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Sino-Japanese Wars, 1895-1945 (Military History)

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. The First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) shattered the traditional Confucian order in East Asia and produced a historically anomalous situation with Japan, not China, the dominant regional power. The Second Sino-Japanese War (1931–1945) marked Japan’s failed attempt to carve out an empire on the Asia mainland sufficient to practice autarky amidst the Great Depression. These were also two of Japan’s three wars aimed at Russian containment. (The third was the intervening Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905.) The literature mainly vilifies Japanese militarism and presents China as the victim. Coverage in the English language is limited but growing. In Taiwan, and particularly China, there is a burgeoning literature that tends to focus on the Chinese side. In Japan, the literature is not as extensive and it tends to focus on the Japanese side. Yet, understanding these wars requires analyses of both sides and of their geographical neighbors, as Russia figured prominently in both Chinese and Japanese strategic thinking. Articles are a particularly useful way to bypass the polemics and focus on specific topics.
  4.  
  5. General Overviews
  6.  
  7. There are a number of works providing an overview of the entire period. They tend to highlight either China or Japan. Rather than presenting sweeping interpretations, these works focus on assembling basic facts. This turns out to be a difficult task given that access to the archives in China, Taiwan, and Japan has long been restricted, and given that so much documentation was destroyed during the Second Sino-Japanese War. Dreyer 1995, Elleman 2001, Liu 1972, and van de Ven 2003 put China at the center of their analyses, while Iriye 1997, Iriye 1989, Jansen 1975, Peattie 1988, and Tadokoro 2007 examine Japan.
  8.  
  9. Dreyer, Edward L. China at War, 1901–1949. London: Longman, 1995.
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  11. Excellent standard work on the topic, focusing on the Chinese side.
  12. Find this resource:
  13. Elleman, Bruce A. Modern Chinese Warfare, 1795–1989. London: Routledge, 2001.
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  15. Excellent standard work on the topic, focusing on the Chinese side but with attention to Russia.
  16. Find this resource:
  17. Iriye, Akira. “Japan’s Drive to Great Power Status.” In The Cambridge History of Japan. Vol. 5. Edited by Marius B. Jansen, 721–782. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1989.
  18. DOI: 10.1017/CHOL9780521223560Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  19. This and the following title (Iriye 1997) deftly set the diplomatic backdrop for Japan’s wars in China.
  20. Find this resource:
  21. Iriye, Akira. Japan and the Wider World. London: Longman, 1997.
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  23. This little book provides a remarkably complete overview of Japanese foreign relations from the Meiji period through the 20th century.
  24. Find this resource:
  25. Jansen, Marius B. Japan and China from War to Peace 1894–1972. Chicago: Rand McNally, 1975.
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  27. Jansen was among the United States’ foremost Japan experts. His excellent text puts military history in the greater context of Japanese political, economic, and social history.
  28. Find this resource:
  29. Liu, F. F. A Military History of Modern China 1924–1949. 2d ed. Port Washington, NY: Kennikat, 1972.
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  31. Nationalist historian focusing on the Nationalist side (originally published 1956).
  32. Find this resource:
  33. Peattie, Mark R. “The Japanese Colonial Empire, 1895–1945.” In The Cambridge History of Japan. Edited by John W. Hall, Marius B. Jansen, Madoka Kanai, and Denis Twitchett. Vol. 6. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1988.
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  35. Excellent overview of Japanese foreign policy. See pp. 217–270.
  36. Find this resource:
  37. Tadokoro, Masauki. “Why Did Japan Fail to Become the ‘Britain’ of Asia.” In The Russo-Japanese War in Global Perspective: World War Zero. Vol. 2. Edited by David Wolff, Steven G. Marks, Bruce W. Menning, David Schimmelpenninck van der Oye, John W. Steinberg, and Yokote Shinji, 295–324. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2007.
  38. DOI: 10.1163/ej.9789004154162.i-583Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  39. Explanation for Japan’s highly interventionist approach to foreign policy.
  40. Find this resource:
  41. van de Ven, Hans J. War and Nationalism in China 1925–1945. London: Routledge, 2003.
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  43. Excellent overview focusing on the Chinese side.
  44. Find this resource:
  45. Chinese Army
  46.  
  47. There is limited literature in English on the Chinese army. The last generation of scholars has virtually ignored the topic. Powell 1955 remains an unsurpassed work on the subject.
  48.  
  49. Powell, Ralph L. The Rise of Chinese Military Power 1895–1912. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1955.
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  51. Covers the creation of a Westernized army in the late Qing period.
  52. Find this resource:
  53. Chinese Navy
  54.  
  55. There is a limited literature in English on the Chinese navy. Although it rated among the world’s top ten on the eve of the First Sino-Japanese War, its destruction during that war left China without a major navy until the 1990s. Rawlinson is the expert of the pre-1895 navy and Rawlinson 1967b is an excellent book on the topic. Rawlinson 1967a, highlights key dysfunctionalities of the new navy, showing that the best equipment that money can buy is for naught if skilled leadership is lacking.
  56.  
  57. Rawlinson, John L. “China’s Failure to Coordinate Her Modern Fleets in the Late Nineteenth Century.” In Approaches to Modern Chinese History. Edited by Albert Feuerwerker, Rhoads Murphey, and Mary C. Wright, 105–132. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967a.
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  59. In both the Sino-French War and the First Sino-Japanese War, the Chinese failed to combine their dispersed fleets with fatal results.
  60. Find this resource:
  61. Rawlinson, John L. China’s Struggle for Naval Development, 1839–1895. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1967b.
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  63. Excellent work covering the Westernization and modernization of Chinese naval forces in the late Qing period.
  64. Find this resource:
  65. Japanese Army
  66.  
  67. There is a much larger literature in English on the Japanese army, particularly for the World War II period. Of the general histories, Drea 2009 is the best, although Edgerton 1997 and Harries and Harries 1991 are also useful. For many years, Drea worked in the Historical Office of the Office of the US Secretary of Defense (see Drea 1998). For detailed information concerning the tactical and operational levels of war, see the enormous series Japanese Defense Agency 1969–1974. Hayashi and Coox 1959 is a much earlier book, whose advantage comes from the recent experience of the war.
  68.  
  69. Drea, Edward J. In the Service of the Emperor: Essays on the Imperial Japanese Army. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1998.
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  71. Drea is the premier Western expert on the Imperial Japanese Army. His collected essays and overview (Drea 2009) are the place to start to learn more about the army.
  72. Find this resource:
  73. Drea, Edward J. Japan’s Imperial Army: Its Rise and Fall, 1853–1945. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2009.
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  75. The best overview in English on the history of the Imperial Japanese Army from its foundation to its demise.
  76. Find this resource:
  77. Edgerton, Robert B. Warriors of the Rising Sun: A History of the Japanese Military. New York: W. W. Norton, 1997.
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  79. Covers the same period as Drea 2009 but less well.
