primary source in relation to the destruction of the Abbasid Caliphate in comparison with other sources.
  488. Find this resource:
  489. Campaigns in Russia
  490.  
  491. The Mongol Conquest of Russia was part of the Western Campaign. The Mongols’ subsequent rule of the Rus’ principalities became known in Russian history as the Mongol Yoke—a period of unbridled oppression. Fennell 1983 remains a detailed account of the conquest of Russia and provides the proper context for events preceding the conquest. Halperin 1987 explores the conquest and long-term impact, while Halperin 2009 explodes the myth of the Mongol or Tatar Yoke. Ostrowski 2002 is also a welcome addition in examining the impact on Russia. Like Halperin 1987, Ostrowski 2002 considers not only social and political impact, but also the ramifications on Russia’s military development. Dimnik 1979 discusses how material from the pre-Mongol and Mongol period often becomes intertwined in the chronicles, posing potential traps for scholars. Ostrowski 2007 examines the life of Alexander Nevskii and his relationship with the Mongols, as depicted in two sources. The examination of how the sources intermingled or recycled events is continued in Ostrowski 2009.
  492.  
  493. Dimnik, Martin. “The Siege of Chernigov in 1235.” Medieval Studies XLI (1979): 387–403.
  494. DOI: 10.1484/J.MS.2.306249Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  495. Although the title refers to the beginning of internecine princely warfare among the Rus’, Dimnik spends considerable time discussing the Mongol siege of Chernigov in 1239. In this piece, Dimnik discusses how events in the two sieges become intermingled in the sources. Very useful for understanding Rus’ warfare prior to the Mongols.
  496. Find this resource:
  497. Fennell, John. The Crisis of Medieval Russia, 1200–1304. New York: Longman, 1983.
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  499. A survey of medieval Russian history during the Mongol period. Fennell provides an excellent review of the Mongol conquest of the Russian principalities as well as placing it in the context of the political history of the Rus’. He then continues the narrative history of the Russian principalities, along with their role and activities, including military, as part of the Mongol Empire.
  500. Find this resource:
  501. Halperin, Charles J. Russia and the Golden Horde: The Mongol Impact on Medieval Russian History. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987.
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  503. Overview of Mongol conquest of the Rus’, as well as later conflicts with the waning of Mongol power.
  504. Find this resource:
  505. Halperin, Charles J. The Tatar Yoke: The Image of the Mongols in Medieval Russia. Bloomington, IN: Slavica, 2009.
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  507. Examination of the Rus’ sources and their understanding of the Mongol Conquest of the Rus’ state.
  508. Find this resource:
  509. Ostrowski, Donald. Muscovy and the Mongols: Cross-Cultural Influences on the Steppe Frontier, 1304–1589. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2002.
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  511. Examines Mongol influence on Muscovy, including military influences.
  512. Find this resource:
  513. Ostrowski, Donald. “The Galician-Volynian Chronicle, the Life of Alexander Nevskii and the Thirteenth-Century Military Tale.” Palaeoslavica 15.2 (2007): 307–324.
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  515. Examines the two Russian sources and their connections with each other, and how they shape our understanding of not only the Prince Alexander Nevskii but also his relationship with the Golden Horde, An important work pertaining to the military history of the Golden Horde.
  516. Find this resource:
  517. Ostrowski, Donald. “The Tatar Campaign of 1252.” Palaeoslavica 17.2 (2009): 46–64.
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  519. Discusses the Mongol campaign against Prince Andrei of Suzdal, brother to Alexander Nevskii, in 1252. Ostrowski considers not only the campaign as portrayed in the sources, but also how the campaign has been viewed by scholars and attempts to differentiate what is history and is speculation.
  520. Find this resource:
  521. The Western Campaign
  522.  
  523. The Western Campaign, which included the conquest of Russia and the invasion of Europe, has long been a favorite topic for both scholars and popular history writers. Chambers 2003 remains one of the best popular works, while Jackson 2005 serves as an excellent academic antidote. Vasary 2005 considers one of the forgotten events that resulted from the invasion, while Menache 1996 explores the impact of the Mongol invasion on the Jewish population in Europe. Minorsky 1952 reviews the overlooked campaign against the Alans that occurred at the same time the Mongols conquered the Rus’ principalities. Golden 2000 analyzes the consequences of the conquest of the Kipchak Steppes during the Western Campaign for those Turks who did not flee into Europe.
