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The Challenge of Communism (International Relations)

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. The emergence of the Bolshevik Party in Russia in 1917 heralded a new stage in the uneasy relationship between Communism and its rivals. From its emergence (in its modern form) during the French Revolution, Communist thinkers and ideas offered a challenge to the existing order, and in particular the existing distribution of power and wealth. They outlined a critique of the existing system and its faults and failings, but they also offered a clear and distinctive alternative to the status quo. In the aftermath of the 1848 revolutions, Communism began to emerge as a distinctive radical alternative to capitalist society. In their 1848 work, The Manifesto of the Communist Party, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels summarized this by describing Communism as a “spectre” haunting Europe Communists—with their vision of a society of equality, justice, harmony and co-operation which has abolished capitalism, representative democracy and the nation-state and so ended oppression and exploitation—began to organize themselves to realize their dreams of a new and better world. This evoked a response from Communism’s foes and rivals: how could they face the challenge posed by such radical voices, ideas, and political movements? Different regimes tried different things. Between 1848 and 1917 socialism and Communism began to gain ground in European society, without really threatening to seize power. The year 1917 changed everything. When the Bolsheviks rather unexpectedly seized power, no one expected them to survive, and the Western powers did all they could to strangle the new regime at birth. Having consolidated themselves in power, the Bolsheviks set out in 1919 to make the whole world Communist. The very existence of a Communist state presented a serious challenge to the Western states. The USSR turned into a practical, political, and organizational center for world revolution. It could administer, fund, support, and organize Communist revolutionaries across the globe. It could now assist the colonized peoples of the world to overthrow the colonial rulers in their countries. The nature of this challenge changed over time, however. In the first period (roughly 1919 to 1945) Communism existed both as a threat to the capitalist order, but also as a counterpoint to the threat of fascism and an ally in the struggle for national liberation. Antifascists in the West were drawn to Communism as the best hope for its defeat. The second period was the time of the Cold War (roughly 1945–1991), when the USSR and the United States carried out a deep-rooted struggle for supremacy across the globe. The Communist states sought to attract adherents, supporters, defenders and spies within the Western states, targeting intellectuals and students in particular. They also sought to win the newly independent states in the developing world to the Communist side and so grow the Communist bloc. The final stage has been the post–Cold War period: in this era there has been a move away from the polarization of the Cold War years and the emergence of a more nuanced appraisal of the nature and history of the Communist experiment.
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  5. General Overviews of the Challenge of Communism
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  7. If one turns to general texts on “the challenge of Communism,” then it is more difficult to identify a core of useful overviews. There are no textbooks that cover this. The range of topics covered by the theme of “the challenge of Communism” is broad and eclectic, and so finding general overview texts that deal with them is itself a challenge. This has been exacerbated by the trend in academia toward narrow specialization and fragmentation in the field and away from overview texts that synthesize and generalize the field. Probably the best texts in this regard are Barghoorn 1960, Hollander 1992, and Hollander 1998.
  8.  
  9. Barghoorn, Frederick. The Soviet Cultural Offensive. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1960.
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  11. A classic Cold War–era text. Barghoorn examines the broad spectrum of Soviet cultural practices that were designed to promote the Soviet Union abroad. He unpacks the detailed history of Soviet cultural diplomacy and explores ways in which the West could “resist” this diplomacy.
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  13. Hollander, Paul. Decline and Discontent: Communism and the West Today. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1992.
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  15. An eclectic volume of shorter writings dealing with the author’s preoccupations: Communist systems, the affections and peculiarities of Western intellectuals, and the problems of social and cultural cohesion in Western societies. Hollander argues that the decay of Communism has had a negative impact on politics in the West, causing greater degrees of political estrangement among the masses and making intellectuals more critical of the West.
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  17. Hollander, Paul. Political Pilgrims: Western Intellectuals in Search of the Good Society. 4th ed. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1998.
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  19. A detailed examination of the attraction of Communism, notably the USSR, Cuba and China, to Western intellectuals from the 1930s onward. Outlines the complex political, ideological, moral, and psychological forces that created political pilgrims and fellow travelers in the West, and reflects upon the estrangement from (and disillusionment with) the West, which this phenomenon expresses.
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  21. Historical Context
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  23. Writings on Communism were profoundly shaped by the political context of the time. Three main eras can be identified. The Comintern Era (1919–1943) was an era of ideological struggle between capitalism, Soviet Marxism-Leninism, and fascism. Communism was perceived by some on the right to be a threat to the West (a greater threat than fascism) but was seen by others on the left to be the best hope of destroying the fascist threat. The Cold War era (1945–1991) was an era of astonishing polarization and politicization. Academic work mirrored the Cold War divisions and was used by both systems to fight an “intellectual” Cold War and to legitimate their views. From the 1960s onward, the academic landscape became more diversified as in the aftermath of the Vietnam War, scholarship became increasingly critical of both superpowers. The post-Communist era (1991–) saw politicization diminished, and the changes in academic writing have reflected the changing academic fashions and approaches rather than being driven by the wider political agenda. The scholarship has focused on social and cultural approaches, biographical works, and more local and regional studies of Communism. This era has also seen increased access to the Communist archives. A few general texts that introduce and contextualize the field of Communism, its history, and its relations with the West might include the following texts. Brown 2009, Priestland 2009, and Service 2007 offer longer accounts with lots of helpful details. Service 2007 is the most critical and hostile to Communism. Pipes 2002, Holmes 2009, and Sandle 2012 offer shorter accounts, with Pipes being the most stridently anti-Communist. Smith 2014 offers a fuller, more explicitly comparative approach.
  24.  
  25. Brown, Archie. The Rise and Fall of Communism. New York: Ecco, 2009.
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  27. A comprehensive survey from one of the most astute, balanced, and thoughtful commentators on the Communist systems. This is an approach rooted in political science rather than history; nevertheless, this volume synthesizes a great deal of detail with sharp analyses and interesting reflections.
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  29. Holmes, Leslie. Communism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009.
  30. DOI: 10.1093/actrade/9780199551545.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  31. Holmes deals with the rise and fall of Communism. Useful analysis with some interesting tables and data.
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  33. Pipes, Richard. Communism. London: Phoenix, 2002.
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  35. Another short introduction by one of the main figures in the anti-Communist school of Cold War writers. Explicitly anti-Soviet and anti-Communist. Contains chapters on Communism’s reception in the West and in the Third World.
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  37. Priestland, David. Red Flag: Communism and the Making of the Modern World. London: Allen Lane/Penguin, 2009.
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  39. This account takes the notion of Marx as a radical humanist in the European tradition and examines how this was put into practice across the globe and how this idea (even if the practice was desperately flawed) continued to beguile Western intellectuals. Good global coverage here, although it could be argued that the emphasis is too Soviet-centric to do justice to the sheer variety of Communist systems by the 1970s.
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  41. Sandle, Mark. Communism. 2d ed. Harlow, UK: Pearson: 2012.
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  43. A short text that outlines the long evolution of Communism as an idea and in practice. Contains documents, timeline, further reading. Focus is mainly on the 20th century but does examine Communism as a global phenomenon.
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  45. Service, Robert. Comrades: A History of World Communism. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007.
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  47. An extensive and rather acerbic account, written in Service’s usual combative style. This outlines a critical perspective of Communism and scrutinizes its faults, crimes, and flawed leaders and followers. As with many of the books outlined here, though it claims to take a global approach, the emphasis is definitely on the USSR.
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  49. Smith, Steve. Oxford Handbook of the History of Communism. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014.
  50. DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199602056.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  51. A collection of thirty-five essays covering ideology, economics, politics, society and culture, as well as the geography of Communism and key moments in time.
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  53. Perspectives, Legacies, and Appraisals of Communism
  54.  
  55. During this period, academic writing on the challenge of Communism has tended to fall into four or five broad categories: Orthodox Soviet Marxism-Leninism, which was the official literature of the Soviet state; Western anti-Communism/totalitarianism, which was the Cold War literature that sought to discredit the USSR and use scholarship to defend the West and its way of life; fellow travelers, who were Western intellectuals supportive of the USSR and the international Communist movement and critical of the West both during the 1930s and after; independent Marxists, who were a large and amorphous grouping that included scholars and intellectuals who were disillusioned with Stalinism and the Soviet invasion of Hungary, Trotskyists, Eurocommunists and all those who sought to rescue socialism and Marxism from its association with the Soviet Union; nonaligned, non-Marxist scholarship, which was another amorphous grouping of scholars who eschewed the more overtly aligned scholarship and who became increasingly prominent after the 1960s—especially since the end of the Cold War. Good examples of these highly politicized works include Brzezinski 1989 and the Institute of Marxism-Leninism of CC of CPSU 1971. A number of texts were published in the ten to fifteen years after the collapse of the USSR that have attempted to explore the legacy, understand the reasons for its decline, and provide a judgment on the record of 20th-century Communism. Many of these have continued to take a highly politicized line, such as Courtois, et al. 1999, Furet 1999, and Kolakowski 1992. Eisenstadt 1992, Joravsky 1994, and Aronson 2003 have taken different approaches in their attempts to reflect upon the meaning and significance of Communism. Garthoff 1994 provides a highly detailed and balanced reflection of the fall of Communism and the end of the Cold War.
  56.  
  57. Aronson, Raymond. “Communism’s Posthumous Trial.” History and Theory 42 (May 2003): 222–245.
  58. DOI: 10.1111/1468-2303.00240Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  59. Another review article that takes issue with much of the highly politicized scholarship and seeks instead a less judgmental, more historicized approach to the question of Communism, its historical legacy, its relationship with the West and its attraction to intellectuals in both the East and West. He is deeply critical of attempts to “prosecute” Communism through the pages of a book.
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  61. Brzezinski, Zbigniew. The Grand Failure. London: Macdonald, 1989.
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  63. Actually written before the collapse of Communism but unsparingly hostile in tone and content, as exemplified by the title. Condemns Communism as an “aberration.” Brzezinski’s work is a good example of the politicization of scholarship during the Cold War, serving in the Carter administration as policy advisor on national security issues.
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  65. Courtois, Stephane, Nicholas Werth, Jean-Louis Panné, et al. The Black Book of Communism. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999.
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  67. Of all the texts assessing and weighing the legacy of Communism this has probably been the most controversial. Its subtitle (Crimes, Terror, Repression) neatly encapsulates the approach. Virulently anti-Communist, this work does cover eastern Europe, Asia, and the Third World. Probably most known for its “historical accounting” by coming up with the figure of 100 million victims of Communism.
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  69. Eisenstadt, Shmuel N. “The Breakdown of Communist Regimes and the Vicissitudes of Modernity.” Daedalus 121.2 (Spring 1992): 21–41.
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  71. Examines Communism as a flawed form of modernity, whose collapse raises interesting questions for the constitutional democratic regimes of the West. These democratic regimes also have to face similar challenges to the ones that undermined and eventually destroyed the Communist states.
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  73. Furet, Francois. The Passing of an Illusion. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999.
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  75. Another approach that focuses on the idea and ideas of Communism. Focuses on the Soviet experience but deals in detail with Communism’s relationship with fascism and antifascism. Most notable, however, is Furet’s attempt to grapple with the question of why Communism exerted such a strong pull on the imagination of Western intellectuals. Furet argues that its proclamation of embodying a society beyond democratic capitalism and its centrality to the cause of antifascism in the 1930s and 1940s were central to its attraction.