  80. Find this resource:
  81. Harries, Meirion, and Susie Harries. Soldiers of the Sun: The Rise and the Fall of the Imperial Japanese Army. New York: Random House, 1991.
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  83. Likewise, covers the same period as Drea 2009 but less well.
  84. Find this resource:
  85. Hayashi, Saburo, and Alvin D. Coox. Kōgun: The Japanese Army in the Pacific. Quantico, VA: Marine, 1959.
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  87. Written right after World War II in a collaborative effort by a Japanese and an American expert of the Imperial Japanese Army. Covers World War II Pacific.
  88. Find this resource:
  89. Japanese Defense Agency 防衛庁防衛研修所. The Kantō Army (関東軍). Vols. 1–2. Tokyo: Cháo yún xīnwén shè, 1969–1974.
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  91. The Military History Department of the National Institute for Defense Studies of the Japanese Defense Agency has written a huge series covering all aspects of the Imperial Japanese Army. These two volumes pertain to the army in Manchuria, Japan’s original army in China.
  92. Find this resource:
  93. Japanese Navy
  94.  
  95. There is a limited literature in English on the Imperial Japanese Navy. Evans and Peattie 1997 and Peattie 2001 are useful starting points. (Evans died prior to the completion of the second work.)
  96.  
  97. Evans, David C., and Mark R. Peattie. Kaigun: Strategy, Tactics, and Technology in the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1887–1941. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute, 1997.
  98. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  99. Excellent volume covering the evolution of technology and strategy complete with ship diagrams.
  100. Find this resource:
  101. Peattie, Mark R. Sunburst: The Rise of Japanese Naval Air Power, 1909–1941. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute, 2001.
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  103. Excellent volume covering the evolution of technology and strategy of the naval air wing.
  104. Find this resource:
  105. Maps
  106.  
  107. It is hard to follow wars without maps. Missing are good maps drawn up by Taiwanese cartographers. The most prolific cartographers come from the People’s Republic of China. Elleman and Paine 2010 provides thirty-seven maps covering the Qing, Republican, and Communist periods. The best Chinese collections are Military Museum of the Chinese People’s Revolution 2007 and Wu 1997; then Yang and Cao 1992 fills in some obscure engagements not covered. The Japanese collections are best for the wars Japan won, for instance, Tanaka and Himuro 1995 and Nishioka 1978. Zhang and Liu 2001 is a very general collection covering world history.
  108.  
  109. Elleman, Bruce A., and S. C. M. Paine. Modern China: Continuity and Change 1644 to the Present. Boston: Prentice Hall, 2010.
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  111. Maps cover both Sino-Japanese Wars, the Boxer Rebellion, and World War II Pacific.
  112. Find this resource:
  113. Military Museum of the Chinese People’s Revolution 中国人民革命军事博物馆, ed. Map Collection of Chinese Military History (中国战争史地图集). Beijing: Xing qiu di tu chu ban she, 2007.
  114. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  115. Beautiful, oversized volume providing detailed maps covering Chinese military history, ancient to modern.
  116. Find this resource:
  117. Nishioka Toranosuke 西岡虎之助, et al., eds. Historical Maps of Japan (日本歴史地図). Tokyo: Zhūshì huìshè quánjiào tú, 1978.
  118. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  119. Has a few useful overview maps.
  120. Find this resource:
  121. Tanaka Kenichi 田中健 and Himuro Chiharu 氷室千春, eds. The Meiji Navy in the Eyes of Tōgō Heihachiro (東郷平八郎目でみる明治の海軍). Tokyo: Dōngxiāng shénshèdōngxiāng huì, 1995.
  122. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  123. Excellent maps of all Japanese naval engagements prior to World War II.
  124. Find this resource:
  125. Wu Yuexing 武月星. Modern Chinese History Map Collection 1919–1949 (中国现代史地图集). Beijing: Zhōngguó dìtú chūbǎn shè, 1997.
  126. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  127. Excellent detailed series of color maps.
  128. Find this resource:
  129. Yang Kelin 楊克林 and Cao Hong 曹紅, eds. A Cartographic Record of the Chinese War of Resistance against Japan (中國抗日戰爭圖誌). 3 vols. Hong Kong: Tiāndì túshū, 1992.
  130. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  131. Maps include those of numerous obscure engagements.
  132. Find this resource:
  133. Zhang Zhilian 张芝连 and Liu Xuerong 刘学荣. World History Map Collection (世界历史地图集). Beijing: Zhōngguó dìtú chūbǎn shè, 2001.
  134. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  135. Has a few excellent overview maps.
  136. Find this resource:
  137. First Sino-Japanese War, 1894–1895
  138.  
  139. The First Sino-Japanese War overturned the Asian balance of power in Japan’s favor, leaving Japan, not China, the dominant regional power. Although many works make passing reference to the importance of the war, only a few delve deeply. Paine 2003 tries to give equal coverage to China and Japan, while Dorwart 1975 focuses on US involvement.
  140.  
  141. Dorwart, Jeffery M. The Pigtail War: American Involvement in the Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1975.
  142. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  143. Covers the minimal US involvement in the war.
  144. Find this resource:
  145. Paine, S. C. M. The Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895: Perceptions, Power, and Primacy. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
  146. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  147. Focuses on the diplomacy and balance of power implications of the war as reflected by the Western and Russian press.
  148. Find this resource:
  149. Japanese Side
  150.  
  151. The bulk of the literature focuses on the winning side. There are various useful overviews concerning Japan’s diplomatic situation prior to the war (Takahashi 1995); the general course of the war (Ōe 1998 and Okamura and Kuwada 1995); and the social implications within Japan (Lone 1994).
  152.  
  153. Lone, Stewart. Japan’s First Modern War: Army and Society in the Conflict with China, 1894–95. London: St. Martin’s, 1994.
  154. DOI: 10.1057/9780230389755Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  155. Focuses on the domestic impact of the war on Japanese society.
  156. Find this resource:
  157. Ōe Shinobu 大江志乃夫. The Sino-Japanese War in East Asian History (東アジアとしての日清戦争). Tokyo: Lì fēng shūfáng, 1998.
  158. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  159. Half the book is devoted to the lead up to the war, followed by equal parts on the course of the war and the Triple Intervention.
  160. Find this resource:
  161. Okumura Fusao 奥村房夫, and Kuwada Etsu 桑田 悦, eds. Modern Japanese Military History (近代日本戦争史). Vol. 1, The Japanese-Qing and Russo-Japanese Wars (日清・日露戦争). Tokyo: Tóng tái jīngjì kěnhuà huì, 1995.
  162. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  163. Overview focusing on the Japanese side.
