Lima (Atlantic History)

Introduction

The current city of Lima, capital of the Republic of Peru, is located at latitude 12° 03′ S and longitude 77° 03′ W and is constituted by the Chillón, Rímac, and Lurín River Valleys. Its history dates back to pre-Hispanic times with different occupations since at least 8,000 BC, and it was founded as the governorate capital of Francisco Pizarro on January 18, 1535, after the Cabildo of Jauja (Junín, Peru), founded in 1534, decided to transfer the governorate capital to a town near the sea. Later, with the creation of the Viceroyalty of Peru (1542), it became the capital and headquarters of the Viceregal Court, a condition that continued after Peru’s independence on July 28, 1821, until the present. Its long history is best known from colonial times, given that Cusco, the capital of the Inca Empire, has attracted far more academic interest, while the Spanish occupation of Lima occurred in a territory of a lower density and less pre-Hispanic political importance than the southern city. However, in recent decades, thanks to the interest in investigating the development process on the Peruvian coast—especially in the northern part of the country, so-called “Norte Chico” (part of Lima and Ancash regions)—there have been some important contributions to understanding the city’s pre-Hispanic past. Its colonial and republican history is rich in sources and subjects. The presence of religious, political, and economic powers produced a rich documentation preserved in the main files of the city: the National General Archive, Archbishop’s Archive of Lima, Lima’s City Hall Historic, and the Public Welfare Society Archive of Lima, among others. Thanks to this copious documentation from long ago, we can present this extensive bibliography that covers various topics. This bibliographic essay takes reference of the city as an issue, distinguishing it from the history of the Lima region itself, which is its capital. The history of the region covers much wider issues from an archaeological and a historical point of view. Furthermore, its contemporary jurisdiction does not coincide with the stage of the processes developed since pre-Hispanic times. The city, on the other hand, has been the subject of archeological studies due to the presence of remains from ancient occupations and historical studies for the importance that it has always had as head of the Viceroyalty and then as a Republican capital.

Pre-Hispanic Lima

Although there is no consensus on this matter, some researchers argue that the name of the city derives from the Ychma deity venerated in the south of the city, in the valley of Lurín. Before the arrival of the Incas in this valley, a señorío flourished between 10 and 15 AD whose most important center was the Temple of Pachacamac, renamed as such after the Inca occupation. It is believed that the archaeological site of Paraíso, located to the north of the city in the valley of the Chillón River, is the oldest place, with monumental architecture dated approximately 2,200 BC, continued by other centers such as Garagay, Florida, and others. Archaeologists consider that a new cultural formation emerged between the 3rd BC and 7th AD centuries called the Maranga culture, which integrated under its domain the Chillón, Rímac, and Lurín Valleys, building the centers of Cajamarquilla, the now-called Huaca Juliana, and several monuments existing today between the districts of Pueblo Libre, Magdalena, San Miguel, and El Cercado. At the end of this period, the Wari Empire, which came from the southern and central highlands of Peru, extended its domain to the central coast, represented by the ceramic style known as “Nievería,” with Pachacamac emerging as one of the great ceremonial centers in the Peruvian coast. After the collapse of the empire, between the 10th century and the end of 15th century, the cult of the Ichma God continued consolidating a culture that had the same name. While in the upper part of the Chillón River Valley, the Señorío of Collique developed around the current areas of Carabayllo and Santa Rosa de Quives. By 1470 AD, the Incas had conquered the territory formerly dominated by the Señorío of Ichma, in the central valleys, whose most important curaca (chieftain) was Taulichusco. In archaeological investigations, one of the most important issues to study is the role that the Peruvian coast played in Peru’s cultural development. Nowadays archeologists know that “Norte Chico” was one of the earliest cultural focuses in the region, and that is a reason why the social, economic, and political characteristics of its cultural formations have been discussed in depth. Haas and Creamer 2006, Kroeber 1954, and Pozorski and Pozorski 2008 develop the role of the Peruvian coast in the process of cultural development, incorporating the territory of the present-day city of Lima. The authors propose that the Peruvian coast played a very important role in the development of the Andean culture; it provided from very early times human settlements development, thanks to its peculiar geography and the availability of agricultural and marine resources. One of the most important discussions establishes the cultural elements that compose the Andean culture and the region from which it radiated into other spaces, including the coast, where the spread of new advances shaped the Andean civilization.