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  77. Garthoff, Raymond L. The Great Transition: American-Soviet Relations and the End of the Cold War. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1994.
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  79. A detailed appraisal of the final years of the Cold War. Garthoff argues that Gorbachev was the crucial agent in bringing about the end of the Cold War.
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  81. Institute of Marxism-Leninism of CC of CPSU. Outline History of the Communist International. Moscow: Progress, 1971.
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  83. The classic orthodox Marxist-Leninist account of the history of Comintern from its origins to its dissolution in 1943.
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  85. Joravsky, David. “Communism in Historical Perspective.” American Historical Review (June 1994): 837–857.
  86. DOI: 10.2307/2167772Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  87. A wide-ranging review article that places the history of Communism within the historiographical writings of the last thirty years.
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  89. Kolakowski, Leszek. “Amidst Moving Ruins.” Daedalus 121.2 (Spring 1992): 43–56.
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  91. A brief but rich and provocative piece. Kolakowski finishes by reflecting on a different type of challenge posed by Communism: that of historical reckoning with the past for those countries, movements, and individuals who were part of the Communist project.
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  93. Bibliographies and Encyclopedias
  94.  
  95. There are many bibliographies dealing with various aspects. The online bibliography of John Earl Haynes is a good place to explore Communism in the United States. Hammond 1965 offers an extensive set of readings on the USSR and its foreign relations, and Department of the Army 1962 does the same for China. More specialist works include Clemens 1965 on disarmament, and Wieczynski 1996 provides a detailed listing of holdings on the tumultuous Gorbachev years. Young 2009 offers interesting background knowledge on some of the key aspects of this topic.
  96.  
  97. Clemens, Walter, ed. Soviet Disarmament Policy, 1917–63: An Annotated Bibliography of Soviet and Western Sources. Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution, 1965.
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  99. Deals with various aspects of disarmament policy. Includes Western and Soviet sources.
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  101. Department of the Army. Communist China: Ruthless Enemy or Paper Tiger? A Bibliographic Survey. New York: Greenwood, 1962.
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  103. A wide-ranging collection which includes eyewitness accounts, all drawn from the US Army library.
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  105. Hammond, Thomas T., ed. Soviet Foreign Relations and World Communism: A Selected, Annotated Bibliography of 7000 books in 30 languages. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1965.
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  107. An extremely comprehensive and detailed set of listings, drawn from a variety of languages.
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  109. Haynes, John Earl. Bibliography of American Communism and Anti-Communism.
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  111. An extensive bibliography of writings on American Communism and anti-Communism.
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  113. Wieczynski, Joseph L., ed. The Gorbachev Bibliography 1985–91. New York: Norman Ross, 1996.
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  115. A useful attempt to try and document all the publications in a frenzied time of change.
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  117. Young, Nigel, ed. The Oxford International Encyclopedia of Peace. New York: Oxford University Press, 2009.
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  119. A highly valuable four-volume reference guide.
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  121. Journals
  122.  
  123. There are a number of specialized journals that deal with various aspects of the Communist experience in the 20th century. Probably the best journal that deals with the challenge of Communism in the West is American Communist History. The Cold War period can be explored through Journal of Cold War Studies, and Cold War History. General journals that deal with the experience of the Communist countries in the 20th century include Slavic Review, Europe-Asia Studies and Communist and Post-Communist Studies. More specialist journals that cover the dynamics of Communism and post-Communism include Journal of Baltic Studies, Journal of Slavic Military Studies and Journal of Democracy.
  124.  
  125. American Communist History.
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  127. This journal started in 2002 and is part of the group of journals entitled Historians of American Communism. It deals with all aspects of the history of American Communism, both domestic and international.
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  129. Cold War History.
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  131. Contains numerous excellent articles on the challenges of Communism to the Western powers during the Cold War.
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  133. Communist and Post-Communist Studies.
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  135. Explores the historical and contemporary dimensions of the Communist experience, with many articles adopting a comparative focus.
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  137. Europe-Asia Studies.
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  139. Formerly known as Soviet Studies, this is one of the most authoritative, indispensable journals in the field.
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  141. Journal of Baltic Studies.
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  143. Dating back to 1970, this journal examines the details of the history and politics of the Baltic states and includes many articles on the Communist era.
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  145. Journal of Cold War Studies.
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  147. Explores the details of the Cold War period, especially through the use of newly declassified archival material and memoir accounts
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  149. Journal of Democracy.
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  151. Deals with a range of issues concerning democracy, consent, and government and includes much material in particular about China.
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  153. Journal of Slavic Military Studies.
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  155. Deals with all aspects of Soviet and post-Soviet military operations.
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  157. Slavic Review.
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  159. One of the key journals in the field. It has been published since 1941 and covers a whole range of topics, fields, and disciplines.
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  161. International Communism
  162.  
  163. The writings on international Communism can be split into three main periods: writings up to 1917; the Comintern period (1919–1943); and the Cominform period (1947–1991). The focus here is upon the latter two periods. Good overview histories of the international history can be found in Braunthal 1980 and Drachkovitch 1966. In addition, Sworakowski 1965 is an excellent reference work. The Marxist Internet Archive allows access to the invaluable collection of documents and speeches of the International Communists and also Trotsky, one of the key architects and analysts of Comintern.
  164.  
  165. Braunthal, Julius. History of the International. 3 vols. London: Victor Gollancz, 1980.
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  167. A classic account from the height of the Cold War, although written from a leftist perspective. Braunthal, a veteran Austrian socialist, provides a detailed and vivid account of the history of the Communist International, from a social-democratic position that is hostile to the basic ideals of Lenin and Bolshevism.
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  169. Drachkovitch, Milorad M., ed. The Revolutionary Internationals 1864–1943. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1966.
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  171. A comparative historical analysis of the three Communist Internationals, based upon a conference organized by the Hoover Institute. Outlines the ways in which Comintern adapted and improvised after 1919, especially in regard to asserting the primacy of the interests of the USSR and undermining the autonomy of local CPs.
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  173. Hammond, Thomas T. The Anatomy of Communist Takeovers. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1975.
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  175. A wide-ranging collection of essays dealing with Communist takeovers across the globe, from 1917 right through to the 1960s. Excellent geographical coverage.
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  177. Mosely, Philip E. The Kremlin and World Politics. New York: Vintage, 1960.
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  179. A classic Cold War account, this highlights the relationship between Soviet policy and action. A collection of essays dealing with the period between 1941 and 1959.
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  181. Sworakowski, Witold S. The Communist International and Its Front Organisations. Stanford, CA: Hoover Institute, 1965.
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  183. An invaluable reference work and a compilation of all the holdings from forty-four American and four European libraries on materials relating to Comintern and its Front organizations.
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  185. Trotsky Internet Archive.
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  187. Particular attention should be paid to The First Five Years of the Communist International (1924), The Third International After Lenin (1928), The Turn in the Communist International and the Situation in Germany (1930).
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  189. Working Class Internationalism and Organization.
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  191. The history of the Communist Internationals, and all their key documents, can be found through the Marxist Internet Archive, an invaluable source of primary material for this subject.
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  193. The Comintern Period
  194.  
  195. The history of writings on Comintern has been dominated by a few key controversies. Much of the initial analysis of Comintern centered upon the developments in Moscow, and in particular the extent to which the International Communist movement was a tool of Soviet foreign policy and interests, in which the interests of both the International Communist movement and the National Communist Parties (who were part of Comintern) were subordinated to that of Moscow, the CPSU, and Stalin. Attention in particular was paid to the question of continuities between Lenin and Stalin, and also the changing strategic and tactical decisions of Comintern between 1919 and 1939, as they moved through different stages including the periods of social fascism and the Popular Front. Much of this writing was carried out by leftist scholars or activists (either hostile or sympathetic to the Bolshevik project) who saw in Comintern’s actions and policies either a betrayal of the ideals of the international revolution, or a set of tactical manoeuvres designed to protect the USSR and so ensure the long-term viability of the revolution. Borkenau 1962 is a good example of this approach from a former Communist. Hallas 1985 provides a partisan perspective. Hallas is a good example of the critique of the Third Communist International and its actions from a left-wing perspective, although it is overly schematic in places. Carr 1982 provides a highly detailed account of the organizational aspects. More recent research, particularly research done since the collapse of Communism and the opening up of the archives, has tried to move the debates forward by attempting to provide more case studies, and more localized, detailed perspectives that actually dig into the mechanics of decision making at the highest levels of Comintern: what role did Stalin play? How did Comintern function in practice? How much autonomy did the national CPs have at any given time? Dallin and Firsov 2000, Rees and Thorpe 1998, and Narinsky and Rojahn 1996 show the importance of new archival sources. Early-21st-century research is beginning to draw a picture of a relationship where clearly Comintern was dominated by Moscow, the CPSU, and Stalin but where it was also possible for there to be dissent, resistance, flexibility, and co-operation. In other words, the spaces for human agency and action are beginning to be filled in. More attention is also starting to be focused upon some hitherto neglected areas: sport, trade unions, gender, the peasants, culture as the focus shifts away from politics, ideology, and organizational questions. McDermott and Agnew 1996 and Worley 2004 both offer fresh appraisals of this era, revising our understanding of the traditional story and also summarizing the debates in the literature.
  196.  
  197. Borkenau, Franz. World Communism: A History of the Communist International to 1939. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1962.
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  199. Former Communist Borkenau writes about the Communist International in 1939 and attempts to historicize the experiences of the movement. Interestingly he argues that although Comintern had proven to be a failure by 1939, the dominance of Moscow was the result, not the cause, of the evolution of Communism.
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  201. Carr, Edward Hallett. The Twilight of Comintern 1930–35. New York: Pantheon, 1982.
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  203. A highly detailed account from the author of the monumental fourteen-volume history of Soviet Russia. Extensive coverage of developments in Moscow and the evolution of Comintern itself, and also the relationships with the Communist parties in Europe and Asia in this period. Based on official Comintern sources, the focus is top-down and organizational, with little room for the workers in this narrative or indeed the sources from the local parties themselves.
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  205. Dallin, Alexander, and Fridrikh I. Firsov, eds. Dimitrov and Stalin: Letters from the Soviet Archives. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000.
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  207. An interesting addition to the literature arising out of the opening up of the archives. Adds color and texture to the history of Comintern and conveys some of the personal/relational aspects. Also focuses on the ambiguities and uncertainties of Comintern decision making, which is often absent from accounts that focus on the broader political and ideological issues.
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  209. Hallas, Duncan. The Comintern: A History of the Third International. London: Bookmarks, 1985.
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  211. Adopting a neo-Trotskyite approach, this text explores the linkages between the actions of the Third Communist International, and the “degeneration” of the 1917 revolution. Hallas notes that after 1923 (seen as the “turning point”) the Comintern moved away from being internationalist, anti-imperialist, and a part of the worldwide struggle of the proletariat; it became an instrument of nationalism, class collaboration, and opposition to the anticolonial struggle. Stalin in effect destroyed the whole international revolution.
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  213. McDermott, K., and J. Agnew. The Comintern: A History of International Communism from Lenin to Stalin. Houndsmills, UK: Macmillan, 1996.
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  215. An important post–Cold War post-Communist work that is explicitly historiographical in its approach. Probably the best place to start for an overview of the history of Comintern and of the disputes in the historiography. Examines both Russian and Western sources and includes important documentary material.