  164. Find this resource:
  165. Takahashi Hidenao 高橋秀直. The Road to the Sino-Japanese War (日清戦争の道). Tokyo: Dōngjīng chuàng shè, 1995.
  166. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  167. Japanese classic on the lead up to the war.
  168. Find this resource:
  169. Chinese Side
  170.  
  171. There are useful works covering aspects of the Chinese side. Civil and military readiness are covered respectively in Oh 1974 and Fung 1966. China’s gross underestimation of the Japanese threat is covered in these two as well as in Chu 1980. Lacking are one-volume overviews of the Chinese side. However, Shao, et al. 1956 and Qui 1989–1996, two multivolume series, help fill the gap.
  172.  
  173. Chu, Samuel C. “China’s Attitudes toward Japan at the Time of the Sino-Japanese War.” In The Chinese and Japanese: Essays in Cultural and Political Interactions. Edited by Akira Iriye, 74–95. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1980.
  174. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  175. Highlights China’s dismissive attitude toward Japan.
  176. Find this resource:
  177. Fung, Allen. “Testing Self-Strengthening: The Chinese Army in the Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895.” Modern Asian Studies 40.4 (1966): 1007–1031.
  178. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  179. Concludes that the loss of the war marked the demise of China’s self-strengthening movement to protect national security by mainly military reforms.
  180. Find this resource:
  181. Oh, Bonnie Bongwan. “The Background of Chinese Policy Formation in the Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895.” PhD diss., University of Chicago, 1974.
  182. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  183. Sadly, this dissertation was never published as a book. It focuses on decision making in the Chinese government.
  184. Find this resource:
  185. Qui Qizhang 戚其章, ed. Sino-Japanese War (中日战争). 11 vols. Beijing: Rénmín chūbǎn shè, 1989–1996.
  186. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  187. This and Shao, et al. 1956 are compendia of archival and other documents pertaining mainly to the Chinese side of the war. The later collection by Qi is intended to be a continuation of the earlier collection by Shao.
  188. Find this resource:
  189. Shao Xunzheng 邵循正, et al., eds. Sino-Japanese War (中日战争). 7 vols. Chinese History Learned Society (中国史学会). Shanghai: Xīn zhīshì chūbǎn shè, 1956.
  190. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  191. A compendium of archival and other documents pertaining mainly to the Chinese side of the war.
  192. Find this resource:
  193. Operational Histories
  194.  
  195. The main operational histories available in English were written just after the war based on Japanese accounts. These sources have very little information about the Chinese side (Eastlake and Yamada 1979, Inouye 1895a, Inouye 1895b, Japan Imperial General Staff 1904). In recent years, more has been published in China, but not in Japan, most notably Sun and Guan 1984, which focuses on the Chinese army. Paine 2006 focuses on the Battle of Weihaiwei.
  196.  
  197. Eastlake, Warrington, and Yamada Yoshi-aki. Heroic Japan: A History of the War between China and Japan. Reprint, Washington, DC: University Publications of America, 1979.
  198. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  199. One of the more available books focusing on Japanese military operations. Originally published in 1897.
  200. Find this resource:
  201. Inouye, Jukichi. The Japan-China War: On the Regent’s Sword: Kinchow, Port Arthur, and Talienwan. Yokohama, Japan: Kelly and Walsh, 1895a.
  202. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  203. Covers China’s loss of the Manchurian harbors necessary to maintain its navy.
  204. Find this resource:
  205. Inouye, Jukichi. The Japan–China War: The Naval Battle of Haiyang. Yokohama, Japan: Kelly and Walsh, 1895b.
  206. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  207. Covers the Battle of the Yalu fought in September 1894 in which China ceded command of the sea to Japan.
  208. Find this resource:
  209. Japan, Imperial General Staff. History of the War between Japan and China. Vol. 1. Translated by Major Jikemura and Arthur Lloyd. Tokyo: Kinkodo, 1904.
  210. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  211. Covers the initial period of ground warfare.
  212. Find this resource:
  213. Paine, S. C. M. “The First Sino-Japanese War: Japanese Destruction of the Beiyang Fleet, 1894–95.” In Naval Blockades and Seapower: Strategies and Counterstrategies, 1805–2005. Edited by Bruce A. Elleman and S. C. M. Paine, 71–80. London: Routledge, 2006.
  214. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  215. Covers Japan’s joint operation destroying the Beiyang Fleet at Weihaiwei.
  216. Find this resource:
  217. Sun Kefu 孙克复, and Guan Jie 关捷. A History of Land Engagements of the Sino-Japanese War (甲午中日陆战史). Harbin, China: Hēilóngjiāng rénmín chūbǎn shè, 1984.
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  219. Provides information on Chinese land warfare.
  220. Find this resource:
  221. Diplomatic Implications
  222.  
  223. The diplomatic implications of the war were enormous. Japan gained Taiwan and the Pescadores (Chen 1977) but the great powers denied it the Liaodong Peninsula in Manchuria (Iklé 1967). Postwar Britain decided that Japan represented a useful naval ally, ending its post-Napoleonic period of “splendid isolation” (Nish 1966 and O’Brien 2004). Japan’s diplomats felt that its officers received all the credit for the war, whereas they themselves received all the blame for any perceived shortcomings. As a result, Foreign Minister Mutsu wrote memoirs to exonerate himself and his fellow diplomats that were subsequently translated into English (Mutsu 1982).
  224.  
  225. Chen, Edward I-te. “Japan’s Decision to Annex Taiwan: A Study of Itō-Mutsu Diplomacy, 1894–95.” Journal of Asian Studies 37.1 (November 1977): 61–72.
  226. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  227. Article analyzes the beginning of the two-China problem, when China ceded Taiwan to Japan.
  228. Find this resource:
  229. Iklé, Frank W. “The Triple Intervention: Japan’s Lesson in the Diplomacy of Imperialism.” Monumenta Nipponica 22.1–2 (1967): 122–130.
  230. DOI: 10.2307/2383226Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  231. Excellent article speculating on German, Russian, and French motives for intervening.
  232. Find this resource:
  233. Mutsu, Munemitsu. Kenkenryoku: A Diplomatic Record of the Sino-Japanese War, 1894–95. Translated by Gordon Mark Berger. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1982.
  234. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  235. Foreign Minister Mutsu wrote his memoirs to exonerate Japanese diplomats, whom Japan’s military and public blamed for losing the peace that the army had won.
  236. Find this resource:
  237. Nish, Ian H. The Anglo-Japanese Alliance: The Diplomacy of Two Island Empires 1894–1907. London: University of London Athlone, 1966.
  238. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  239. Nish, the premier expert on Anglo-Japanese relations, turns his attention to the 1902 Anglo-Japanese alliance.
  240. Find this resource:
  241. O’Brien, Phillips Payson, ed. The Anglo-Japanese Alliance, 1902–1922. RoutledgeCurzon Studies in the Modern History of Asia 17. London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2004.