  524.  
  525. Chambers, James. The Devil’s Horsemen: The Mongol Invasion of Europe. Edison, NJ: Castle, 2003.
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  527. A popular history of the Mongol invasion of Europe. Originally published in 1979, it remains useful for the general narrative and flow of events. Chambers also appears to be the origin for the unsubstantiated claim that the Mongols wore silk for protective purposes against arrows.
  528. Find this resource:
  529. Golden, Peter B. “‘I Will Give the People unto Thee’”: The Cinggisid Conquests and Their Aftermath in the Turkic World.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 10 (2000): 21–42.
  530. DOI: 10.1017/S1356186300011925Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  531. Examines the Mongol conquest of the Kipchak Steppes and the repercussions on the Turkic population of the region.
  532. Find this resource:
  533. Jackson, Peter. The Mongols and the West. Edinburgh Gate, UK: Pearson, 2005.
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  535. Primarily focused on interactions between the Mongols and Europe. Jackson also provides detailed coverage of the Mongol invasion of 1240–1241, as well as alliances or attempts to establish alliances with the Mongols and later conflicts. Erudite and lucid, it is the starting place for studying Mongol military affairs with Europe.
  536. Find this resource:
  537. Menache, Sophia. “Tartars, Jews, Saracens and the Jewish-Mongol ‘Plot’ of 1241.” History 81 (1996): 319–342.
  538. DOI: 10.1111/1468-229X.00014Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  539. Examines the “non-event” of a Jewish-Mongol alliance connected with the Mongol invasion of Europe in 1241. One of the rumors that arose from the invasion was that the Mongols were the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel and coming to avenge the Jews in Europe. The article examines the origins of the “plot,” as well as Christian and Jewish reactions to it and how it affected the preparations to defend against future Mongol invasions.
  540. Find this resource:
  541. Minorsky, Vladimir. “Caucasica III: The Alan Capital Magas and the Mongol Campaigns.” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 14.2 (1952): 221–252.
  542. DOI: 10.1017/S0041977X00083828Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  543. Examination of the Mongol conquest of the Alans, located north of the Caucasus Mountains. Minorsky demonstrates that while much of the Western Campaign of 1237–1241 went smoothly for the Mongols, reducing the Alan capital of Magas took considerably more effort.
  544. Find this resource:
  545. Richard, Jean. “Les causes des victoires mongoles d’après les historiens occidentaux du XIIIe siècle.” Central Asiatic Journal 23 (1979): 104–117.
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  547. Richard explores how Western contemporaries explained the Mongol victories, particularly against the forces of Christendom. Richard explains that the sources primarily lay the blame on European kings, but that closer reading reveals that the observers were most impressed with Mongol discipline, as well as their tactics.
  548. Find this resource:
  549. Vasary, Istvan. Cumans and Tatars: Oriental Military in the Pre-Ottoman Balkans, 1185–1365. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
  550. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511496622Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  551. One of the few studies on the Cumans, or Kipchaks, the nomads who comprised much of the Golden Horde. Vasary examines their contact with Balkan kingdoms prior to the Mongol Invasions, as well as the events of the invasion of Hungary and the Balkans. In addition, the work examines the presence of the Mongols (Tatars in Vasary’s work) and the Kipchaks in later invasions and the role of the Kipchaks in local armies, as well as within the Mongol military system.
  552. Find this resource:
  553. Yuval Israel Jacob. “Jewish Messianic Expectations towards 1240 and Christian Reactions.” In Toward the Millennium: Messianic Expectations from the Bible to Waco. Edited by Peter Schäfer and Mark Cohen. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1998.
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  555. A study of Jewish reactions and expectations to the Mongol invasion of Europe. Yuval thoughtfully considers expectation in the European Jewish community on the approach of the year 1240, which was thought to be the year that the Messiah would appear. Coincidentally, the Mongols arrived instead.
  556. Find this resource:
  557. Campaigns against Japan
  558.  