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  217. Narinsky, Mikhail, and Jurgen Rojahn. Centre and Periphery: The History of Comintern in the Light of New Documents. Amsterdam: International Institute of Social History, 1996.
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  219. A useful collection of essays that advances the study of the field through both the use of new sources but also by adopting an explicitly comparative approach.
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  221. Rees, Tim, and Andrew Thorpe. International Communism and the Communist International. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1998.
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  223. An important work from the post–Cold War era. Taking advantage of the opening of the archives, Rees and Thorpe have put together a valuable edited collection. Dealing with the development of the Comintern as an institution and the Communist parties in Europe, America, and the Asias, this book provides a nuanced understanding of the relationship between the center and the periphery and points the way for new areas of the study of international Communism.
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  225. Worley, Matthew. In Search of Revolution: International CPs in the Third Period. New York: I. B. Tauris, 2004.
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  227. Focuses on the third period (1928–1935) and argues that the viewpoint that this era (particularly the policy of social fascism) was a disaster for international Communism, and the Comintern is an oversimplification. Details the policies of Communist parties in United States, UK, Germany, Italy, France, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and elsewhere. Stresses the importance of comparative analysis for understanding the dynamics of Comintern policy at this time.
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  229. Antifascism
  230.  
  231. Communism and Communists emerged in the 1930s as some of the key agencies in the movement to oppose and stop fascism. Payne 2003 explores this from the perspective of Moscow. Copsey 2011, Harker 2011, and Horn 1996 examine this from the perspective of the local antifascist struggle within particular countries and also reflect upon the comparative success that these movements achieved.
  232.  
  233. Copsey, Nigel. “Communists and Inter-War Anti-Fascist Struggle in the United States and Britain.” Labour History Review 76.3 (December 2011): 184–206.
  234. DOI: 10.1179/174581811X13166898133906Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  235. An interesting example of the new wave of research being done in this field. This article takes an explicitly comparative approach in order to better understand the dynamics of antifascism in the interwar years, and particularly the role of Communists in this struggle. Copsey highlights significant differences in the experiences of Communists in the United States and the UK in combating fascism domestically.
  236. Find this resource:
  237. Harker, Ben. “‘Communism is English’: Edgell Rickword, Jack Lindsay and the Cultural Politics of the Popular Front.” Literature and History 20.2 (2011): 23–40.
  238. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  239. Examines the formation of Lawrence and Wishart publishers in the context of Popular Front cultural activity in England in the 1930s. This marked a moment when the ideals and values of Communism were advocated by figures such as Edgell Rickword and Jack Lindsay as a way of creating a better, more hopeful, and nonfascist future for England.
  240. Find this resource:
  241. Horn, Gerd-Rainer. European Socialists Respond to Fascism: Ideology, Activism and Contingency in the 1930s. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996.
  242. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  243. Horn takes a comparative approach to explore the response of the left in Europe to the threat of fascism and analyses the dynamics of the tensions between Communists and socialists in Spain, France, and Germany.
  244. Find this resource:
  245. Payne, Stanley G. “Soviet Anti-Fascism: Theory and Practice 1921–45.” Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions 4.2 (Autumn 2003): 1–62.
  246. DOI: 10.1080/14690760412331326118Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  247. In contrast to the article by Copsey, Payne provides a detailed and insightful overview of the Soviet approach to the movement to combat fascism between 1921 and 1945. Payne discusses the changing Communist understandings of fascism and then traces how this was operationalized in practice. Payne concludes that Soviet Communism vacillated between radical denunciation and close collaboration depending upon the circumstances and the context. Such opportunism prevented a consistent approach.
  248. Find this resource:
  249. The Cominform Period
  250.  
  251. Writings on the Cominform era have a tendency to be divided into two main parts. The first traces developments within the Communist bloc after the Second World War and in particular traces the decline of the International Communist movement in the light of two key developments: polycentrism and national Communism. The significance of the rise of China and the emergence of national roads to Communism to the fragmentation of the international Communist movement after the death of Stalin is traced right throughout the literature. The threat of Communism to the West was thus deeply compromised by the growing pluralism and diversity within the Communist bloc. The second part deals with the impact of the Cold War hostility of East and West, Communism versus capitalism, United States versus USSR on the Western states themselves. The collapse of Communism has led to Cold War studies that have examined the ways in which the binary hostility of the Cold War affected the culture, values, ideals, and practices of everyday life in the West. The threat of Communism was taken extremely seriously, and as a result Western society was profoundly transformed across a whole range of areas and practices.
  252.  
  253. Cold War
  254.  
  255. These works examine how the Cold War affected the culture, beliefs, and practices of Western society after 1945. Paterson 1988 offers a historical overview. The impact on American culture (intellectual and popular) is examined in Doherty 2003, Field 2005, Robin 2001, and Whitfield 1996. Marcuse and Whitaker 1994 offers a point of comparison with North America with their examination of Canada. Vowinckel, et al. 2012 similarly offers a look at the European perspective. Yergin 1977 looks at the emergence of the United States as a national security state, and this work can be read in conjunction with Marcuse and Whitaker 1994. Richmond 2003 highlights the links between culture and regime change under Communism.
  256.  
  257. Doherty, Thomas. Cold War, Cool Medium: Television, McCarthyism and American Culture. New York: Columbia University Press, 2003.
  258. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  259. A fascinating and richly detailed revisionist account of the relationship between television and McCarthyism during the late 1940s and early 1950s. Written more for a general than a strictly academic audience, Doherty shows how television had a complex relationship with McCarthy and McCarthyism, both supporting and resisting the Red Scare and both making and unmaking McCarthy’s career.
  260. Find this resource:
  261. Field, Douglas, ed. American Cold War Culture. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2005.
  262. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  263. An eclectic set of essays that explores the relationship between culture and politics in America, and in particular the anxieties over Communism and its impact on American life. Notable for broadening the discussion out beyond “conventional” politics to include questions of race, gender, and sexuality amid Cold War fears and uncertainties.
  264. Find this resource:
  265. Marcuse, Gary, and Stephen Whitaker. Cold War Canada: The Making of a National Insecurity State. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1994.
  266. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  267. A left-leaning account of the development of the postwar Canadian state, which is critical of both the Canadian Communist Party’s adherence to Moscow, and the Canadian government’s “blind pursuit” of the goals of the West. Outlines how the obsession with security led to Canada giving strong symbolic support to the anti-Soviet rhetoric of the US leadership. The perceived “threat” of Communism created what they termed a national “insecurity” state.
  268. Find this resource:
  269. Paterson, Thomas G. Meeting the Communist Threat: Truman to Reagan. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988.
  270. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  271. Historical overview of the general response of the United States to the threat of Communism from 1945 to 1988. Examines the perceptions and exaggerations of the Communist threat under successive presidents.
  272. Find this resource:
  273. Richmond, Yale. Cultural Exchange and the Cold War: Raising the Iron Curtain. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2003.
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  275. An interesting “insider” viewpoint from a US foreign service official who worked for thirty years as a cultural officer in Germany, Laos, Poland, Australia, and the USSR. Argues that Soviet contacts and cultural exchanges with the West played an important role in the subsequent collapse of Communism.
  276. Find this resource:
  277. Robin, Ron T. The Making of the Cold War Enemy: Culture and Politics in the Military-Intellectual Complex. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001.
  278. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  279. This complex text examines the interaction of culture, scholarly work, and policy formation in the early years of the Cold War in the United States. In particular it focuses upon the complex factors that led to the construction of the “enemy” in American discourse and how this influenced policy.
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Vowinckel, Annette, Marcus M. Payk, and Thomas Lindberger. Cold War Culture: Perspectives on Eastern and Western European Societies. New York: Berghahn, 2012.
  282. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  283. An excellent example of the growing interest in the cultural dimensions of the Cold War. This volume examines the culture of the Cold War from a European perspective, looking in particular at the media, identities, borders, and legacies. An excellent example of the cultural turn in Cold War historiography.
  284. Find this resource:
  285. Whitfield, Stephen. The Culture of the Cold War. 2d ed. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996.
  286. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  287. A fascinating post–Cold War account of the impact of the Cold War and especially anti-Communism on American culture in the first two decades after the Second World War. Whitfield examines at length the way the atmosphere of excessive patriotism, intolerance, and suspicion was generated and how in turn this shaped some of the key units of cultural production in the United States: entertainment, education, the church.
  288. Find this resource:
  289. Yergin, Daniel. Shattered Peace: The Origins of the Cold War and the National Security State. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1977.
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  291. Yergin’s lively and well-written general account of the origins of the Cold War. He outlines the evolution of American attitudes toward the USSR, and in particular the triumph of the Riga axioms (USSR is aggressive and committed to world domination) over the Yalta axioms (the USSR is a normal state with whom it is possible to negotiate and do business). Yergin focuses mainly upon Europe rather than Asia or South America.
  292. Find this resource:
  293. Polycentrism and the Decline of Communism
  294.  
  295. As nationalism and pluralism began to take hold in the Communist movement, so the nature of the International Communist movement began to change. The rise of China and the growing tendency toward autonomy in eastern Europe all created pressure for change within the socialist bloc. Claudin 1975 and Labedz 1965 offer useful overviews of the growth of pluralism. Laqueur and Labedz 1962 examines the role of the Sino-Soviet split in some detail, and Timmerman 1987 offers a perspective from the late Communist era that includes broad geographical coverage and demonstrates how far the tendency toward polycentrism had advanced by the 1980s. He notes the pluralism and fragmentation in the West as they abandoned Democratic Centralism and became more responsive to the pressures in their own societies. Lowenthal 1964 provides a more interpretive approach. Looking in particular at Mao and Tito, Lowenthal notes the journey of international Communism from polycentrism and political pluralism through to ideological fragmentation and independence and the demise of the international movement in toto. Jersild 2014 offers a more recent international history of the Sino-Soviet alliance.
  296.  
  297. Claudin, Fernando. The Communist Movement: From Comintern to Cominform. New York: Monthly Review, 1975.
  298. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  299. A former Spanish Communist and dissident Marxist who writes forcefully and originally on the nature and activities of the Comintern. Although he tends to somewhat overstate the amount of control exercised by Moscow over the satellites, this is a compelling and sophisticated account.
  300. Find this resource:
  301. Jersild, Austin. The Sino-Soviet Alliance. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2014.
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  303. Part of the New Cold War History series, this monograph explores in detail the complex relationship between the USSR and China after 1949. It makes extensive use of archival sources from both the Chinese and the Soviet perspective.
  304. Find this resource:
  305. Labedz, Leopold, ed. International Communism after Khrushchev. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1965.
  306. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  307. A comprehensive account of the diversification and pluralism that accompanies the emergence of Communist polycentrism after the death of Stalin. Highlights the inexorable logic leading from polycentrism to national Communism. Excellent geographical coverage of Communists in Australasia, Latin America, Africa, Europe, and North America.
  308. Find this resource:
  309. Laqueur, Walter, and Leopold Labedz, eds. Polycentrism: The New Factor in International Communism. New York: Praeger, 1962.
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  311. These essays were from a special issue of the journal Survey. It explores the dynamics around the Sino-Soviet split and how this has begun to impact the international Communist movement, with particular emphasis upon national Communism as a disintegrative tendency.