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  243. A nice recent complement to Nish, discussing the origins, development, and implications of the 1902 Anglo-Japanese alliance.
  244. Find this resource:
  245. Literature by or about Western Participants
  246.  
  247. The Beiyang Fleet employed various foreign advisers who were present during the Battle of the Yalu and subsequently wrote memoirs (Allan 1898 and McGiffin 1968), or were eyewitnesses to the battle (Tyler 1929). All are quick reads.
  248.  
  249. Allan, James. Under the Dragon Flag: My Experiences in the Chino-Japanese War. London: William Heinemann, 1898.
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  251. Allan was a British adventurer and witness to the Battle for Port Arthur (Lüshun).
  252. Find this resource:
  253. McGiffin, Lee. Yankee of the Yalu: Philo Norton McGiffin, American Captain in the Chinese Navy (1885–1895). New York: E. P. Dutton, 1968.
  254. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  255. Philo Norton McGiffin was a US naval officer, who served in the Beiyang Fleet and was seriously wounded in the Battle of the Yalu. His book details his experience in China
  256. Find this resource:
  257. Tyler, William Ferdinand. Pulling Strings in China. London: Constable, 1929.
  258. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  259. Tyler was a British naval officer who served in the Beiyang Fleet aboard the flagship and was a veteran of the Battle of the Yalu.
  260. Find this resource:
  261. Boxer War, 1899–1901
  262.  
  263. Although Western sources use the terms Boxer Rebellion or Boxer Uprising, in fact Russia deployed 100,000 troops to invade and occupy Manchuria, while Russia along with all the other great powers sent expeditionary forces to invade China, occupy the capital, and relieve their besieged legations. In other words, the Boxer War would be a more apt description. Japan sent by far the largest contingent of forces relieving the legations. The English language literature on the Boxer Uprising, almost without exception, relies exclusively on English sources and follows the fate of the Western community besieged in Beijing. Japan and Russia provided the bulk of the relief forces and that story has yet to be told. Although from the mid-20th century, Purcell 1963 and Tan 1955 are two solid works that rely heavily on Chinese sources to focus, not on military operations, but on the Manchu government.
  264.  
  265. Purcell, Victor. The Boxer Uprising: A Background Study. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1963.
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  267. Covers the Chinese side with inadequate attention to Japan.
  268. Find this resource:
  269. Tan, Chester C. The Boxer Catastrophe. New York: Columbia University Press, 1955.
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  271. This classic account of the Boxer Uprising focuses on politics in Beijing with inadequate attention to Japan.
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  273. Second Sino-Japanese War, 1931–1945
  274.  
  275. The First Sino-Japanese War worked out well for Japan. The Second Sino-Japanese War, however, proved to be catastrophic. It escalated in four phases: an invasion and occupation of Manchuria from 1931 to 1933; a protracted counterinsurgency in North China from 1933 to 1936; a massive escalation from 1937 to 1941 followed China’s long coastline southward and its railway system inland; and a final escalation encompassing Southeast Asia, the Western Pacific, and most fatally, Hawaii. Although US intervention in the Second Sino-Japanese War accounts for Japan’s defeat, most Chinese sources ignore the crucial connections between the global and regional wars. Most Chinese sources focus on Chinese forces, whereas most Japanese sources focus on Japanese forces with little attention to the interplay of both sides. Paine 2012 attempts to explain the interconnections among Japan’s intervention in China’s long civil war that escalated into a world war.
  276.  
  277. Paine, S. C. M. The Wars for Asia 1911–1949. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2012.
  278. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781139105835Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  279. Presents the Second Sino-Japanese War, World War II Pacific, and the long Chinese Civil War as interrelated nested wars and as mainly an interaction among China, Japan, and Russia.
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Accounts Emphasizing the Chinese Side
  282.  
  283. Very little has been written in English about the Second Sino-Japanese War. Most of what there is focuses on US or UK forces with only fleeting attention to the Chinese. Exceptions are MacKinnon, et al. 2007 and Yu 2006. In Russian, see Sapozhnikov 1977. White and Jacoby 1974 is interesting because it provides a contemporary account by journalists who covered the events. The amount of literature in Chinese, however, is large and rapidly growing, although mostly narrative in character. For a sampling, see Zhang, et al. 2001, Yang 2007, and Liu 1987. For a useful historical dictionary, see Zhang, et al. 1995.
  284.  
  285. Liu Fenghan 劉鳳翰. Collected Essays on the History of the War of Resistance: Commemorating the 50th Anniversary of the War of Resistance (抗日戰史論集: 紀念抗戰五十周年). Taipei: Dōngdà túshū gōngsī, 1987.
  286. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  287. Published in Taiwan with a focus on the Nationalists. Includes a comprehensive chronology.
  288. Find this resource:
  289. MacKinnon, Stephen R., Diana Lary, and Ezra F. Vogel, eds. China at War: Regions of China, 1937–1945. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2007.
  290. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  291. Excellent essays on state building and on various occupied areas.
  292. Find this resource:
  293. Sapozhnikov, Boris Grigor’evich. Китай в огне войны 1931–1950 (China in the Fire of War 1931–1950). Moscow: Издательство «наука» Главная редакция восточной литературы, 1977.
  294. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  295. Russian interpretation of China’s and Japan’s wars.
  296. Find this resource:
  297. White, Theodore H., and Annalee Jacoby. Thunder out of China. Reprint. New York: Da Capo, 1974.
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  299. A classic, written by one famous journalist and the widow of another who covered the Second Sino-Japanese War. Originally published in 1946.
  300. Find this resource:
  301. Yang Tianshi 杨天石. China during and after the War of Resistance (抗战与战后中国). Beijing: Zhōngguó rénmín dàxué chūbǎn shè, 2007.
  302. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  303. Narrative history of the war starting in 1937 but continuing after the Nationalist flight to Taiwan.
  304. Find this resource:
  305. Yu, Maochun. The Dragon’s War: Allied Operations and the Fate of China 1937–1947. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute, 2006.
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  307. Focuses on British and US aid to the Nationalists.
  308. Find this resource:
  309. Zhang Shaosi 章绍嗣, Tian Ziyu 田子渝, and Chen Jin’an 陈金安, comps. The Comprehensive Dictionary of the Chinese War of Resistance against Japan (中国抗日战争大辞典). Wuhan, China: Wǔhàn chūbǎn shè, 1995.
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  311. Useful reference pertaining to the period from 1937 to 1945.
  312. Find this resource:
  313. Zhang Xianwen 张宪文, Chen Qianping 陈谦平, and Chen Hongmin 陈红民, eds. The History of the Chinese War of Resistance against Japan (1931–1945) (中国抗日战争史). Nanjing, China: Nánjīng dàxué chūbǎn shè, 2001.