  559. Besides the invasion of Europe, the second most discussed military action of the Mongols is their failed invasion of Japan. As with the invasion of Europe, it receives a fair amount of attention from both popular and scholarly works. Yamada 1916 is an early study of the invasion and remains a good starting point for readers. Conlon 2002 provides a scholarly examination of the Japanese sources and determines that the Japanese would not have needed the “Kamikaze” to defeat the Mongols. Delgado 2008 is written for a general audience but with very careful and up-to-date scholarship. Turnbull 2010 is one of the lavishly illustrated Osprey books and is bolstered with solid research and the latest archaeological data at the time.
  560.  
  561. Conlon, Thomas D. In Little Need of Divine Intervention: Takezaki Suenaga’s Scrolls of the Mongol Invasions of Japan. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2002.
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  563. Translation and analysis of the Japanese scrolls depicting the Mongol invasions of Japan.
  564. Find this resource:
  565. Delgado, James P. Khubilai Khan’s Lost Fleet: In search of a Legendary Fleet. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008.
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  567. Provides a detailed and balanced study of Khubilai’s Japanese campaigns and places them in a larger context. Includes up-to-date archaeological studies.
  568. Find this resource:
  569. Turnbull, Stephen. The Mongol Invasions of Japan 1274 and 1281. New York: Osprey, 2010.
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  571. One of the best Osprey books from the Campaign Series. The combination of art, narrative, and the latest research makes the book useful to scholars and enthusiasts alike.
  572. Find this resource:
  573. Yamada, Nakaba. Ghenkō: The Mongol Invasion of Japan. London: Smith, Elder, 1916.
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  575. The first study in English to use Japanese sources about the invasion. Clear bias that paints it the invasions as a war between civilization and barbarism. Still useful for the general flow of events.
  576. Find this resource:
  577. Campaigns in Tibet and Southeast Asia
  578.  
  579. The study of Mongol wars in Southeast Asia remains a fertile field for investigation. The only monograph on the invasion of Java is Bade 2013. Buell 2009 provides a succinct analysis of the Mongol invasions of Vietnam. Tibet, an area that has received much attention for its religious role in the Mongol Empire, has received scant attention regarding the Mongol conquest. Wylie 1977 strips away the Tibetan religio-historic interpretation to analyze the Mongol conquest of Tibet. Haw 2013 continues with the updating of our understanding of the conquest by incorporating new research and sources.
  580.  
  581. Bade, David. Of Palm Wine, Women and War: The Mongolian Naval Expedition to Java in the 13th Century. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2013.
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  583. Detailed study of the motives for the invasion of Indonesia. Several Javanese sources are translated in the work.
  584. Find this resource:
  585. Buell, Paul D. “Indochina, Vietnamese Nationalism and the Mongols.” In The Early Mongols: Language, Culture, and History; Studies in Honor of Igor de Rachewiltz on the Occasion of His 80th Birthday. Edited by Volker Rybatzki, Alessandra Pozzi, Peter W. Geier, and John R. Krueger, 21–30. Bloomington, IN: Denis Sinor Institute for Inner Asian Studies, 2009.
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  587. Briefly overviews the Mongol invasions of Vietnam as well as placing the invasions in the context of the longue durée and their meaning in modern Vietnam.
  588. Find this resource:
  589. Haw, Stephen G. “The Mongol Conquest of Tibet.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 24 (2013): 1–13.
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  591. A re-examination of the Mongol conquest of Tibet. Focuses on Chinggis Khan’s knowledge of Tibet as well as the gradual conquest of Tibet in the 1240s and 1250s.
  592. Find this resource:
  593. Wylie, Turrell V. “The First Mongol Conquest of Tibet Reinterpreted.” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 37.1 (1977): 103–133.
  594. DOI: 10.2307/2718667Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  595. Evaluates the Tibetan sources, which are often fragmentary and mythic, and attempts to tie them with the actual events. Wylie also places the events involving Tibet into a larger context of other conquests of the Mongol Empire.
  596. Find this resource:
  597. Campaigns in South Asia
  598.  