  312. Find this resource:
  313. Lowenthal, Richard. World Communism: Disintegration of a Secular Faith. New York: Oxford University Press, 1964.
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  315. A series of articles and essays dealing with the disintegration of world Communism, which essentially takes an ideological or ideocratic view: the decline in belief in the ideology of Marxism-Leninism (particularly after the debunking of Stalin) created a vacuum of authority and legitimacy at the heart of international Communism.
  316. Find this resource:
  317. Timmerman, Heinz. The Decline of the World Communist Movement. Boulder, CO: Westview, 1987.
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  319. Examines the state of the Communist parties around the globe in the early 1980s. Comprehensive coverage (Italy, France, Portugal, Cyprus, Chile, Japan, Finland, Spain) of the world Communist movement in connection with USSR and China is included, plus some interesting passages on the early changes to the relationship between the USSR and the Western Communist parties under Gorbachev.
  320. Find this resource:
  321. Communism in the Regions
  322.  
  323. The writings on Communism and Communist movements across the globe have generally had to deal with one key issue: the tension between the local and the international. However, what this looks like in particular regional contexts varies a great deal. Overwhelmingly though, the histories of Communism outside the USSR, China, and eastern Europe have been dominated by questions centered on politics, ideology, and organization. This has created a tendency to look at the history of national or regional Communist parties (and this is particularly but not exclusively the case with history of Communism in Europe) and explain its development either with regard to developments in Moscow, or as a result of major external developments (e.g., war or economic collapse). What has been absent (up until recently) has been literature that fully contextualizes the history of national Communist parties within their indigenous culture and past. The historiography of Communism in the majority of the world has been framed around the question of competition, imitation, and policy or strategy. One trend in the literature has been to examine the extent to which the Western powers and the Communist powers were able to attract and retain the support states in Asia, Africa, and Latin America and whether they were able to turn this “support” into imitation and adoption of the systemic model. Part of this debate has also been to question the relative powers of the patron and the client, as the superpowers were often forced to respond to the needs of the peripheral state as they required their allegiance in the battle for global supremacy. The other approach has been for Western scholars to analyze Communist involvement in the developing world in order to try and develop policies to prevent the spread of Communism. Bronke and Uren 1967 explores the interaction between the Communist states and the West in general, and so contextualize some of the more detailed country-specific studies. Lowenthal 1977 does the same for the developing countries. Sassoon 1992 provides important historical background as to the fate of the western European Communist parties during the Second World War and just after.
  324.  
  325. Bronke, Adam, and Philip E. Uren. The Communist States and the West. New York: Praeger, 1967.
  326. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  327. A highly detailed examination of the impact of the Sino-Soviet split and the emergence of polycentrism in the Soviet bloc upon East-West relations. Argues that the East and West co-exist in a symbiotic relationship: as one weakens so does its rival and vice versa.
  328. Find this resource:
  329. Lowenthal, Richard. Model or Ally: The Communist Powers and the Developing Countries. New York: Oxford University Press, 1977.
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  331. Lowenthal examines the relationship between the USSR and China and the developing countries. Argues that the leading Communist states had been seeking imitators of their entire social system in the developing world, not just allies. However, many states have been selectively imitating and adapting the Communist model. Highlights both the attraction and the limitations of the Communist model of development, which still faces opposition from the West.
  332. Find this resource:
  333. Sassoon, Donald. “The Rise and Fall of West European Communism 1939–48.” Contemporary European History 1.2 (July 1992): 139–169.
  334. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  335. A comprehensive survey of the fate of European Communism during and just after the Second World War, which explores how the forces that gave rise to the Cold War led to the victory of European social democracy and the eclipse of the European Communist parties.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. Europe and Euro-Communism
  338.  
  339. The historiography of European Communism has been dominated by the questions of dependence and independence, both politically and doctrinally. One of the major trends was the development of Euro-Communism, which was interpreted as either a genuine transformation of European Communism away from the Soviet model by some, and as a short-term tactical maneuver by others. The fragmentation of the Communist movement in Europe after the invasion of Hungary, the Sino-Soviet split and the Prague Spring was also a key part of the historiography, as scholars sought a typology or spectrum to describe the varying levels of dependence/independence among European Communists. The major studies of the two most significant European Communist parties (the Parti Communiste Français [PCF] and the Partito Comunista Italiano [PCI]) have tended to stress one or the other: either the national or societal dimensions or the international dimension. Griffith 1976 offers an interpretive overview, with policy recommendations for the US government. Recent work on French, German, and Italian Communism is starting to adopt a more nuanced approach. Country-specific studies of France (Adereth 1984), Germany (Weitz 1997), and Italy (Urban 1986) can be read alongside more comparative works such as Albright 1979 and Guiat 2003. Leonhard 1978 explores the broader European context through an analysis of Euro-Communism, while Knotter exemplifies the more recent research through a micro study of Communist strongholds scattered across the UK and Europe.
  340.  
  341. Adereth, Maxwell. The French Communist Party: a Critical History. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1984.
  342. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  343. An overview history of the PCF, which examines its struggle to break free of the influence of Comintern and assert its own identity and autonomy in the struggle for power in France.
  344. Find this resource:
  345. Albright, David E. Communism and Political Systems in Western Europe. Boulder, CO: Westview, 1979.
  346. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  347. Highly detailed empirical study of the development of the Communist parties of western Europe: Italy, France, Spain, Portugal, Greece, Finland, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Iceland, UK, and a chapter on Euro-Communism.
  348. Find this resource:
  349. Griffith, William E. Eurocommunism: The Third Great Communist Schism. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1976.
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  351. A brief, interpretive essay that offers policy perspectives as well.
  352. Find this resource:
  353. Guiat, Cyrille. The French and Italian Communist Parties: Comrades and Culture. London: Frank Cass, 2003.
  354. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  355. A comparative study of the two most influential Communist parties in western Europe, through a case study of the activities and practices of the two Communist parties in the local government areas of Ivry-sur-Seine and Reggio Emilia.
  356. Find this resource:
  357. Knotter, Ad. “‘Little Moscows’ in Western Europe: The Ecology of Small-Place Communism.” International Review of Social History 56 (2011): 475–510.
  358. DOI: 10.1017/S0020859011000381Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  359. One of the best examples of the early 21st-century direction of research in this area: a comparative, micro study at local levels of the so-called Little Moscows Communist strongholds in the UK and Europe, often occupational communities founded by migrant workers.
  360. Find this resource:
  361. Leonhard, Wolfgang. Eurocommunism: Challenge for East and West. New York: Holte, Rinehart and Winston, 1978.
  362. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  363. An analytical work that explores the origins and history of Euro-Communism, and the type of challenge it poses to both East and West. Sees it as part of a larger evolution in the nature and essence of European Communism.
  364. Find this resource:
  365. Urban, Joan Barth. Moscow and the Italian Communist Party: From Togliatti to Berlinguer. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1986.
  366. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  367. A detailed and thoughtful biography of the PCI and its leaders. Analyzing the PCI both at home and its interactions with the international Communist movement and other national Communist parties, the author provides compelling evidence of the pluralistic and fragmented nature of international Communism. Barth explores the divisions and transnational coalitions which the PCI were caught up in. A valuable case study.
  368. Find this resource:
  369. Weitz, Eric. Creating German Communism: From Popular Protest to Socialist State. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997.
  370. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  371. An illuminating survey of the history of German Communism in the 20th century. This study seeks to move the field away from the preoccupation with politics, Moscow, and external events in the development, growth, and decline of any indigenous Communist Party. Instead, Weitz argues for an approach that synthesizes material from the archives and the recent historical approaches of social and cultural history to provide a richly textured, less uniform analysis.
  372. Find this resource:
  373. Asia
  374.  
  375. The history of Communism in Asia is tied up with the struggle against colonialism both pre– and post–Second World War. The revolution in China in 1949 was followed swiftly by Communist takeovers in North Korea, Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia. Works in this section examine the attempts of the colonial powers to prevent the spread of Communism, as well as the paths to power taken by the Communist parties. Johnstone 1962 elaborates on the appeal of Communism in Asia and attempts to outline policy responses to it. Duiker 1996 provides a detailed narrative of the rise to power of the Vietnamese Communists. An overview of the tactics of Communist subversion and takeover can be seen in Bark 1989. Specific responses of the colonial powers are analyzed by Andrew 2011, which looks at Singapore; Belogurova 2012, which examines the case of Taiwan; and Share 2005, which examines Hong Kong. Cheek 2010 highlights the key role played by Mao in promoting Communism in Asia. Kaufman 2001 examines the responses of the United States and the UK to the emergence and growth of Communism in China.
  376.  
  377. Andrew, Martin. “Suppressing Communism in Singapore.” Harvard Asia Quarterly 13.2 (Summer 2011): 21–29.
  378. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  379. Examines the dynamics of the threat of Communism within an imperial context by exploring how Communism was suppressed in Singapore before the Second World War. Links the spread of Communism to the growth of nationalism and anti-imperialism, which illustrates how the threat of Communism shifted according to the context. Here the threat of Communism was exacerbated by the presence of the ethnic Chinese population in Singapore.
  380. Find this resource:
  381. Bark, Dennis L., ed. The Red Orchestra: The South-West Pacific. Vol. 3. Stanford, CA: Hoover Institute, 1989.
  382. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  383. A three-volume edited collection drawn from a variety of conferences (developed during the height of Reagan’s new Cold War), which was explicitly designed to direct public attention to the variety and sophistication of Communist subversion. An interesting example of the nexus of academia and policy making that emerged during the Cold War in the West as a result of the perceived Communist threat.
  384. Find this resource:
  385. Belogurova, Anna. “The Civic World of International Communism: Taiwanese Communists and the Comintern (1921–1931).” Modern Asian Studies 46.6 (2012): 1602–1632.
  386. DOI: 10.1017/S0026749X12000327Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  387. Explores the little-known history of Communism in Taiwan at a crucial moment in the history of Comintern. In line with much early-21st-century research, Belogurova shows an active rather than passive role played by the Taiwanese Communists in their dealings with Comintern.
  388. Find this resource:
  389. Cheek, Timothy, ed. A Critical Introduction to Mao. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
  390. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511781476Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  391. An excellent starting point for any study of the life and influence of Mao. Particularly important in this regard is the section that deals with Mao and the impact of his thought in the developing world, where Chinese Communism became a “third way” between the polarities of the United States and the USSR.
  392. Find this resource:
  393. Duiker, William J. The Communist Road to Power in Vietnam. Boulder, CO: Westview, 1996.
  394. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  395. An important work in which Duiker narrates the rise to power of the Communist Party in Vietnam. Duiker’s analysis is distinctive in seeking to explain the success of the Vietnamese Communists by reference to their organization, dedication, and self-discipline, rather than focusing upon French and US errors and incompetence.
  396. Find this resource:
  397. Johnstone, William C. “The Appeals of Communism in Asia.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. American Foreign Policy Challenged 342 (July 1962): 105–110.
  398. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  399. A policy-driven article that seeks to understand why Communism was having such appeal in Asia and what the West had to do to counter that threat.
  400. Find this resource:
  401. Kaufman, Victor. Confronting Communism: US and British policies Towards China. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2001.
  402. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  403. Kaufman contrasts the differing approaches of the two Western powers in their attitudes toward the Chinese Communist regime between 1949 and 1972. The British favored compromise and negotiation. The United States favored a tougher approach.