Haas, J., and W. Creamer. “Crucible of Andean Civilization: The Peruvian Coast from 3000 to 1800 BC.” Current Anthropology 47.5 (2006): 745–775.
DOI: 10.1086/506281Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
The authors review the studies suggesting interpretative models of cultural development on the central coast, including a new interpretive suggestion. Several specialists are involved in the discussion, and it includes the authors’ responses to them.
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Kroeber, Alfred. “Proto-Lima: A Middle Period Culture of Peru.” Anthropology 44.1 (1954): 1–57.
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This is one of the first works dedicated to the coastal cultures, which aims to locate the cultures developed in Lima in a broader interpretation scheme.
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Pozorski, S., and T. Pozorski. “Early Cultural Complexity on the Coast of Peru.” In The Handbook of South America Archaeology. Edited by Helaine Silverman and William H. Isbell, 607–631. New York: Springer, 2008.
DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-74907-5Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
One of the most recent works that reviews specialized literature devoted to the most important archaeological centers from the early periods of the central coast and Lima and includes an extensive bibliography.
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Formative Period

This period includes the last two millennia BC, a period that is considered crucial because during that time the bases of culture and material life in the Andean world were developed (Abanto 2009; Silva, et al. 1983; Silva 1998). One relevant aspect is the construction of temples shaped like the letter “U,” a typical plant applied in the Andes (Patterson 1985). In addition, the texts analyzed ceramics production demonstrating the intense cultural exchanges, especially with the Chavin culture, located north of Lima. Druc, et al. 2001; Ravines and Isbell 1976; and Ravines, et al. 1982 are dedicated to the Garagay archaeological complex, located in the district of San Martín de Porres with an antiquity of 1500 years BC, in which we can find U-shaped structures as well as mural paintings influenced by the Chavin culture.

Abanto, Julio. “Evidencias arqueológicas del Periodo Formativo en la quebrada de Canto Grande, valle bajo del Rímac.” Boletín de Arqueología PUCP 13 (2009): 159–185.
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One of the few papers dedicated to the study of one of the Rímac River intermediate valleys, currently part of the San Juan de Lurigancho district, which is one of the important places in the cultural development of pre-Hispanic cultures.
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Druc, Isabelle, Richard Burger, Regina Zamojska, and Pierre Magny. “Ancón and Garagay Ceramic Production at the Time of Chavín de Huántar.” Journal of Archaeological Science 28 (2001): 29–43.
DOI: 10.1006/jasc.1999.0587Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Ancon is a district that has housed a great archaeological wealth since ancient times. Maritime resources favored human settlement at this coastal site, while other important cultural formations were expanding on the central coast, such as Chavin.
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Patterson, T. C. “The Huaca La Florida, Rímac Valley Peru.” In Early Ceremonial Architecture in the Andes. Edited by C. B. Donnan, 59–69. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks, 1985.
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Dedicated to one of the archaeological sites near the center of the city, which contains the most representative U-shaped temples of the period, dated approximately 1,700 years BC.
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Ravines, R., H. Engelstad, V. Palomino, and D. Sandweiss. “Materiales arqueológicos de Garagay.” Revista del Museo Nacional 46 (1982): 135–234.
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Shows Garagay’s archaeological materials and their analysis, highlighting the “U” shaped temple typical of Andean cultures. In addition, the presence of friezes with Chavín influence allows us to understand more deeply the religion of these ancient central coast inhabitants.
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Ravines, R., and W. H. Isbell. “Garagay, sitio temprano en el valle de Lima.” Revista del Museo Nacional 41 (1976): 253–272.
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One of the first works dedicated to huaca Garagay, currently located in San Martín de Porres, Lima. Previously used as a quarry for construction, until archaeologists came in to delimit the site and give the site the relevance it deserved, allowing its preservation and study.
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Silva, S. Jorge E. “Una aproximación al periodo formativo en el valle del Chillón.” Boletín de Arqueología PUCP 2 (1998): 251–268.
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One of the most complete and exhaustive reviews on various evidences of the cultural development process in the northern part of Lima.
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Silva, S. Jorge, K. Hirth, R. García, and J. Pinilla. “El formativo en el valle del Rímac: Huachipa-Jicamarca.” Arqueología y Sociedad 9 (1983): 1–92.
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Comprehensive analysis of the cultural sequence in the Rímac Valley, incorporating the most important archaeological finds from the river branches and its role in the initial development of coastal cultures.
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Early Intermediate

This period corresponds approximately to the 3rd and 7th centuries AD. During this period, the so-called regional cultures rose up in the coastal valleys and mountains of Peru. The Lima culture between 200 and 700 AD developed, leaving numerous traces of its presence, which persists until the present day. During this period, the Lurin Valley, south of the capital city, acquired great importance. Earle 1972; Patterson, et al. 1982; and Stothert 1980 are especially concentrated in the development of political forms that were consolidated in these arid areas, which had great importance and were well connected to the Lima highlands.