  599. The Sultanate of Delhi (1206–1526) formed and co-existed with the Mongol Empire. With the destruction of the Khwarazmian Empire in the 1220s, the Mongols shared a frontier with Delhi. Even after the dissolution of the empire, contacts remained frequent. The Chaghatayid Mongols launched several massive invasions against India, especially during the reigns of Sultans Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad bin Tughluq. Dawa Khan and Tarmshirin Khan invaded India quite a few times with large armies. Jackson 1999 is the most important book regarding this topic. Jackson 2009 is an anthology of the author’s articles related to the Mongols in India. Digby 1971 considers the use of war horses and elephants in the Sultanate of Delhi and how they were used against the Mongols. Jackson 1990 also considers the events that brought the Mongols into South Asia. Biran 2002 examines the policies of one Chaghatayid Khan in South Asia and how his conversion to Islam impacted the region. Finally, Kumar 2009 examines the role of emigrants from the Mongol Empire who found employment in the Sultanate of Delhi and shows that the invasions yielded more that destruction and plunder.
  600.  
  601. Biran, Michal. “The Chaghadaids and Islam: The Conversion of Tarmashirin Khan (1331–34).” Journal of the American Oriental Society 122.4 (2002): 742–752.
  602. DOI: 10.2307/3217613Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  603. Although the thrust of the article deals with conversion matters, Biran analyzes how this conversion affected Tarmashirin’s domestic policies and foreign policies, including his relations with states in South Asia.
  604. Find this resource:
  605. Digby, Simon. War-Horse and Elephant in the Delhi Sultanate. Oxford: Orient Monographs, 1971.
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  607. India is famous for its inability to produce sufficient horses for its military. Digby explores how the Sultanate acquired horses from the region (Central Asia) that controlled its supply of horses, as well as how war elephants were used by the Delhi’s military.
  608. Find this resource:
  609. Jackson, Peter. “Jalāl al-Dīn, the Mongols, and the Khwarazmian Conquest of the Panjāb and Sind.” Iran 28 (1990): 45–54.
  610. DOI: 10.2307/4299834Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  611. Included in Jackson 2009 but merits special attention, as it examines how much of modern Pakistan became part of the Khwarazmian Empire as well as Mongol activities in these regions. Most works pay attention only to after the establishment the Mongols in Afghanistan.
  612. Find this resource:
  613. Jackson, Peter. The Delhi Sultanate: A Political and Military History. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
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  615. A detailed history and analysis of the Delhi Sultanate. As the Sultanate arose in the shadow of the Mongol Empire, Jackson carefully considers how the presence of the Mongol Empire affected the Sultanate of Delhi, including the numerous raids from the Chaghatayid Khanate. It is the most important study of the Mongol activities in Central Asia.
  616. Find this resource:
  617. Jackson, Peter. Studies on the Mongol Empire and Early Muslim India. Variorum Collected Studies. Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2009.
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  619. An anthology of Jackson’s articles and chapters on the Mongols and India. While some of the pieces cover material found in Jackson 1999, there are several with new material. Jackson remains the leading scholar on the Mongols and India.
  620. Find this resource:
  621. Kumar, Sunil. “The Ignored Elites: Turks, Mongols and a Persian Secretarial Class in the Early Delhi Sultanate.” Modern Asian Studies 43.1 (2009): 45–77.
  622. DOI: 10.1017/S0026749X07003319Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  623. Examines individuals and groups that entered in the service of the Sultan of Delhi after having served or lived in the Mongol Empire. This class included not only refugees and elites, but also Mongol and Turk soldiers.
  624. Find this resource:
  625. The Ilkhanate
  626.  
  627. As with the pre-dissolution Middle East, the Mongol Ilkhanate that dominated much of the Middle East after 1260 has a rich body of scholarship because of the availability of sources. Reuven Amitai deserved much of the credit for exploring the Arabic sources and demonstrating their importance to balancing the largely pro-Mongol Persian sources. Amitai 1987 explores the goals of Mongol raids into Palestine, while Amitai-Preiss 1995 examines the Ilkhanid conflict with the Mamluk Sultanate in all of its aspects. Amitai 2005 updates the conclusions in Amitai-Preiss 1995. Amitai 2002 explores the successful conquest of Syria by Ghazan Khan in 1299–1300. Broadbridge 2008 ties into the discussion of the Mamluk-Ilkhanid war from the perspective of kingship, but also adds the perspective of the Golden Horde. Warfare and the resolution of warfare have not been the only aspects of study. Kolbas 2006 discusses the fiscal administration, while Lane 2003 considers the early Ilkhanid government. Combined, they assist in providing an intriguing glimpse into how the Ilkhanids managed the state and funded their wars. Of course, not all wars were with the Golden Horde or the Mamluks. Melville 2001 investigates the often ignored conquest of the mountainous region of Gilan by the Caspian Sea.