  404. Find this resource:
  405. Park, Han S. North Korea: The Politics of Unconventional Wisdom. Boulder, CO: Lynne Riener, 2002.
  406. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  407. A detailed overview of North Korea and its political and social system, examining in particular the North Korean model, and the reasons for its resilience well into the 21st century.
  408. Find this resource:
  409. Share, Michael. “Clash of Worlds: The Comintern, British Hong Kong and Chinese Nationalism 1921–27.” Europe-Asia Studies 57.4 (June 2005): 601–624.
  410. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  411. A micro-level study of the difficult dynamics of Comintern policy in the 1920s. Attempts to balance the interest of world revolution, Chinese revolution, Soviet interests, anti-Imperialism, and Chinese nationalism in Hong Kong.
  412. Find this resource:
  413. Africa
  414.  
  415. The history of the relations between certain African states and the Communist states is examined in Brzezinski 1963 and Bark 1988. Griffith 1976 offers an interpretive overview, with policy recommendations for the US government. Ottaway and Ottaway 1981 offers a broad synthesis of the varieties of African socialism. Drew 2014 provides a useful synthesis and overview. More specific issues relating to wars and civil wars can be found in Gavshon 1981 and Martin 2011. Darch 2005 offers an interesting perspective by examining the writings of Russian academics after the collapse of Communism.
  416.  
  417. Bark, Dennis L., ed. The Red Orchestra: The Case of Africa. Vol. 2. Stanford, CA: Hoover Institute, 1988.
  418. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  419. A three-volume edited collection drawn from a variety of conferences developed during the height of Reagan’s so-called new Cold War. This collection was explicitly designed to direct public attention to the variety and sophistication of Communist subversion. An interesting example of the nexus of academia and policymaking that emerged during the Cold War in the West as a result of the perceived Communist threat.
  420. Find this resource:
  421. Brzezinski, Zbigniew, ed. Africa and the Communist World. Stanford, CA: Hoover Institute, 1963.
  422. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  423. One of the key figures in the totalitarian anti-Communist school, Brzezinski here examines the actions and strategies of key Communist states in Africa: USSR, eastern Europe, Yugoslavia, and China. Explores the key factors that made Communism attractive to many African states in their struggle for independence and nation building. Concerned also with how the West might respond to the threat of Communism in Africa.
  424. Find this resource:
  425. Darch, Colin. “Catalyst, Stake, Pretext, Symbol, Mask: On the History of Relations between the Comintern, the Soviet Union and Southern Africa.” Journal of Southern African Studies 31.4 (December 2005): 883–893.
  426. DOI: 10.1080/03057070500370803Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  427. An interesting review article of the works of Russian academics from the post-Communist era on relations between the USSR, Comintern, and postcolonial Africa.
  428. Find this resource:
  429. Drew, Allison. “Communism in Africa.” In The Oxford Handbook of the History of Communism. Edited by Steve Smith, 285–302. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014.
  430. DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199602056.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  431. A useful overview survey of the field, with particular emphasis upon South Africa.
  432. Find this resource:
  433. Gavshon, Arthur. Crisis in Africa: Battleground of East and West. Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1981.
  434. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  435. Details the evolution of Soviet policy toward Africa from Stalin to Brezhnev and also includes chapters on Cuba and China. Two case studies, on Angola and the Horn of Africa respectively, are included.
  436. Find this resource:
  437. Griffith, William E. The Soviet-US Confrontation in South Africa. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1976.
  438. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  439. A brief interpretive essay that offers policy perspectives.
  440. Find this resource:
  441. Martin, James W. A Political History of the Civil War in Angola. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 2011.
  442. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  443. A detailed account of the complex civil war in Angola after the withdrawal of Portugal, which involved Cuba, South Africa, the United States, the USSR, and China.
  444. Find this resource:
  445. Ottaway, David, and Marina Ottaway. Afrocommunism. New York: Holmes and Meier, 1981.
  446. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  447. A useful survey and synthesis of the varieties of African socialism, with particular emphasis on the states of Mozambique, Angola, and Ethiopia.
  448. Find this resource:
  449. Australasia
  450.  
  451. Deery and Redfern 2005 takes a comparative approach and broadens our understanding of the impact of Cominform on Communist parties in the West by looking at the experiences of the UK and Australia. Macintyre 1994 explores the dynamics of center-periphery relations by examining relations between the Australian Communist Party and Moscow.
  452.  
  453. Deery, Phillip, and Neil Redfern. “No Lasting Peace? Labour, Communism and Cominform: Australia and Great Britain 1945–50.” Labour History 88 (May 2005): 63–86.
  454. DOI: 10.2307/27516037Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  455. Another interesting example of the greater attention being focused on comparative analysis of the impact of Communism. In the UK, the formation of Cominform created an approach based primarily around collaboration. The Australian Communist Party shifted into a much more confrontational stance.
  456. Find this resource:
  457. Macintyre, Stuart. “Dealing with Moscow: The Comintern and the Early History of the Communist Party of Australia.” Labour History 67 (November 1994): 128–143.
  458. DOI: 10.2307/27509280Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  459. A revisionist account of the early years of the Australian Communist Party, using a swathe of memoir materials. Highlights the intermittent nature of Moscow’s interest and intervention in the affairs of the ACP but also how association with Comintern, with the prestige of an international Communist movement and the attraction of the ideals of Communism, were key elements in sustaining the relationship with Moscow.
  460. Find this resource:
  461. Great Britain and Ireland
  462.  
  463. The historiography of British Communism has been rather less dichotomized. Up until the late 1970s, it was dominated by three broad approaches. The anti-Communists and the Trotskyites (locked in a strange agreement) tended to emphasize the role of Comintern. The official Communist Party of Great Britian (CPGB) historians tended to downplay the role of Moscow. The “new labour” historians of the 1960s and 1970s eschewed the questions of high politics and ideology and focused instead upon the actions of the Communists themselves: their campaigns, their involvement in unions, their activities in their communities. This field began to change a little in the 1980s as the CPGB archives became more accessible, and it changed again in the 1990s as the CPSU and Comintern archives were opened up. A coherent post-Communist, post-revisionist viewpoint is starting to emerge that tries to synthesize the role of Comintern, as well as highlight the role of the CPGB and its members. There was a good deal of flexibility and pragmatism in this relationship. Although it was not just a transmission belt from Moscow to London, the role of Comintern cannot be ignored. In sum, however, the latest archival findings tend to show that Comintern was not sufficiently powerful to enforce its will on the CPGB over a long-term frame. Beckett 1995 uses the new archival material to examine the Labour Party’s relationship with Moscow. Lilleker 2004 and Thorpe 2000 provide two revisionist accounts of the relationship between Moscow and the Labour Party and the CPGB. Branson 1985 and Branson 1997 offer a contrasting “insider” account of the early history of the rise of the CPGB to 1951. Lammers 1971, by contrast, looks at the British Foreign Office. Delaney 2011 and O’Connor 2003 provide an Irish perspective on these relationships.
  464.  
  465. Beckett, Francis. The Enemy Within: The Rise and Fall of the British Communist Party. London: John Murray, 1995.
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  467. A revisionist account that uses the opening of the archives, memoir material, and extensive interviews to explore the internal and external dynamics of the CPGB’s relations with both Moscow and the British Labour Party.
  468. Find this resource:
  469. Branson, Noreen. History of the Communist Party of Great Britain 1927–41. London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1985.
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  471. An insider account of the rise of the CPGB, taking in the 1930s and the onset of World War 2.
  472. Find this resource:
  473. Branson, Noreen. History of the Communist Party of Great Britain 1941–51. London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1997.
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  475. This volume takes the story of the rise of the CPGB through World War 2 to the early Cold War, and includes the dissolution of Comintern, the emergence of Cominform and the Labour party’s electoral victory in 1945.
  476. Find this resource:
  477. Delaney, Enda. “Anti-Communism in Mid-Twentieth-Century Ireland.” English Historical Review 126.521 (August 2011): 878–903.
  478. DOI: 10.1093/ehr/cer202Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  479. Another excellent example of recent research exploring the impact of the Cold War and anti-Communism on the margins of the West. Delaney explores the campaigns waged by right-wing Catholic organizations against Communist influences. The Irish “red scare” was different from that elsewhere though, informed as it was by local cultural and religious thinking.
  480. Find this resource:
  481. Lammers, Donald. “Fascism, Communism and the Foreign Office.” Journal of Contemporary History 6.3 (1971): 66–86.
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  483. An in-depth look at the struggles within the British Foreign Office to understand the ideological challenges and threats of Communism and fascism, and how this impacted British policy.
  484. Find this resource:
  485. Lilleker, Darren G. Against the Cold War: The History and Political Traditions of Pro-Sovietism in the British Labour Party 1945–89. New York: I. B. Tauris, 2004.
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  487. Lilleker offers a more nuanced post–Cold War perspective on the traditions of pro-Sovietism in the Parliamentary Labour Party. Focusing mainly on key individuals in the post-1945 period, this study examines how these people became “change agents” and “conduits of understanding” in their attempt to promote the Soviet Union and its interests in British politics. According to the author, they largely failed in this endeavor.
  488. Find this resource:
  489. O’Connor, Emmett “Communists, Russia, and the IRA, 1920–1923.” Historical Journal 46.1 (March 2003): 115–131.
  490. DOI: 10.1017/S0018246X02002868Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  491. Explores the relationship with the Communist Party of Ireland and Comintern within the context of the republican struggles of the IRA in Ireland after the First World War. Demonstrates that although Comintern could act in an authoritarian manner, it could also be patient and flexible in allowing for some autonomy and leeway.
  492. Find this resource:
  493. Thorpe, Andrew. The British Communist Party and Moscow 1920–43. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 2000.
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  495. The best of the most recent works on the CPGB: balanced, informed, and erudite. Thorpe unpacks the relationship between Moscow, Comintern, the CPGB, and the workers movement and outlines how this changed over time and was being constantly renegotiated as different issues and challenges came about. Thorpe also argues that this relationship should be seen as much more of a partnership than a transmission belt from Moscow.
  496. Find this resource:
  497. North America
  498.  
  499. The historiography of American Communism began to develop in earnest as the Cold War became more intense at the end of the 1950s with the publication of a series of ten books (spearheaded by Theodore Draper) on “Communism in American Life.” This was a predominantly anti-Communist standpoint (although many were writing from a disillusioned quasi-Marxist position). Their argument was that the US Communist Party (CPUSA) was a tool of Moscow and opposed to democratic norms and values. The “revisionist” line emerged in the 1970s, out of studies of the CPUSA and its interactions with unions and workers groups. They explored the human dimensions of the struggle of Communists, their cultural output, the persecution they endured, and the influence they exercised across American society. The links and influence of Moscow tended to be somewhat downplayed. The opening of the archives has led to something of a renaissance of traditionalist views, although without fully dislodging the revisionist viewpoint. The debates have been rather acrimonious in tone and rather polarized in content and approach. The classic anti-Communist views can be found in Draper 1960 and Klehr, et al. 1998. Klehr, et al. 1998 is part of the Yale University Press series, which makes available material from the former Soviet archives and includes reproductions of key documents. Examples of alternative approaches can be found in Caute 1978, Heale 1990, and Ottanelli 1991: all are written by authors who write from different time periods and in more depth. Manley 2001 offers a Canadian dimension. Cottle 2011 provides a comparative and a racial dimension in his work, emphasizing some of the new directions that revisionist historiography is taking.