Earle, T. K. “Lurin Valley, Peru: Early Intermediate Period Settlement Development.” American Antiquity 37.4 (1972): 467–477.
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Shows one of the first scenarios of the valley occupation, before the Lima highland cultures expansion took control over the region.
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Patterson, T. C., J. P. McCarthy, and R. A. Dunn. “Polities in the Lurin Valley, Peru, during the Early Intermediate Period.” Ñawpa Pacha 20 (1982): 61–82.
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Deals with the archaeological analysis of the Lurin Valley before the conquest of the Wari Empire, emphasizing its importance and political development.
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Stothert, K. 1980. “The Villa El Salvador site and the Beginning of the Early Intermediate Period in the Lurin Valley, Peru.” Journal of Field Archaelogogy 7 (1980): 279–295.
DOI: 10.1179/009346980791505437Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
One of the few works dedicated to a little explored area, the southern district of Villa El Salvador, a vast sand area close to the Temple of Pachacamac, which contains a large amount of archaeological evidence for the previous period of the Wari Empire expansion.
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The Middle Horizon

During this phase (c. 500–1000 AD), the Lima culture suffered the arrival of the Wari Empire, reflected in the construction and occupation of Cajamarquilla city and the great Temple of Pachacamac (Dulanto 2001, Mogrovejo 1999, Segura Llanos 2001). This is one of the most important temples in the central Peruvian coast, and many archaeological, architectural, and historical studies about its development and meaning have been produced since the beginning of the 20th century. Wari culture expanded all over the central coast—as later would the Inca Empire; its influence became evident in the ceramic and architectural styles, developing an urban-type culture (Kaulicke 2000). One of the most important aspects of this Wari coastal presence was the emergence of Pachacamac’s religious worship, which expanded throughout the central coast and lasted for several centuries, even during Spanish colonization times.

Dulanto, Jalh. “Dioses de Pachacámac: El ídolo y el templo.” In Los dioses del Antiguo Perú. Compiled by K. Makowski, 158–181. Lima: Banco de Crédito del Perú, 2001.
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Examines the archaeological evidence with respect to the religious-cult development in the temple, which had a long run on the Peruvian coast.
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Kaulicke, Peter. “La sombra de Pachacamac: Huari en la costa central.” Boletín de Arqueología PUCP 4 (2000): 313–358.
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Analyzes the presence of Wari in the central coast, evidenced in Pachacamac but also with a significant presence in other valleys of Lima.
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Mogrovejo, Juan. “Cajamarquilla y el fin de la cultura Lima.” Boletín del Instituto Riva-Agüero 26 (1999): 227–243.
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Develops the presence of Wari occupation and the construction of Cajamarquilla.
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Segura Llanos, Rafael Antonio. Rito y economía en Cajamarquilla: Investigaciones arqueológicas en el conjunto arquitectónico Julio C. Tello. Lima: Fondo Editorial, 2001.
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Studies the social and economic characteristics of Cajamarquilla, the main archaeological center of the Wari culture in Lima.
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Late Intermediate and Inca Occupation

After the Wari Empire expansion, regional cultures developed in Lima valleys. One of the most important was the Ischma or Yschma (Eeckhout 2000), whose archaeological remains are scattered in the current city. During the same period, the occupation of the Lurin Valley and the cult of the God Pachacamac continued (Feltham 1983). Also, to the northern part of the city, along the Chillón River Valley, several señoríos flourished; they controlled access to the river basin (Rostworowski de Diez Canseco 1978). These chiefdoms, or señoríos, were conquered by the Incas and incorporated into their Tahuantinsuyo administration, the last stage prior to the Spanish conquer (Cornejo 2000, Shimada 2000).