  628.  
  629. Amitai, Reuven. “Mongol Raids into Palestine (A.D. 1260–1300).” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 2 (1987): 236–255.
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  631. The raids discussed here begin with those predating the Battle of ‘Ayn Jalut, such as skirmishes with Crusader settlements. Amitai then continues with an analysis of Mongol raids with Ghazan Khan’s invasion of Syria in 1300.
  632. Find this resource:
  633. Amitai, Reuven. “Whither the Ilkhanid Army? Ghazan’s First Campaign into Syria (1299–1300).” In Warfare in Inner Asian History. Edited by Nicola Di Cosmo, 221–264. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2002.
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  635. Considers the issue of pasture and Ghazan’s initial forays into Syria.
  636. Find this resource:
  637. Amitai, Reuven. “The Resolution of the Mongol-Mamluk War.” In Mongols, Turks, and Others: Eurasian Nomads and the Sedentary World. Edited by Reuven Amitai and Michal Biran, 359–390. Brill’s Inner Asian Library 11. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2005.
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  639. An updated analysis of how the Mongol-Mamluk war ended and its ramifications.
  640. Find this resource:
  641. Amitai-Preiss, Reuven. Mongols and Mamluks: The Mamluk-Ilkhanid War, 1260–1281. Cambridge Studies in Islamic Civilization. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
  642. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511563485Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  643. Reviews the war between the Mamluks and Ilkhanids. Amitai-Preiss demonstrates the importance of the Arabic sources in studying the Mongols.
  644. Find this resource:
  645. Broadbridge, Anne F. Kingship and Ideology in the Islamic and Mongol Worlds. Cambridge Studies in Islamic Civilization. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2008.
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  647. Useful for understanding the Mamluk–Golden Horde alliance, as well as the difficulties in establishing peace between the Ilkhanids and Mamluks.
  648. Find this resource:
  649. Kolbas, Judith. The Mongols in Iran: Chingiz Khan to Uljaytu 1220–1309. London: Routledge, 2006.
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  651. Although the work is primarily focused on fiscal administration, it is useful for understanding how the Ilkhanids funded their wars beyond plunder, as well as what regions were financially strategic.
  652. Find this resource:
  653. Lane, George. Early Mongol Rule in Thirteenth-Century Iran: A Persian Renaissance. Studies in the History of Iran and Turkey. London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2003.
  654. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  655. Examines the Mongol conquest of Iran, as well as reviewing the Ilkhanids border wars with other Mongol states.
  656. Find this resource:
  657. Melville, Charles. “The Īlkhān Öljeitü’s Conquest of Gīlān (1307): Rumor and Reality.” In The Mongol Empire and Its Legacy. Edited by Reuven Amitai-Preiss and David O. Morgan, 73–125. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2001.
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  659. Study of the conquest of Gilan in northern Iran, which was one of the few regions the Mongols did not conquer in the 13th century and also one of the few successes by the Ilkhans in expanding their empire.
  660. Find this resource:
  661. Golden Horde
  662.  
  663. Scholarship on the Golden Horde has largely focused on interactions with Russia. This view is gradually shifting and new studies are slowly gaining momentum. Only of the earliest innovative studies is Allsen 1985, which explores the lesser-known eastern portion of the Golden Horde. Jackson 1978 reviews the rise of the civil war between the Golden Horde and the Ilkhanate. Ciociltan 2012 covers a large topic in the Black Sea trade, but does not omit the Mongol invasions, civil wars, and feuds with the Italian merchant colonies. Schamiloglu 1993 examines the impact of the Black Plague on the Golden Horde.
  664.  
  665. Allsen, Thomas T. “The Princes of the Left Hand: An Introduction to the History of the Ulus of Orda in the Thirteenth and Early Fourteenth Centuries.” Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi V (1985): 5–40.
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  667. A study of the eastern portion of the so-called Golden Horde, known alternately as the Aq (White) or Kök (Blue) Orda. Allsen explores the origins of the Ulus of Orda and its interactions, both political and military, with the rest of the Golden Horde and the larger Mongol Empire.