  500.  
  501. Caute, David. The Great Fear: Anti-Communism Under Truman and Eisenhower. London: Secker and Warburg, 1978.
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  503. Caute provides a detailed look at the McCarthyism and scare mongering of the 1940s and 1950s but looks at lower levels of the US system and its anti-Communism rather than the more high-profile cases: civil service, workers, teachers, journalists, and librarians along with the entertainment industry.
  504. Find this resource:
  505. Cottle, Drew. “The Colour-Line and the Third Period: A Comparative Analysis of American and Australian Communism and the Question of Race, 1928–1934.” American Communist History 10.2 (August 2011): 119–131.
  506. DOI: 10.1080/14743892.2011.597218Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  507. Another comparative empirical article, this time placing the history of Communism in North America and Australia within the context of the struggle for racial equality. Outlines how the Communist parties were in the center of the struggle for racial equality for blacks and aboriginals.
  508. Find this resource:
  509. Draper, Theodore. American Communism and Soviet Russia. New York: Viking, 1960.
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  511. The classic account of American Communism in the 1920s, looking at how it quickly subordinated itself to Moscow and to Comintern.
  512. Find this resource:
  513. Heale, Michael J. American Anti-Communism: Combating the Enemy Within 1830–1970. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990.
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  515. Heale puts American anti-Communism within a much longer historical perspective than the 20th century, arguing for it as a constant and occasionally prominent feature of American social and political life since the early 19th century. The author assesses its impact on American public and political life. Its longer historical trajectory makes this a compelling part of the field of literature on Communism in America and is a useful juxtaposition to the Cold War–derived analyses.
  516. Find this resource:
  517. Klehr, Harvey, John Earl Haynes, and Kyrill M. Anderson. The Soviet World of American Communism. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1998.
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  519. Building on the earlier work The Secret World of American Communism, the authors outline the direct connections between the CPUSA and Comintern, and view the former as a stooge of the latter. Strongly anti-Communist in tone and argument, this work argues against seeing the CPUSA as a part of a wider American tradition of radicalism, dissent, and protest and instead views it as a political organization almost entirely dependent upon and beholden to Moscow.
  520. Find this resource:
  521. Manley, John. “‘Communists Love Canada’: The Communist Party of Canada, the ‘People’ and the ‘Popular Front, 1933–1939.’” Journal of Canadian Studies 36.4 (Winter 2001): 59–87.
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  523. One of the foremost experts on Canadian Communism outlines the attempts of the Canadian Communist Party (CCP) to develop a Popular Front strategy in the 1930s and broaden its basis of support. Although it doubled in size, this strategy was still essentially one driven by Moscow and its needs rather than local requirements.
  524. Find this resource:
  525. Ottanelli, Fraser M. The Communist Party of the United States. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1991.
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  527. This work examines the CPUSA from the end of the First World War to the start of the Second World War, although the focus is on the 1930s. Steers a path between either a grassroots approach or a Moscow-centric one, and highlights how the CPUSA attempted to adapt and adjust the Communist imperatives to the specifics of American life, culture, and politics. Avoids some of the more strident and dogmatic positions of the anti-Communists and provides a balanced and thoughtful account.
  528. Find this resource:
  529. Central and South America
  530.  
  531. The experiences of Latin and Central America center on the relationship between Moscow and local Communist parties. Communist subversion and influence in Latin American politics can be found in Bark 1986 and Alexander 1957. Studies that center on local politics include Becker 2006 and Caballero 1986 for Latin America and Cerdas-Cruz 1993 and Parker 2002 for Central America and the Caribbean.
  532.  
  533. Alexander, Robert. J. Communism in Latin America. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1957.
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  535. A classic anti-Communist Cold War account, written explicitly to alert the US public to the dangers of Communism. Includes some policy recommendations for the US government to try and combat the political, military, and ideological threat of Communism and the Communist parties in Latin America.
  536. Find this resource:
  537. Bark, Dennis L., ed. The Red Orchestra: Instruments of Soviet Policy in Latin America and the Caribbean. Vol. 1. Stanford, CA: Hoover Institute, 1986.
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  539. A three-volume edited collection drawn from a number of conferences. Was explicitly designed to direct public attention to the variety and sophistication of Communist subversion. An interesting example of the nexus of academia and policymaking that emerged during the Cold War in the West as a result of the perceived Communist threat. Deals with Latin America.
  540. Find this resource:
  541. Becker, Marc. “Mariátegui, the Comintern, and the Indigenous Question in Latin America.” Science and Society 70.4 (October 2006): 450–479.
  542. DOI: 10.1521/siso.2006.70.4.450Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  543. Examines the role of José Carlos Mariátegui, a Peruvian Marxist who confronted and defeated the aims of Comintern in South America, as the Comintern wanted to push for the creation of a separate Indian republic. Mariategui argued (successfully) instead that the indigenous peoples should push for equality within the existing state structures.
  544. Find this resource:
  545. Caballero, Manuel. Latin America and the Comintern 1919–43. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1986.
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  547. An introductory overview text that synthesizes much of the literature available at the time. Written prior to the opening of the archives but a good survey of an understudied topic.
  548. Find this resource:
  549. Cerdas-Cruz, Rodolfo. The Communist International in Central America, 1920–36. Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan, 1993.
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  551. A valuable study of an understudied region and time in the life of the Comintern. Uses Comintern archival material to examine the debates on such issues as the revolution and its character, the party and its nature, and the strategy and tactics to be applied in the underdeveloped countries. Most attention is applied to the Communist parties of El Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica.
  552. Find this resource:
  553. Parker, Jason. “Remapping the Cold War in the Tropics: Race, Communism and National Security in the West Indies.” The International History Review 24.2 (June 2002): 318–347.
  554. DOI: 10.1080/07075332.2002.9640966Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  555. A fascinating look at the Cold War in the more “remote” zones. Parker examines the complex intersections of the Cold War and Western colonialism, of both the powerful and the powerless.
  556. Find this resource:
  557. The Middle East
  558.  
  559. An understudied region on the whole when it comes to Communist studies. Griffith 1976 offers an interpretive overview, with policy recommendations for the US government. Alexander 2014 gives a historical overview of Communism in the Islamic world (including the Middle East and North Africa). Franzen 2010 explores the experiences of the British state in Iraq after the Second World War. Popp 2010 outlines the US attempts to find a way of working with Arab nationalist rulers to prevent Communism spreading.
  560.  
  561. Alexander, Anne. “Communism in the Islamic World.” In The Oxford Handbook of the History of Communism. Edited by Steve Smith, 268–284. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014.
  562. DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199602056.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  563. A useful and concise historical survey of Communism in the Islamic states.
  564. Find this resource:
  565. Franzen, Johan. “Losing Hearts and Minds in Iraq: Britain, Cold War Propaganda and the Challenge of Communism, 1945–58.” Historical Research 83.222 (November 2010): 747–762.
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  567. Outlines how the British state used anti-Communist propaganda and action against political opposition that was essentially nationalist and anti-imperialist. The Cold War context led them to interpret opposition as Communist in origin and thus to devise inappropriate responses.
  568. Find this resource:
  569. Griffith, William E. The Middle East and the Great Powers. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1976.
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  571. A brief interpretive essay that includes policy perspectives.
  572. Find this resource:
  573. Popp, Roland. “Accommodating to a working relationship: Arab Nationalism and US Cold War policies in the Middle East, 1958–60.” Cold War History 10.3 (2010): 397–427.
  574. DOI: 10.1080/14682741003686107Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  575. Explores how the Eisenhower administration attempted to grapple with radical Arab nationalism in an attempt to stop Soviet expansion in the Middle East.
  576. Find this resource:
  577. Society and Culture
  578.  
  579. One of the most fruitful developments in recent years has been the shift away from questions of high politics, personalities, ideology and organizational questions, to that of questions around social and cultural issues. Linked to the general “cultural turn” in historical thinking and practice, this has meant the flowering of studies on the threat, impact, and challenge of Communism across a range of subject areas and using a variety of different sources and approaches. This has had the welcome effect of allowing a much more nuanced picture to emerge, as studies of localities, women, youth (as well as the older studies that examined the place of intellectuals) have begun to be published. It has also broadened our understanding of the myriad mechanisms that the USSR deployed in its attempt to win adherents and lever change in the West, and also of the multiplicity of reasons behind why different people decided to become Communist supporters or activists in the West.
  580.  
  581. Intellectuals and Fellow Travelers
  582.  
  583. The attraction of Western intellectuals to Communism and Communist ideology has begun to be explored in more depth in the late 20th and early 21st centuries. Caute 1964 and Caute 1973 looks at this phenomenon both broadly and also within the context of postwar French culture. Lottman 1991 also explores the situation in France. Those intellectuals who went to the USSR are examined in detail in Stern 2007 and Margulies 1968. Nicholas 2001 exemplifies some of the newer approaches by taking a specific field (in this instance, dance) and examining the impact of the early Cold War on it.
  584.  
  585. Caute, David. Communism and the French Intellectuals, 1914–60. London: Andre Deutsch, 1964.
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  587. A detailed chronological account of the reasons behind French intellectuals’ attraction to Communism and the Parti Communiste Français (PCF). The author attempts to move beyond the argument advanced by ex-Communists (who saw any allegiance to Communism as an “aberration”) by exploring the concrete historical, ideological, and psychological circumstances that led many to embrace Communism and to explain why some stayed committed, while others fell away or fell silent.
  588. Find this resource:
  589. Caute, David. The Fellow Travellers. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1973.
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  591. A wide-ranging examination of the “fellow-traveler” phenomenon: those Western intellectuals sympathetic to Communism and the USSR in particular. It covers the period from the early years of the revolution, through the Stalin era, the 1930s and the Popular Front, the Second World War, Cold War, and finally the emergence of China as an object of interest for committed but disillusioned Western intellectuals.
  592. Find this resource:
  593. Lottman, Herbert. The Left Bank: Writers, Artists and Politics from the Popular Front to the Cold War. San Francisco: Halo, 1991.
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  595. This is a passionate and detailed examination of the “committed intellectual,” specifically the French intellectuals between 1930 and 1950, from fascism/antifascism to the Cold War. Notably Lottman explores the attractions and sympathy for the Soviet experiment, which arose out of the economic, political, and ideological struggles of the 1930s and the subsequent disillusionment in the early years of the Cold War.
  596. Find this resource:
  597. Margulies, Sylvia R. Pilgrimage to Russia: USSR and the Treatment of Foreigners 1924–37. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1968.
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  599. One of the best Cold War analyses of the fellow-traveler phenomenon. Margulies explains how the USSR encouraged visitors who would then return back to the West and be instrumental “opinion formers” at home. Interestingly, Margulies notes that the longer the visitors stayed in the USSR, the less likely they were to be an enthusiastic advocate for Communism when they returned home.
  600. Find this resource:
  601. Nicholas, Larraine. “Fellow Travellers: Dance and British Cold War Politics in the Early 1950s.” Dance Research 19.2 (Winter 2001): 83–105.
  602. DOI: 10.3366/1290977Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  603. Examines the place of dance and dancers in the cultural politics of the early Cold War in Britain. The pioneers in promoting Soviet theater dance were committed Communist Party members and fellow travelers, and this article examines the earliest concerts in 1953 and 1954.