  314. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  315. One of many narrative histories published in Chinaa the turn of the twenty-first century on the Second Sino-Japanese War. This one, unlike many, starts in 1931 versus 1937.
  316. Find this resource:
  317. Accounts Emphasizing the Japanese Side
  318.  
  319. The English literature on the Japanese side is more substantial than on the Chinese side, given the (incorrect) assumption that the Chinese sat out the war. The literature focuses on the difficult enemy, Japan, (Barnhart 1987, Crowley 1966, and Gruhl 2007) not on the difficult ally, China. The Japanese have paid great attention to their side, but unfortunately rarely provide adequate attention to China (Eguchi 1996, Fujiwara Akira and Imai Seiichi 1989, Ienaga 1978, Okumura Fusao and Kōno Shū 1995, and Toland 1970). Zakharova 1990 and Kobayashi Hideo and Asada Kyōji 1986 focus on the Manchurian theater. Fuller 1992 provides a biographical dictionary for Japanese military officers.
  320.  
  321. Barnhart, Michael A. Japan Prepares for Total War. Ithaca, NY: Cornell, 1987.
  322. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  323. Classic on the political, social, and economic forces culminating in Japanese military escalation.
  324. Find this resource:
  325. Crowley, James B. Japan’s Quest for Autonomy: National Security and Foreign Policy, 1930–1938. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1966.
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  327. Classic interpretation of Japan’s choice of military aggression over diplomacy in China.
  328. Find this resource:
  329. Eguchi Kei-ichi 江口圭一. A Short History of the Fifteen Year War (十五年戦争小史). Tokyo: Qīngmù shūdiàn, 1996.
  330. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  331. Excellent short work, covering all phases of the war from 1931 to 1945.
  332. Find this resource:
  333. Fujiwara Akira 藤原 彰 and Imai Seiichi 今井清一, eds. A History of the Fifteen Year War (十五年戦争史). 3 vols. Tokyo: Qīngmù shūdiàn, 1989.
  334. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  335. Excellent collection of essays covering all phases of the war from 1931 to 1945.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. Fuller, Richard. Shōkan Hirohito’s Samurai: Leaders of the Japanese Armed Forces, 1926–1945. London: Arms and Armour, 1992.
  338. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  339. Best available English biographical reference for Japanese military and naval officers.
  340. Find this resource:
  341. Gruhl, Werner. Imperial Japan’s World War Two 1931–1945. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 2007.
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  343. Overview of the war from a German perspective.
  344. Find this resource:
  345. Ienaga, Saburō. The Pacific War 1931–1945. Translated by Frank Baldwin. New York: Pantheon, 1978.
  346. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  347. Ienaga is famous for his lawsuits in Japan to force coverage of Japanese war crimes in school textbooks.
  348. Find this resource:
  349. Kobayashi Hideo 小林英夫 and Asada Kyōji 浅田喬二, eds. Manchuria under Japanese Imperialism, Focusing on the Fifteen Year War Period (日本帝国主義の満州支配—一五年戦争期を中心に—). Tokyo: Shí cháo shè, 1986.
  350. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  351. Excellent essays on all facets of Japan’s invasion, pacification, administration, and exploitation of Manchuria from 1931 to 1945.
  352. Find this resource:
  353. Okumura Fusao 奥村房夫 and Kōno Shū 河野 収, eds. Modern Japanese Military History (近代日本戦争史). Vol. 3, The Manchurian Incident and the China Incident (満州事変・支那事変). Tokyo: Tóng tái jīngjì kěnhuà huì, 1995.
  354. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  355. Excellent essays covering the invasion of Manchuria and the 1937 escalation.
  356. Find this resource:
  357. Toland, John. The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire, 1936–1945. New York: Modern Library, 1970.
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  359. Classic overview of the second half of the Second Sino-Japanese War and World War II.
  360. Find this resource:
  361. Zakharova, Galina Fominichna. Политика Японии в Маньчжурии 1932–1945 (The Policy of Japan in Manchuria 1932–1945). Moscow: “Наука” Главная редакция восточной литературы, 1990.
  362. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  363. Japan’s invasion of Manchuria and ensuing war.
  364. Find this resource:
  365. Invasion of Manchuria, 1931–1933
  366.  
  367. In 1931 the Japanese army in Manchuria decided to resolve the deepening economic depression, expanding Soviet Communist influence in Manchuria, and continuing Chinese instability that together undermined Japanese trade and prosperity. To expand the Japanese empire sufficiently to practice autarky, it invaded and occupied all of Manchuria, an area greater than the combination of France and Germany, and transformed Manchuria into a puppet state. The pretext, justifying the invasion, was an act of railway sabotage blamed inaccurately on the Chinese. The so-called Manchurian Incident was followed by a fairly successful counterinsurgency that had pacified most of Manchuria by 1933. Japanese economic development was highly successful. Resentment against naval limitations (Morley 1984), the competition for empire with Russia (Lensen 1974), and China’s boycott strategy (Jordan 1991) help explain Japanese motives. Ogata 1964 and Yoshihashi 1963 analyze the mechanics of the Imperial Japanese Army conspiracy. The invasion had military consequences in Shanghai (Jordan 2001) and economic consequences in Manchuria (Paine 2010).
  368.  
  369. Jordan, Donald A. Chinese Boycotts versus Japanese Bombs: The Failure of China’s “Revolutionary Diplomacy,” 1931–32. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1991.
  370. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  371. Covers the Chinese civilian strategy of boycott to exert economic pressure on Japan to withdraw and the Japanese response of military escalation.
  372. Find this resource:
  373. Jordan, Donald A. China’s Trial by Fire: The Shanghai War of 1932. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2001.
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  375. Covers the Battle for Shanghai that coincided with Japan’s invasion of Manchuria.
  376. Find this resource:
  377. Lensen, George Alexander. The Damned Inheritance: The Soviet Union and the Manchurian Crises 1924–1935. Tallahassee, FL: Diplomatic Press, 1974.
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  379. Lensen, the much-published expert on Russo-Japanese relations, focuses on the events surrounding the Japanese invasion of Manchuria carrying the story through the sale of the Chinese Eastern Railway to Japan.
  380. Find this resource:
  381. Morley, James William, ed. Japan Erupts: The London Naval Conference and the Manchurian Incident, 1928–1932. New York: Columbia University Press, 1984.
  382. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  383. Morley translated portions of a multivolume set of Japanese essays on the origins of World War II Pacific (太平洋戦争への道,開戦外交史 [The Road to the Pacific Ocean War, History of the Outbreak of the War], 8 vols., Tokyo: Zhāorì xīnwén shè, 1962–1963). This volume focuses on Japanese hostility to naval arms limitations and the subsequent invasion of Manchuria.