  668. Find this resource:
  669. Ciociltan, Virgil. The Mongols and the Black Sea Trade in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2012.
  670. DOI: 10.1163/9789004236431Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  671. Although the study focuses primarily on trade, military historians will also gain significantly from this work, as it discusses tensions between the Golden Horde and the Italian trading cities on the Black Sea coast. It also is useful for considering how trade funded the Mongols’ wars of expansion and their civil wars.
  672. Find this resource:
  673. Jackson, Peter. “The Dissolution of the Mongol Empire.” Central Asiatic Journal 22 (1978): 186–244.
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  675. One of the most influential pieces of scholarship on the Mongol Empire. Jackson examines the underlying reasons for the dissolution of the Mongol Empire, with an emphasis on Jochid claims to territory occupied by Hülegü. Jackson examines not only the claims, but also the conflict that erupted from those claims after 1260.
  676. Find this resource:
  677. Schamiloglu, Uli. “Preliminary Remarks on the Role of Disease in the History of the Golden Horde.” Central Asian Survey 12.4 (1993): 447–457.
  678. DOI: 10.1080/02634939308400830Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  679. In this work Schamiloglu examines the impact of disease, particularly the Black Plague, on the Golden Horde. While Schamiloglu primarily discusses the economic and social implications caused by the plague, one must not also ignore how the plague affected the military capabilities of the Golden Horde.
  680. Find this resource:
  681. Yuan Empire
  682.  
  683. In addition to failed attempts to conquer Japan, Java, and southeast Asia, the Yuan also dealt with civil wars and massive rebellions. Hsiao 1978 analyzes the Yuan military in all aspects, while Robinson 2009 is an excellent study of the last years of the Yuan Empire, with a close analysis of the Red Turban Rebellion. Liu 2005 examines war between the Chaghadaid Khanate and the Yuan Empire in the 14th century. Chan 2009 uses the biography of Naqacu as a lens to view the chaos at the end of the Yuan period. Polo 2012 is a primary source that discusses the wars of the Yuan, including those abroad, as well as the war with Qaidu during the reign of Khubilai Khan.
  684.  
  685. Chan, Hok-lam. “Naqacu the Grand Marshall, a Mongol Warlord in Manchuria during the Yuan-Ming Transition.” In The Early Mongols: Language, Culture, and History; Studies in Honor of Igor de Rachewiltz on the Occasion of His 80th Birthday. Edited by Volker Rybatzki, Alessandra Pozzi, Peter W. Geier, and John R. Krueger, 31–46. Bloomington, IN: Denis Sinor Institute for Inner Asian Studies, 2009.
  686. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  687. This brief examination of the end of the Yuan period not only nicely illustrates the chaos of the period, but also demonstrates how Mongol authority and prestige did not evaporate with the Mongolian evacuation of China.
  688. Find this resource:
  689. Hsiao, Ch’i-ch’ing. The Military Establishment of the Yuan Dynasty. Cambridge, MA: Council on East Asian Studies at Harvard University, 1978.
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  691. In addition to his analysis of the Yuan military, Hsiao also includes two translated chapters pertaining to the military from the Yuan Shi, the major source for the Yuan Empire.
  692. Find this resource:
  693. Liu, Yingsheng. “War and Peace between the Yuan Dynasty and the Chaghadaid Khanate (1312–1323).” In Mongols, Turks, and Others: Eurasian Nomads and the Sedentary World. Edited by Reuven Amitai and Michal Biran, 339–358. Brill’s Inner Asian Library 11. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2005.
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  695. One of the few works that focuses solely on the war between the Yuan and Chaghadaid Khanate in the post-Khubilai and post-Qaidu world.
  696. Find this resource:
  697. Polo, Marco. The Travels. Translated by Henry Yule and Henri Cordier. Edited by Morris Rossabi. New York: Sterling, 2012.
  698. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  699. Rossabi provides an introduction to the most famous traveler in history but retains the Yule translation, revised by Cordier. Although many translations exist, the Yule-Cordier translation is the most erudite.
  700. Find this resource:
  701. Robinson, David M. Empire’s Twilight: Northeast Asia under the Mongols. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009.
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  703. Detailed analysis of the Red Turban Rebellion during the reign of Toghon-Temür and the military actions taken.
  704. Find this resource:
  705. Battles
  706.  