  604. Find this resource:
  605. Stern, Ludmilla. Western Intellectuals and the Soviet Union 1920–40: From Red Square to the Left Bank. London: Routledge, 2007.
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  607. A tightly argued and highly detailed work that takes advantage of the opening of the archives to explore some of the more obscure dimensions of the Soviet propaganda war in the West. Stern examines the role of cultural organizations and writers’ unions in attracting Western intellectuals to the USSR in the 1920s and 1930s. An important and significant work in adding to our understanding of the effectiveness and diversity of Soviet “soft” propaganda.
  608. Find this resource:
  609. Students and Youth
  610.  
  611. The relationship between students/youth and Communism has been a subject of increasing interest among scholars. Attempts to recruit and mobilize students and youth can be found in Johnston 2001; McIlroy, et al. 2003; Taborsky 1969; and Whitney 2009. The organizational conflicts among youth movements are explored in Britain by Mills 2011 and in Canada by Moses 2006. The content of the high school curriculum in the struggle between American and Communist values is outlined in Scribner 2012.
  612.  
  613. Johnston, Angus J. “Questions of Communism and Anti-Communism in Twentieth Century Student Activism.” Peace and Change 26.3 (July 2001): 301–315.
  614. DOI: 10.1111/0149-0508.00195Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  615. Examines the ways in which students reacted to and resisted off-campus pressures to organize either pro- or anti-Communist programs.
  616. Find this resource:
  617. McIlroy, John, Barry McLaughlin, Alan Campbell, and John Halstead. “Forging the Faithful: the British at the International Lenin School.” Labour History Review 68.1 (April 2003): 99–128.
  618. DOI: 10.3828/lhr.68.1.99Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  619. A fascinating article that unpacks the training of a whole generation of British Communists in Moscow in the 1920s and 1930s and then follows their subsequent careers, in which a surprising number maintained their adherence to Communism. Part of the Communist Biographical Project in the UK.
  620. Find this resource:
  621. Mills, Sarah. “Be Prepared: Communism and the Politics of Scouting in 1950s Britain.” Contemporary British History 25.3 (September 2011): 429–450.
  622. DOI: 10.1080/13619462.2011.597552Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  623. This article develops our knowledge of British “McCarthyism” by examining the fate of the “red” Scouts in the 1950s (i.e., those who sympathized with or who had links with the Young Communist League). By focusing upon British youth, this article gives new insight into how anti-Communism was prevalent at different levels and in different parts of British society in the early Cold War era.
  624. Find this resource:
  625. Moses, Nigel Roy. “Canadian Student Movements on the Cold War Battlefield 1944–54.” Social History/Histoire Sociale 39.78 (2006): 363–403.
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  627. Students and student activism have become topics of strategic interest for scholars examining the cultural politics of the Cold War. This article takes an in-depth look at the experience of Canadian students, and in particular the National Federation of Canadian University (NFCUS) students and its discussions about engagement with the Communist-oriented International Union of Students. Moses concludes that despite the interventions of a variety of actors, the NFCUS remained able to establish its own autonomy.
  628. Find this resource:
  629. Scribner, Campbell F. “Make Your Voice Heard: Communism in the High School Curriculum, 1958–1968.” History of Education Quarterly 52.3 (August 2012): 351–369.
  630. DOI: 10.1111/j.1748-5959.2012.00403.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  631. Explores anti-Communist instruction in US schools in the 1950s and 1960s and details the content and tensions surrounding the special “Americanism vs. Communism” lesson content.
  632. Find this resource:
  633. Taborsky, Edward. “Soviet Strategy and Latin American Students.” Social Science Quarterly 50.1 (June 1969): 116–126.
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  635. Explores the changing strategy and effectiveness of Communist recruitment in Latin America by examining the shift away from workers and peasants and toward radical student activists.
  636. Find this resource:
  637. Whitney, Susan. Mobilising Youth: Communists and Catholics in Interwar France. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2009.
  638. DOI: 10.1215/9780822391562Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  639. Based (originally) on a doctoral dissertation, this study examines the attempts of various political movements—Communist and Catholic in particular—to mobilize the youth in France (especially female youth) in pursuit of their political goals. A valuable work that gives us insight into two neglected areas of the interwar history of western European Communism: youth and women.
  640. Find this resource:
  641. Spies and Espionage
  642.  
  643. The question of espionage during the Cold War has produced a great deal of rather polarized works. The traditional anti-Communist perspective can be found in Haynes and Klehr 2003 and Haynes, et al. 2009. The approach appears more ideologically than historically driven in places, and the tone does lapse into polemic and prosecution in places. The UK experience, and notably the Cambridge spy ring, is examined by Hamrick 2004 and Modin 1994. Koch 2004 looks at the life of one of Stalin’s key figures in the West: Willi Munzenberg.
  644.  
  645. Hamrick, Samuel J. Deceiving the Deceivers. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2004.
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  647. Making use of the Venona transcripts, Hamrick revisits the case of the Cambridge spy ring of Philby, Burgess, and Maclean. This is a significant and important revisionist account of the story, which argues that British intelligence knew of Maclean’s Moscow connections far earlier than 1951.
  648. Find this resource:
  649. Haynes, John Earl, and Harvey Klehr. In Denial: Historians, Communism and Espionage. San Francisco: Encounter Books, 2003.
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  651. A rather polemical piece that takes aim at the “revisionists” working in the field of the history of American Communism. Explicitly seeks to outline how and why a variety of academics and scholars continue to “misunderstand” the history of American Communism. A Cold War text in the post–Cold War era.
  652. Find this resource:
  653. Haynes, John Earl, Harvey Klehr, and Alexander Vassiliev. Spies: the Rise and Fall of the KGB in America. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2009.
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  655. Another in the Yale University Press series, this one attempts to provide the definitive account of Soviet espionage activities in the United States, primarily in the 1930s to 1950s. Generally conservative and anti-Communist in its posture, the authors argue that Soviet intelligence had an extensive network of dedicated agents and sympathizers in America in this period, many of whom were government officials. Some weaknesses in the handling of the source material are present as well.
  656. Find this resource:
  657. Koch, Stephen. Double Lives: Stalin, Willi Munzenberg and the Seduction of the Intellectuals. New York: Enigma, 2004.
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  659. A withering and at times rather florid and speculative piece of writing about one of the key figures in Stalin’s attempt to draw Western intellectuals into the orbit of the Soviet regime. In particular Koch, who is a novelist by trade, is keen to emphasize the way in which the Soviets co-opted the forces of liberal antifascism for their own goals, manipulating and hoodwinking the naive idealism of Western intellectuals and cultural figures.
  660. Find this resource:
  661. Modin, Yuri. My Five Cambridge Friends. Toronto: Alfred Knopf Canada, 1994.
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  663. Modin was the KGB officer who ran the five spies in the UK, and this narrative outlines the view of them from the Lubyanka. An interesting perspective that portrays them as naive idealists (rather than “traitors”) who firmly believed in the USSR and who were deeply opposed to fascism.
  664. Find this resource:
  665. Women
  666.  
  667. This is another underresearched field. Sewell 2012 analyzes the appeal of Communism to women in interwar Germany. Sewell’s work is an example of the new directions research is beginning to take in the early 21st century.
  668.  
  669. Sewell, Sara Ann. “Bolshevising Communist Women: The Red Women and Girls’ League in Weimar Germany.” Central European History 45 (2012): 268–305.
  670. DOI: 10.1017/S0008938912000052Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  671. Explores some of the questions pertaining to the attraction of Communism to women in Weimar-era Germany, adding some much-needed social history approaches to our understanding of the appeal of Communism in the interwar years, and also of how Communism adapted its message to appeal to different constituencies.
  672. Find this resource:
  673. Workers
  674.  
  675. The experiences of workers and workers’ organizations have been highlighted in a number of works. Trade Unions and workers’ organizations (including transnational bodies such as Profintern and the World Federation of Trade Unions) can be found in Cain 2012, Campbell and McIlroy 2008, McIlroy 2000, Devinatz 2013, and Tosstorff 2003. Drinot 2012 provides an interesting non-Western perspective by examining workers in Peru. The use of social history can be detected with the work of Adi 2010, which looks at questions of race, and Macintyre 1980, which examines grassroots militancy.
  676.  
  677. Adi, Hakim. “The Comintern and Black Workers in Britain and France 1919–37.” Immigrants and Minorities 28.2–3 (July–November 2010): 224–245.
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  679. New research that looks at the question of race in the struggles of Comintern to attract support among African and Caribbean workers in interwar Europe. Moves the field of inquiry into new and interesting areas, especially with regard to the role of Communism in helping black workers organize and find a sense of identity.
  680. Find this resource:
  681. Cain, Timothy Reese. “Unionised Faculty and the Political Left: Communism and the American Federation of Teachers on the Eve of the Second World War.” History of Education 41.4 (July 2012): 515–535.
  682. DOI: 10.1080/0046760X.2012.671619Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  683. Examines the debates within the American Federation of Teachers on Communism and Communist infiltration before 1941.
  684. Find this resource:
  685. Campbell, Alan, and John McIlroy. “The National Unemployed Workers’ Movement and the Communist Party of Great Britain Revisited.” Labour History Review 73.1 (April 2008): 61–88.
  686. DOI: 10.1179/174581808X279118Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  687. Using new archive documentation, the authors demonstrate the clear intention of the CPGB leadership to control the National Unemployed Workers’ Movement and use it as a “front” organization to push the Moscow line.
  688. Find this resource:
  689. Devinatz, Victor G. “A Cold War Thaw in the International Working Class Movement? The World Federation of Trade Unions and the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions 1967–77.” Science and Society 77.3 (July 2013): 342–371.
  690. DOI: 10.1521/siso.2013.77.3.342Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  691. Examines two of the most important transnational labor organizations in the postwar world: the World Federation of Trade Unions (which retained close ties with the USSR) and the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions. It focuses upon the barriers to international working-class unity, and in doing so points out the continued hostility of many Western labor movements to Soviet-affiliated organizations.
  692. Find this resource:
  693. Drinot, Paulo. “Creole Anti-Communism: Labor, the Peruvian Communist Party, and APRA, 1930–1934.” Hispanic American Historical Review 92.4 (2012): 703–736.
  694. DOI: 10.1215/00182168-1727981Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  695. Examines the struggle for control of the Peruvian Labour movement between the Creole anti-Communist APRA (American Popular Revolutionary Alliance) and the Peruvian Communist Party.
  696. Find this resource:
  697. Macintyre, Stuart. Little Moscows: Communism and Working Class Militancy in Inter-war Britain. London: Croom Helm, 1980.
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  699. A fascinating micro-level study of working-class militancy in the 1920s and 1930s in coal-mining communities in Scotland and South Wales, written from a sympathetic left-wing viewpoint. It tells of how these communities—under the leadership of local grassroots Communists—sought to navigate the problems of economic retrenchment and unemployment in the 1930s and so provide a tangible example of Communism in action.
  700. Find this resource:
  701. McIlroy, John. “Reds at Work: Communist Factory Organisation in the Cold War, 1947–56.” Labour History Review 65.2 (Summer 2000): 181–201.
  702. DOI: 10.3828/lhr.65.2.181Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  703. A detailed study that revises our understanding of the role played by the CPGB in British trade unions in the early part of the Cold War. Shows how, in spite of the pressure from the Labour government and the TUC, the CPGB maintained its presence among various unions in London, Scotland, and Wales between 1947 and 1956.