  384. Find this resource:
  385. Ogata, Sadako N. Defiance in Manchuria: The Making of Japanese Foreign Policy, 1931–1932. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1964.
  386. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  387. Excellent book documenting that the Japanese army in Manchuria set up the so-called Manchurian Incident, bombing a small railway section and blaming the sabotage on the Chinese in order to create a pretext for its full-scale invasion.
  388. Find this resource:
  389. Paine, S. C. M. “Japanese Puppet-State Building in Manchukuo.” In Nation Building, State Building, and Economic Development. Edited by S. C. M. Paine, 66–82. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 2010.
  390. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  391. Covers Japan’s failed attempts at nation building and state building but comparatively successful economic development program in its puppet state in Manchuria.
  392. Find this resource:
  393. Yoshihashi, Takehiko. Conspiracy at Mukden: The Rise of the Japanese Military. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1963.
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  395. Examination of the Japanese army in Manchuria’s conspiracy to create a pretext to invade and occupy Manchuria.
  396. Find this resource:
  397. North China Campaign, 1933–1936
  398.  
  399. After the pacification of Manchuria, the Imperial Japanese Army also tried to pacify North China. This counterinsurgency continued throughout the 1930s and on to 1945 (Japanese Defense Agency 1968). It was far less successful than that in Manchuria although Japan applied the same strategy of military operations and economic expropriation followed by centralized economic planning (Nakamura 1980). The literature on this period is sparse. Japan set up a succession of puppet governments (Dryburgh 2000) and engaged in numerous, mostly small-scale, military operations that have not been well documented (Morley 1983).
  400.  
  401. Dryburgh, Marjorie. North China and Japanese Expansion 1933–1937: Regional Power and National Interest. Abingdon, UK: Routledge, 2000.
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  403. This book focuses on politics more than military operations.
  404. Find this resource:
  405. Japanese Defense Agency 防衛庁防衛研修所戦史部. The North China Insurgency (北支の治安戦). 2 vols. Tokyo: Cháo yún xīnwén shè, 1968.
  406. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  407. An operational history of the Japanese counterinsurgency in North China. Edited by the National Institute for Defense Studies, Military History Department.
  408. Find this resource:
  409. Morley, James William, ed. The North China Quagmire: Japan’s Expansion on the Asian Continent 1933–1941. New York: Columbia University Press, 1983.
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  411. Morley translated portions of a multivolume set of Japanese essays on the origins of World War II Pacific (太平洋戦争への道,開戦外交史 [The Road to the Pacific Ocean War, History of the Outbreak of the War], 8 vols., Tokyo: Zhāorì xīnwén shè, 1962–1963. This volume details Japanese expansion southward from Manchuria through China, French Indo-China, and finally throughout the Pacific.
  412. Find this resource:
  413. Nakamura, Takafusa. “Japan’s Economic Thrust into North China, 1933–1938.” In The Chinese and the Japanese. Edited by Akira Iriye, 220–253. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1980.
  414. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  415. Focuses on Japan’s economic policy that went in tandem with its military policy in order to take control of occupied areas. The purpose of invasion was primarily to extract resources.
  416. Find this resource:
  417. Escalation of 1937
  418.  
  419. Japan responded to the Second Chinese Nationalist Party-Communist Party United Front with a full-scale invasion of China south of the Great Wall (Morley 1976; Morley 1980; Peattie, et al. 2011; Okumura Fusao and Kondō Shinji 1995; and Chūō University Human Sciences Research Center 1993). The invasion route followed China’s railway system southward and the Yangzi River westward, while the Imperial Japanese Navy blockaded China’s ports (Arakawa 2006). The Nationalists responded by conducting a planned retreat up the Yangzi River beyond the railhead and Yichang rapids and behind the mountains surrounding Sichuan province (Eastman 1984, Eastman 1991, Gatu 2008, Hsiung and Levine 1992, and Hsu and Chang 1972). At this point the Second Sino-Japanese War stalemated.
  420.  
  421. Arakawa, Ken-ichi. “Japanese Naval Blockade of China in the Second Sino-Japanese War, 1937–41.” In Naval Blockades and Seapower: Strategies and Counter-Strategies, 1805–2005. Edited by Bruce A. Elleman and S. C. M. Paine, 105–116. London: Routledge, 2006.
  422. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  423. Describes the highly effective Japanese blockade of China’s ports that eventually cut off China’s ocean access to trade, leaving it with only overland routes.
  424. Find this resource:
  425. Chūō University Human Sciences Research Center 中央大学人文科学研究所. The Sino-Japanese War: Japan, China, and America (日中戦争日本・中国・アメリカ). Research Publication 10. Tokyo: Zhōngyāng dàxué chūbǎn shè, 1993.
  426. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  427. Excellent book analyzing the different roles played by Japan, China, and the United States in the Second Sino-Japanese War from 1937 to 1945.
  428. Find this resource:
  429. Eastman, Lloyd E. “Nationalist China during the Sino-Japanese War, 1937–1945.” In The Nationalist Era in China 1927–1945. Edited by Lloyd E. Eastman, Jerome Ch’en, Suzanne Pepper, and Lyman P. van Slyke, 1–52. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1991.
  430. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511572838.004Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  431. Classic, short-version account of the 1937 of 1945 phase of the Second Sino-Japanese War.
  432. Find this resource:
  433. Eastman, Lloyd E. Seeds of Destruction: Nationalist China in War and Revolution 1937–1949. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1984.
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  435. Classic account of the 1937 to 1945 phase of the Second Sino-Japanese War.
  436. Find this resource:
  437. Gatu, Dagfinn. Village China at War: The Impact of Resistance to Japan 1937–1945. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 2008.
  438. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  439. Covers the impact of the war on the countryside.
  440. Find this resource:
  441. Hsiung, James C., and Steven I. Levine, eds. China’s Bitter Victory: The War with Japan 1937–1945. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1992.
  442. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  443. Excellent set of essays covering the Communists, the state, the economy, military operations, the judiciary, literature, and science.
  444. Find this resource:
  445. Hsu Long-hsuen, and Chang Ming-kai. History of the Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945). Translated by Wen Ha-hsiung, 2d ed. Taipei: Chung Wu, 1972.
  446. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  447. Detailed Taiwanese account of Nationalist military operations with maps.
  448. Find this resource:
  449. Morley, James William, ed. Deterrent Diplomacy: Japan, Germany, and the USSR, 1935–1940. New York: Columbia University Press, 1976.
  450. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  451. Morley translated portions of a multivolume set of Japanese essays on the origins of World War II Pacific (太平洋戦争への道,開戦外交史 [The Road to the Pacific Ocean War, History of the Outbreak of the War], 8 vols., Tokyo: Zhāorì xīnwén shè, 1962–1963) This volume focuses on Soviet diplomacy with Japan and Germany to conclude nonaggression pacts.