  707. Despite a wide range of wars, there are few articles on specific battles from the Mongol wars. Smith 1984 considers the many aspects of battle and considers, as the title implies, what truly happened at ‘Ayn Jalut, while Saunders 1977 considers not only the battle but its ramifications. Thorau 1985 adds an additional dimension with the examination of another Arabic sources. Amitai 1992 explores ‘Ayn Jalut as well as challenging the earlier scholarship. Amitai-Preiss 1995 considers the entire Mamluk-Ilkhanid War, but also sheds new light on the second battle of Homs in 1281, while Amitai 2002 considers the third battle of Homs in 1299. Biran 2002 explores a battle between the Chaghdaid Khanate and the Ilkhanate. Nicolle and Shpakovsky 2001 examines the Battle of the Kalka River and includes much archaeological material.
  708.  
  709. Amitai, Reuven. “Ayn Jalūt Revisited.” Tarih 2 (1992): 119–150.
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  711. A detailed study of the pivotal battle of ‘Ayn Jalut; includes a critical examination of not only the sources but prior scholarship.
  712. Find this resource:
  713. Amitai, Reuven. “Whither the Ilkhanid Army? Ghazan’s First Campaign into Syria (1299–1300).” In Warfare in Inner Asian History. Edited by Nicola Di Cosmo, 221–264. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2002.
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  715. Although the entire campaign is considered, the focal point of the article is the Third Battle of Homs in 1299. The article considers how the army of Ghazan and that of the Mamluks performed in comparison to the previous battles and how this comparison informs us about changes in warfare in the Ilkhanid period.
  716. Find this resource:
  717. Amitai-Preiss, Reuven. Mongols and Mamluks: The Mamluk-Ilkhanid War, 1260–1281. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
  718. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511563485Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  719. In a history of the Ilkhanid-Mamluk war and covering twenty-one years, the author provides commentary and analysis on all of its battles. Of particular use is his study of the Second Battle of Homs, scholarship that cannot be found in outside articles. Additionally, he summarizes his analysis of the Battle of ‘Ayn Jalut.
  720. Find this resource:
  721. Biran, Michal. “The Battle of Herat (1270): A Case of Inter-Mongol Warfare.” In Warfare in Inner Asian History. Edited by Nicola Di Cosmo, 175–220. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2002.
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  723. Examines the pivotal battle of Herat between Ilkhanid forces and the Chaghadaid khanate. In this battle, the death of Alghu, the Chaghadaid khan, opened the door for Qaidu to seize control of the Chaghadaid khanate.
  724. Find this resource:
  725. Nicolle, David, and V. Shpakovsky. Kalka River 1223: Genghiz Khan’s Mongols Invade Russia. New York: Osprey, 2001.
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  727. One of the better Osprey books on the Mongol Empire. Deals with the first encounter between the Rus’ and the Mongols.
  728. Find this resource:
  729. Saunders, J. J. “The Mongol Defeat at Ain Jalut and the Restoration of the Greek Empire.” In Muslims and Mongols: Essays on Medieval Asia. Edited by J. J. Saunders, 67–76. Christchurch, New Zealand: Whitcoulis, 1977.
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  731. Saunders examines two separate events in 1260 and reveals how they created the circumstances for the Mamluk–Golden Horde alliance, which further complicated Ilkhanid efforts to retake Syria.
  732. Find this resource:
  733. Smith, John Masson, Jr. “‘Ayn Jalut: Mamluk Success or Mongol Failure?” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 44 (1984): 307–345.
  734. DOI: 10.2307/2719035Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  735. A classic but not uncontested study of the battle. Ultimatelym Smith concludes that man for man, the Mongols were inferior to the Mamluks. He is correct, up to a certain point. The importance of the article is less his conclusion and more so his approach, which includes a variety of methodologies and serves as a useful reminder that documents do not tell us everything.
  736. Find this resource:
  737. Thorau, Peter. “The Battle of ‘Ayn Jalut: a Re-examination.” In Crusade and Settlement: Papers Read at the First Conference of the Society for the Study of the Crusades and the Latin East and Presented to R. C. Smail. Edited P. W. Edbury, 236–241. Cardiff, Wales: University College Cardiff Press, 1985.
  738. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  739. Thorau’s brief study focuses on information written by Sarim al-Din, a Mamluk of Sultan al-Ashraf of Hims. It reveals that the Mamluk desertion of the Mongols was planned. While much can be questioned with regard to the account, Thorau demonstrates that it nonetheless reveals much about the tactics and strategies used at the battle.