  704. Find this resource:
  705. Tosstorff, Reiner. “Moscow v Amsterdam: Reflections on the History of Profintern.” Labour History Review 68.1 (April 2003): 79–97.
  706. DOI: 10.3828/lhr.68.1.79Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  707. A long overdue work on the history of the Red International of Labour Unions, moving the field beyond Comintern to look at the whole plethora of other institutions used by the USSR.
  708. Find this resource:
  709. Culture and Sport
  710.  
  711. The cultural turn in scholarship can be seen in a few of the works that deal with culture, film, and sport. Ceplair 2008 examines the battles within the US film industry. Riordan 1988 and Washburn 1956 analyze sport as a tool of Soviet foreign policy. Lewis 1970 narrates the story of the Left Book Club.
  712.  
  713. Ceplair, Larry. “The Film Industry’s Battle against Left-Wing Influences.” Film History 20.4 (2008): 399–411.
  714. DOI: 10.2979/FIL.2008.20.4.399Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  715. A brief historical overview of the impact of anti-Communist sentiment on the US film industry, showing how in the context of the early Cold War film executives and studios were persuaded to introduce blacklisting and to create anti-Communist works as a means of assisting the government in its drive to respond to the Communist threat.
  716. Find this resource:
  717. Lewis, John. The Left Book Club: An Historical Record. London: Victor Gollancz, 1970.
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  719. A fascinating story of the emergence of the Left Book Club, dedicated to ensuring that the dreadful conditions of the 1930s should never recur, and that the rise of fascism should be resisted across Europe. Saw the USSR as the best hope for the antifascist struggle until 1939.
  720. Find this resource:
  721. Riordan, Jim. “The Place of Sport in Soviet Foreign Policy.” International Journal 43.4 (Autumn 1988): 569–595.
  722. DOI: 10.2307/40202564Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  723. A comprehensive survey of the role of sport in Soviet foreign policy, focusing upon ways in which sport was deployed to gain friends and allies, establish national pride and ideological hegemony, and adopt a moral standpoint in the public arena (for example over apartheid and South Africa)
  724. Find this resource:
  725. Washburn, John. “Sport as a Soviet Tool.” Foreign Affairs 34.3 (April 1956): 490–499.
  726. DOI: 10.2307/20031180Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  727. A classic Cold War piece, highlighting the place of Soviet sport as an element of state power and control and a lever for fomenting class war abroad in support of the ideals of international Communism.
  728. Find this resource:
  729. Politics, Movements, Organizations, Armaments
  730.  
  731. This section deals with the diversity of threats and challenges posed by Communism, from the military to a variety of movements that either were perceived to be fronts for Communist activity, or mobilized themselves to oppose Communism at home. The recent burgeoning interest in the peace movement and the role of churches is another example of how scholarly analysis is starting to be applied to previously unexplored aspects of the challenge of Communism to Western societies, and of the various organizations that were caught up in the networks of the Cold War at home.
  732.  
  733. The Peace Movement
  734.  
  735. The peace movement had to contend with the complexities of Cold War politics. The international dimensions are explored in Deery 2002, Ullrich 2011, and Wernicke 1998. The nation-specific dilemmas of the United States can be found by exploring Lieberman 2000 and the dilemmas of Great Britain in Myers 1973. Shulman 1963 highlights the Soviet use of the peace movement (and the PCF) in its dealings with western Europe in the early years of the Cold War.
  736.  
  737. Deery, Phillip. “The Dove Flies East: Whitehall, Warsaw and the 1950 World Peace Congress.” Australian Journal of Politics and History 48.4 (December 2002): 449–468.
  738. DOI: 10.1111/1467-8497.00270Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  739. Examines how the World Peace Congress became a microcosm of the broader Cold War conflict, as both East and West sought to use this organization to press its claims for moral and political superiority. Shows how institutions and organizations became sites of tension in the early Cold War.
  740. Find this resource:
  741. Lieberman, Robbie. The Strangest Dream: Communism, Anti-Communism and the US Peace Movement. New York: Syracuse University Press, 2000.
  742. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  743. This important work analyzes the intersection of “peace” and “Communism” after the Second World War. In particular, Lieberman examines how grassroots peace activism became inexorably linked with Communist subversion and anti-Americanism in the early years of the Cold War.
  744. Find this resource:
  745. Myers, Frank. “Dilemmas in the British Peace Movement since WWII.” Journal of Peace Research 10.1–2 (1973): 81–90.
  746. DOI: 10.1177/002234337301000105Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  747. Examines the problems and failures of the peace movement after 1945, with particular reference to the inability of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament to create a key role for itself in British public life, owing to internal divisions and lack of broadly based popular support.
  748. Find this resource:
  749. Shulman, Marshall D. Stalin’s Foreign Policy Reappraised. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1963.
  750. DOI: 10.4159/harvard.9780674424067Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  751. Shulman examines the late Stalin period, and in particular focuses upon the Soviet use of the peace movement as a central part of its foreign policy approach to dealings with western Europe.
  752. Find this resource:
  753. Ullrich, Weston. “Preventing ‘peace’: The British Government and the Second World Peace Congress.” Cold War History 11.3 (August 2011): 341–362.
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  755. Examines some of the subjective elements of the Cold War by focusing upon perception as a mode of interpretation and action. The focus is upon the British government’s perception of the Second World Peace Congress as part of a Soviet ploy.
  756. Find this resource:
  757. Wernicke, Gunter. “The Communist-led World Peace Council and the Western Peace Movements.” Peace and Change 29.3 (July 1998): 265–312.
  758. DOI: 10.1111/0149-0508.00087Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  759. An “insider” perspective. Wernicke was an East German peace activist and historian, and this article examines the tensions and conflicts within the World Peace Council as it increasingly became subordinated to the foreign policy needs of the USSR and the other Warsaw Pact countries.
  760. Find this resource:
  761. The Church
  762.  
  763. Recent research has begun to examine the role of the church and Christianity in responding to the threat of Communism in the West. Muehlenbeck 2012 offers an overview of religion during the Cold War. Edwards 2013 unpacks the challenges of Communism in prewar Great Britain. In the Cold War era, Herzog 2010 looks at the American experience, while McFarland and Johnston 2009 looks at the response of the Church of Scotland.
  764.  
  765. Edwards, Ben. “The Godless Congress of 1938: Christian Fears About Communism in Great Britain.” Journal of Religious History 37.1 (March 2013): 1–19.
  766. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9809.2012.01175.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  767. Outlines the response of the pre-war UK Christian community to the perceived threat of Communism and the determination of the different denominations to resist Communism.
  768. Find this resource:
  769. Herzog, Jonathan. “America’s Spiritual-Industrial Complex and the Policy of Revival in the Early Cold War.” Journal of Policy History 22.3 (2010): 337–365.
  770. DOI: 10.1017/S0898030610000138Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  771. Herzog examines the influence of American policymakers on America’s private and public religious life between 1945 and 1960, specifically arguing that the government used rhetorical devices and corporate resources to stimulate a religious revival in the late 1940s and early 1950s to immunize the people against the threat of Communism.
  772. Find this resource:
  773. McFarland, Elaine W., and Ronald J. Johnston. “The Church of Scotland’s Special Commission on Communism, 1949–1954: Tackling ‘Christianity’s Most Serious Competitor.’” Contemporary British History 23.3 (September 2009): 337–361.
  774. DOI: 10.1080/13619460903080176Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  775. Explores the attempts to frame a Christian response to Communism and also highlights the transnational dimension of the threat of Communism to the global church. Important work that looks beyond politics and ideology.
  776. Find this resource:
  777. Muehlenbeck, Philip E., ed. Religion and the Cold War. Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 2012.
  778. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  779. A collection of essays that covers the Cold War in Europe, Africa, the United States, Latin America, and Asia. Also examines both Christian and Islamic responses to Communism.
  780. Find this resource:
  781. Front Organizations
  782.  
  783. The role of front organizations in attempting to spread Communism in the non-Communist world was a traditional Cold War anxiety. Morris 1956 provides a classic Cold War–era account of this phenomenon.
  784.  
  785. Morris, Bernard S. “Communist International Front Organisations: Their Nature and Function.” World Politics 9.1 (October 1956): 76–87.
  786. DOI: 10.2307/2008869Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  787. An interesting evaluation of the “front organization” phenomenon, written at the height of the Cold War. Morris argues that the greatest significance and success for Communist front organizations was not in recruiting supporters in the West or disseminating propaganda but in meeting the inner needs of international Communism: affirming loyalties, maintaining participation, and confirming bias.
  788. Find this resource:
  789. Communist Military Doctrine and Practice
  790.  
  791. The Communist states developed a range of different military doctrines, strategy, and tactics as they sought to challenge the capitalist and colonial powers. The question of military thinking and strategy is explored by Garthoff 1990, Glantz 1992, and Kokoshin 1998. The evolution and operation of the Warsaw Pact is outlined by Faringdon 1986 and Lewis 1982. Specific examples of Communist military practices can be seen in Vietnam through Giap 1962 and Tanham 1967, and in Afghanistan with Grau and Gress 2002.
  792.  
  793. Faringdon, Hugh. Confrontation: The Strategic Geography of NATO and the Warsaw Pact. London: Routledge, 1986.
  794. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  795. An analysis of the strategic balance of power in Europe and of the role of the Warsaw Pact, focusing upon the idea of military geography and zones of confrontation.
  796. Find this resource:
  797. Garthoff, Raymond. Deterrence and the Revolution in Soviet Military Doctrine. Washington, DC: Brookings Institute, 1990.
  798. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  799. An overview of Soviet military doctrine after 1945, with particular emphasis on two phases: 1945–1985 and 1985 onward. Focuses upon the idea of deterrence and its role in Soviet foreign and military policy.
  800. Find this resource:
  801. Giap, General Vo Nguyen. People’s War People’s Army. New York: Praeger, 1962.
  802. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  803. A translation of the Vietcong manual for the conduct of warfare in the villages. Exemplifies the tactical and strategic thinking of Communist warfare in the developing world.
  804. Find this resource:
  805. Glantz, David. The Military Strategy of the Soviet Union. London: Frank Cass, 1992.
  806. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  807. Useful narrative overview of Soviet military strategy from 1917 through to 1985.
  808. Find this resource:
  809. Grau, Lester, and Michael Gress. The Soviet-Afghan War: How a Superpower Fought and Lost. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2002.
  810. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  811. An invaluable source based on a translation of the Soviet general staff’s report about the war.
  812. Find this resource:
  813. Kokoshin, Andrei A. Soviet Strategic Thought 1917–91. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1998.
  814. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  815. A survey of the evolution of Soviet thinking on strategic and military affairs from the revolution to the collapse of the USSR.
  816. Find this resource:
  817. Lewis, William J. The Warsaw Pact: Arms, Doctrine and Strategy. Cambridge, MA: Institute for Foreign Policy Analysis, 1982.
  818. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  819. A highly detailed and technical overview of all aspects of the operations of the Warsaw Pact forces, including tactics and doctrines.
  820. Find this resource:
  821. Tanham, George K. Communist Revolutionary Warfare. New York: Praeger, 1967.
  822. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  823. Outlines the key components of the organization, strategy, and tactics of the Vietcong, and their response to the war with the United States.
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