  452. Find this resource:
  453. Morley, James William, ed. The Fateful Choice: Japan’s Advance into Southeast Asia, 1939–1941. New York: Columbia, 1980.
  454. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  455. Morley has translated essays by key Japanese experts on Japan’s invasion of Southeast Asia and the Western Pacific that globalized a regional war. The Japanese originals were part of the series 太平洋戦争への道,開戦外交史 (The Road to the Pacific Ocean War, History of the Outbreak of the War, 8 vols. Tokyo: Zhāorì xīnwén shè, 1962-1963).
  456. Find this resource:
  457. Okumura Fusao 奥村房夫, and Kondō Shinji 近藤新治, eds. Modern Japanese Military History (近代日本戦争史). Vol. 4, The Great East Asian War (大東亜戦争). Tokyo: Tóng tái jīngjì kěnhuà huì, 1995.
  458. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  459. Operational history of the war outside of China in Southeast Asia and the Western Pacific.
  460. Find this resource:
  461. Peattie, Mark R., Edward J. Drea, and Hans van de Ven, eds. The Battle for China: Essays on the Military History of the Sino-Japanese War of 1937–1945. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2011.
  462. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  463. Superb set of essays by authors from around the world and edited by the most well-known Western experts on the war. Chapters on the major campaigns.
  464. Find this resource:
  465. Campaigns
  466.  
  467. Key campaigns of the post-1937 phase of the Second Sino-Japanese War include the two great inland campaigns of Xuzhou (Lary 2000 and Lary 2001) and Wuhan (MacKinnon 2008), when the Nationalists lost the industrial and agricultural heartland as well as key central railway junctions.
  468.  
  469. Lary, Diana. “Defending China: The Battles of the Xuzhou Campaign.” In Warfare in Chinese History. Edited by Hans J. van de Ven, 398–427. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2000.
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  471. This and Lary 2001 cover the Xuzhou Campaign, fought over the critical railway junction. This chapter focuses on the battles.
  472. Find this resource:
  473. Lary, Diana. “A Ravaged Place: The Devastation of the Xuzhou Region, 1938.” In Scars of War: The Impact of Warfare on Modern China. Edited by Diana Lary and Stephen R. MacKinnon, 98–117. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 2001.
  474. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  475. This chapter focuses on the human suffering.
  476. Find this resource:
  477. MacKinnon, Stephen R. Wuhan 1938: War, Refugees, and the Making of Modern China. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008.
  478. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  479. This covers the ensuing Wuhan Campaign.
  480. Find this resource:
  481. Pacific War, 1941–1945
  482.  
  483. The story of the Second Sino-Japanese War gets lost in the Pacific War. Generally ignored is the importance of China’s role in tying down over one million Japanese soldiers that otherwise would have been available to fight the United States (Paine 2011). US accounts, virtually without exception, ignore China altogether, whereas accounts focusing on China fail to cover the ongoing US approach toward Japan and its bombing campaign over Japan. Ch’i 1982 and Ch’i 2011, respectively, describe the devastating political effects of the war on the Nationalist government and on US–Nationalist relations, Ike 1967 provides the documents explaining Japan’s decision to attack Pearl Harbor, and Holloway 2007 and Hasegawa 2005 explain the Soviet–US competition to dominate postwar Asian political arrangements.
  484.  
  485. Ch’i Hsi-sheng 齊錫生. Alliance of Unsheathed Swords and Drawn Bows: Sino-American Military Cooperation during the Pacific War (1941–1945) (劍拔弩張的盟友太平洋戰爭期間的中美軍事合作關係). Taipei: Zhōngyāng yán jiù yuàn lián jīng chūbǎn gōngsī, 2011.
  486. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  487. Highlights the tensions in US–Nationalist relations and their spillover into military operations.
  488. Find this resource:
  489. Ch’i, Hsi-sheng. Nationalist China at War: Military Defeats and Political Collapse, 1937–45. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1982.
  490. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  491. Focuses on the Pyrrhic Nationalist victory over Japan.
  492. Find this resource:
  493. Hasegawa, Tsuyoshi. Racing the Enemy: Stalin, Truman, and the Surrender of Japan. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005.
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  495. Examines war termination of the Second Sino-Japanese War as a subset of World War II Pacific and a function of the emerging Cold War Soviet–US competition.
  496. Find this resource:
  497. Holloway, David. “Jockeying for Position in the Postwar World: Soviet Entry into the War with Japan in August 1945.” In The End of the Pacific War: Reappraisals. Edited by Tsuyoshi Hasegawa, 145–188. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2007.
  498. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  499. War termination of the Second Sino-Japanese War.
  500. Find this resource:
  501. Ike, Nobutaka, trans. and ed. Japan’s Decision for War: Records of the 1941 Policy Conferences. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1967.
  502. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  503. The diplomatic records of Japanese cabinet ministers documenting their rationale for escalating the war throughout Southeast Asia and the Western Pacific all the way to Pearl Harbor in 1941.
  504. Find this resource:
  505. Paine, S. C. M. “Pearl Harbor and beyond: Japan’s Peripheral Strategy to Defeat China.” In Naval Power and Expeditionary Warfare: Peripheral Campaigns and New Theatres of Naval Warfare. Edited by Bruce A. Elleman and S. C. M. Paine, 70–83. London: Routledge, 2011.
  506. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  507. Explores the Japanese rationale for the attack on Pearl Harbor as an attempt to cut foreign aid for the Nationalists to win the Second Sino-Japanese War.
  508. Find this resource:
  509. Chinese Communists
  510.  
  511. PRC accounts emphasize the Chinese Communist role in defeating Japan. Yet the Communists were predominantly a guerrilla movement until after 1945. In this period, the Nationalists, not the Communists possessed large conventional armies that did the bulk of the fighting against Japan in China. The Communists did wage a very costly insurgency against Japan that precluded the pacification of North China so that it never became a productive part of the Japanese empire in the way that Manchuria did. Instead, North China instability contributed to Japanese overextension (Goodman 2000, Sheng 1997, Shum 1988, and van Slyke 1986).
  512.  
  513. Goodman, David S. G. Social and Political Change in Revolutionary China: The Taihang Base Area in the War of Resistance to Japan, 1937–1945. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2000.
  514. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  515. Communist state building during the Second Sino-Japanese War.
  516. Find this resource:
  517. Sheng, Michael M. Battling Western Imperialism: Mao, Stalin, and the United States. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997.
  518. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  519. Excellent book focusing on Chinese Communist relations with the United States and the Soviet Union during the post-1937 phase of the Second Sino-Japanese War.
  520. Find this resource:
  521. Shum Kui-kwong. The Chinese Communists’ Road to Power: The Anti-Japanese National United Front, 1935–1945. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1988.
  522. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  523. Communist strategy during the Second-Sino Japanese War.