  740. Find this resource:
  741. The Mongols and Crusades
  742.  
  743. While not directly involved in the Crusades, the Mongol irruption forever changed the course of the Crusades and may have hastened the eviction of the Crusaders from Palestine. In Jackson 1991, the various calls for a Crusade against the Mongols by both Pope Innocent IV and the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II are reviewed. Jackson 1980 analyzes the impact of the Mongol arrival in Syria and subsequent defeat at ‘Ayn Jalut had on the Crusader kingdoms. Meyvaert 1980 is a discussion of correspondence that initiated a series of contacts that flirted with the idea of an alliance against the Mamluks. Morgan 1989, Richard 1969, and May 2003 analyze Mongol activities in the eastern Mediterranean, with a particular emphasis on their interactions with the Crusader states. All three provide slightly different focus and interpretation, demonstrating that historical agreement changes over time. Amitai 1992 considers the Mamluk perspective on Mongol-Crusader relations.
  744.  
  745. Amitai, Reuven. “Mamluk Perceptions of the Mongol-Frankish Rapprochement.” Mediterranean Historical Review 7 (1992): 50–65.
  746. DOI: 10.1080/09518969208569631Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  747. The worst fear of the nascent Mamluk Sultanate was another crusade like the Seventh Crusade in conjunction with a Mongol invasion. This work analyzes the Mongol-Frankish relations by considering the concerns of the likely target of such an alliance.
  748. Find this resource:
  749. Jackson, Peter. “The Crisis in the Holy Land in 1260.” English Historical Review 95 (1980): 481–513.
  750. DOI: 10.1093/ehr/XCV.CCCLXXVI.481Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  751. Jackson explores the ramifications of the Mongol conquest of Syria and Palestine and then the fallout of the Mongol loss at ‘Ayn Jalut. Jackson’s focus is primarily on the Crusader states, but it also includes Mongol vassals such at the Principality of Antioch and the County of Tripoli.
  752. Find this resource:
  753. Jackson, Peter. “The Crusade against the Mongols (1241).” The Journal of Ecclesiastical History 42.1 (1991): 1–18.
  754. DOI: 10.1017/S0022046900002554Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  755. Examination of the Mongol invasion of Europe and the subsequent calls for Crusade against the Mongols.
  756. Find this resource:
  757. May, Timothy. “The Mongol Presence and Impact in the Lands of the Eastern Mediterranean.” In Crusades, Condottiere, and Cannon: Medieval Warfare and Society around the Mediterranean. Edited by Andrew Villalon and Donald Kagay, 133–156. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2003.
  758. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  759. An examination of the Mongol impact on the Crusades from the Mongols’ first appearance in the Middle East to the fall of Acre in 1260.
  760. Find this resource:
  761. Meyvaert, Paul. “An Unknown Letter of Hulagu, Il-Khan of Persia, to King Louis IX of France.” Viator IX (1980): 245–261.
  762. DOI: 10.1484/J.VIATOR.2.301508Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  763. The letter, lost in Papal archives until Meyvaert’s discovery, discusses the Mongol failure at ‘Ayn Jalut and why the Mongols had not regained Syria, a defeat that Hülagü blames on insufficient pasture for Mongol horses. A fascinating account from one ruler to another that also lays the foundation for later efforts at Franko-Mongol alliances. The Latin text of the letter and fascimiles of the letter are included with the analysis.
  764. Find this resource:
  765. Morgan, David O. “The Mongols and the Eastern Mediterranean.” Mediterranean Historical Review 4.1 (1989): 198–211.
  766. DOI: 10.1080/09518968908569567Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  767. A review of Mongol activities in the Eastern Mediterranean, including Mongol actions not only in Syria, but also in Anatolia, from the 1230s through 1335.
  768. Find this resource:
  769. Richard, Jean. “The Mongols and the Franks.” Journal of Asian History 3 (1969): 45–58.
  770. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  771. Explores the contacts between the Mongols and western Europeans in both Europe and the Holy Land. As a historian of the Crusades, Richard does an excellent job in connecting diplomacy of the crowned heads of Europe and the concerns of the Latin Kingdoms when it came to relations (hostile and friendly) with the Mongols.
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