  524. Find this resource:
  525. van Slyke, Lyman. “The Chinese Communist Movement during the Sino-Japanese War 1937–1945.” In The Cambridge History of China. Vol. 13, Republican China, 1912–1949, Part 2. Edited by Denis Twitchett and John K. Fairbank, 609–722. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1986.
  526. DOI: 10.1017/CHOL9780521243278Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  527. Focuses on Communist activities from 1937 until the end of the Second Sino-Japanese War.
  528. Find this resource:
  529. Collaboration
  530.  
  531. There were more collaborators than many Chinese accounts would like to admit. Japan set up puppet governments throughout the country that relied on Chinese staffing (Barrett and Shyu 2001, Boyle 1972, and Brook 2005). The most notorious was the Japanese puppet government in Nanjing under the Nationalist defector, Wang Jingwei (Bunker 1972).
  532.  
  533. Barrett, David P., and Larry N. Shyu, eds. Chinese Collaboration with Japan, 1932–1945: The Limits of Accommodation. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001.
  534. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  535. The book contains chapters on various puppet governments and on collaboration differentiated by region. See also Boyle 1972.
  536. Find this resource:
  537. Boyle, John Hunter. China and Japan at War 1937–1945: The Politics of Collaboration. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1972.
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  539. This and Brook 2005 cover the important cases of Chinese collaboration with Japan. See also Barrett and Shyu 2001.
  540. Find this resource:
  541. Brook, Timothy. Collaboration: Japanese Agents and Local Elites in Wartime China. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005.
  542. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  543. Brook shows the degree to which local Chinese elites cooperated with Japan.
  544. Find this resource:
  545. Bunker, Gerald E. The Peace Conspiracy: Wang Ching-wei and the China War, 1937–1941. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1972.
  546. DOI: 10.4159/harvard.9780674731325Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  547. The most important puppet government was that of Wang Ching-wei, a long-time rival of Chiang Kai-shek. The account is fairly sympathetic to Wang who is considered a traitor by both Chinese and Taiwanese.
  548. Find this resource:
  549. Refugees
  550.  
  551. One quarter of China’s population became refugees during the Second Sino-Japanese War. In the English language, Lary 2010 and Lary and MacKinnon 2001 have been the path breakers on this topic.
  552.  
  553. Lary, Diana. The Chinese People at War: Human Suffering and Social Transformation, 1937–1945. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
  554. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511761898Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  555. This and Lary and MacKinnon 2001 focus on the Chinese civilians caught up in the war. This work examines the battles chronologically.
  556. Find this resource:
  557. Lary, Diana, and Stephen MacKinnon, eds. Scars of War: The Impact of Warfare on Modern China. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 2001.
  558. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  559. This volume examines the violence by topic: atrocities, warlordism, pacification, the Rape of Nanjing, the flight of civilians, and postwar commemoration.
  560. Find this resource:
  561. Britain
  562.  
  563. Prior to the outbreak of war in Europe, Britain was gravely concerned with protecting its interests in China. Given the dire threats in Europe, Britain tried to do so on the cheap. Ford 2006 and Lee 1973 show that the strategy failed. By 1949, British interests in China would be reduced to Hong Kong.
  564.  
  565. Ford, Douglas. Britain’s Secret War against Japan, 1937–1945. New York: Routledge, 2006.
  566. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  567. Focuses on British intelligence and its use against Japan.
  568. Find this resource:
  569. Lee, Bradford A. Britain and the Sino-Japanese War 1937–1939. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1973.
  570. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  571. Covers the British angle immediately after the 1937 escalation.
  572. Find this resource:
  573. Russia
  574.  
  575. Russia as the bordering state was the third-party great power most deeply concerned about the outcome of the Second Sino-Japanese War. Russia remained eternally concerned about the security of its long border with China, where it engaged in an activist foreign policy prior to the Nazi invasion and after the Nazi defeat (Garver 1988 and Sapozhnikov 1970). Its massive invasion of Manchuria in 1945 (Glantz 2003 and Sapozhnikov 1971) combined with the US air offensive over Japan account for Japan’s defeat.
  576.  
  577. Garver, John W. Chinese–Soviet Relations 1937–1945: The Diplomacy of Chinese Nationalism. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988.
  578. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  579. Covers the Russian angle of the 1937 to 1945 phase of the Second Sino-Japanese War.
  580. Find this resource:
  581. Glantz, David M. The Soviet Strategic Offensive in Manchuria, 1945 “August Storm.” London: Frank Cass, 2003.
  582. DOI: 10.4324/9780203496244Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  583. Glantz, who retired at the rank of colonel from the US army and long taught and conducted research both at the US Army War College in Carlisle, Pennsylvania, and at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, is an expert on Soviet military operations in World War II and has written numerous, detailed operational histories of every major Soviet battle.
  584. Find this resource:
  585. Sapozhnikov, Boris Grigor’evich. Японо-китайская война и колониальная политика Японии в Китае (1937–1941) (The Sino-Japanese War and Japan’s Colonial Policy in China [1937–1941]). Moscow: Издательсво «наука» Главная редакция восточной литературы, 1970.
  586. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  587. Russian angle on the post-1937, pre–Pearl Harbor phase of the war.
  588. Find this resource:
  589. Sapozhnikov, Boris Grigor’evich. Китайский фронт во Второй мировой войны (The Chinese Front in the Second World War). Moscow: Издательство «наука» Главная редакция восточной литературы, 1971.
  590. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  591. The Second Sino-Japanese War in the context of World War II.
  592. Find this resource:
  593. Periodicals
  594.  
  595. Periodicals that over the last two decades have published the most high-quality articles on the Second Sino-Japanese War are listed here. Most are published in the People’s Republic of China, not in Taiwan or Japan. Articles are a particularly fruitful avenue of research because they tend to focus on easily identifiable, specific topics of original research.
  596.  
  597. Collected Papers of Historical Studies (史学集刊).
  598. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  599. Published in the PRC, covers a variety of mainly political and diplomatic topics.
  600. Find this resource:
  601. Historical Research (历史研究).
  602. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  603. Published in the PRC, focuses on political, economic, diplomatic, and military history.
  604. Find this resource:
  605. Modern Chinese History Studies (近代史研究).
  606. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  607. Published in the PRC, focuses on political history.
  608. Find this resource:
  609. Research in Chinese Economic History (中国经济史研究).
  610. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  611. Published in the PRC, focuses on economic history.
  612. Find this resource:
  613. Research on the History of the Chinese Communist Party (中共党史研究).
  614. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  615. Published in Beijing, focuses on the activities of the Chinese Communist Party.
  616. Find this resource:
  617. Taiwan Normal University Bulletin of Historical Research (台灣師範大學歷史學報).
  618. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  619. Published in Taiwan, particularly useful for articles covering the Nationalists.
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