Cornejo, Miguel. “La nación Ischma y la provincia Inka de Pachacámac.” Arqueológicas 24 (2000): 149–173.
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Deals with Lima culture’s final stages of development and its conquest by the Inca at the end of the 15th century, represented by the rise of the important Temple of Pachacamac.
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Eeckhout, Peter. “The Palaces of the Lords of Ychsma: An Archaeological Reappraisal of the Function of Pyramids with Ramps at Pachacamac.” Revista de Arqueología Americana 17–19 (2000): 217–254.
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Archaeological and architectural analysis of the pyramid ramps, part of the great constructions of Pachacamac.
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Feltham, J. P. “The Lurin Valley, Peru, AD 1000–1532.” PhD diss., University of London, 1983.
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Doctoral thesis that deals with the study of the Lurin Valley, South Lima, from the Late Intermediate period until the Spanish conquest in the 16th century.
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Rostworowski de Diez Canseco, María. Señoríos indígenas de Lima y Canta. Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, 1978.
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One of the first papers written using ethnohistorical methods, especially with the use of 16th-century early colonial documents and chronicles. This paper established the presence of señoríos in Lima, which had alliances to control the arrival of invaders and defend the access to their resources.
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Shimada, Izumi. “Late Prehispanic Coastal States.” In The Inca World: The Development of Pre-Columbian Peru, A.D. 1000–1534. Edited by Laura Laurencich Minelli, 49–110. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2000.
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Focuses on the analysis of the Peruvian coast close to Inca times. Places the archaeological and historical evidence in perspective, complementing the abundant studies dedicated to the prior development of the Peruvian coast.
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Colonial Lima, 16th to 19th Centuries

The Spaniards, led by Francisco Pizarro, founded cities across America as part of their strategy to control the territory and obtain coveted privileges from the Crown, especially during the early stages of Spanish domination. After a failed initial attempt to set up the capital in Jauja in 1534; on January 18, 1535, the city was founded in the lands corresponding to the Curaca Taulichusco, founding the colonial Cabildo in the City of Kings, the official name of the Viceroyalty capital of today’s city of Lima in Peru. Its history has been addressed from different perspectives; one of its features is its persistence as the seat of the colonial and religious power from the colonial era to the present, which brings a continuity in the studies dedicated to the city (Barbagelata and Bromley 1945). Therefore, studies dedicated to the religious life, the elites, and politics are abundant. Urban changes are examined in Günther 1983 and Günther and Mitrani 2012, which study the great transformations in space and graphically show the growth of the city; Ludeña 2004 studies urban development policies in the long term. Flores-Zúñiga 2008 presents an overview of the development of estates in the valleys of Lima, and Calderón 2000 analyzes the housing changes in the city. Another noteworthy aspect is the presence of a large local and international immigration, which began with the introduction of slavery in colonial times and continued with the arrival of foreigners and people from inside towns; therefore social and ethnic studies are abundant. Finally, Maticorena Estrada, et al. 2010 is a compilation of various studies and different perspectives on the history of the city from its foundation until recent times. The papers in this section give general views of the city, as well as consider its urban and architectural evolution, among other topics. It is considered a criterion that the development of these issues encompass more than one century, and at least reach the end of the 20th century.

Barbagelata, José, and Juan Bromley. Evolución urbana de la Ciudad de Lima. Lima: Concejo Provincial, 1945.
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Despite being dated, this paper continues to be essential for understanding the urban development of the city. It contains drawings and descriptions of how Lima changed over the centuries, its different forms of organization and regulations.
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Bromley, Juan. Las viejas calles de Lima. Lima: Municipalidad Metropolitana de Lima Gerencia de Educación, Cultura y Deportes, 2005.
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Very full description of the city and its streets. In colonial times there were no official street names; this paper shows the old designations and changes over time, with an equivalence between the current and former names.
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Calderón, Gladys. Casa limeña: Espacios habitados. Lima: Siklos, 2000.
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Describes the various architectural styles of the houses in the city, especially the abundant houses that are still in the center of the capital.
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Flores-Zúñiga, Fernando. Haciendas y pueblos de Lima: Historia del valle del Rímac (De sus orígenes al siglo XX) Tomo I Valle de Huatica, Cercado, La Victoria, Lince y San Isidro. Lima: Fondo Editorial del Congreso del Perú, Municipalidad Metropolitana de Lima, 2008.
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Taking advantage of the extensive documentation about the Lima haciendas, the author describes their social and economic characteristics. The book highlights the presentation of the cited documentation that develops the story of several of the haciendas since their creation in the 16th century until their demise by urban expansion in the 20th century.
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Günther, Juan. Planos de Lima. Lima: Cope, 1983.
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The most comprehensive collection of city plans and maps. Each of them is properly dated and ordered chronologically from the initial days of the colony until the 20th century.
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Günther, Juan, and Henry Mitrani. Memorias de Lima: De haciendas a pueblos y distritos. Lima: Los Portales y Ediciones Círculo Polar, 2012.
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Collection of aerial photographs showing the city Lima from the 1940s, covering spaces of the city valleys that are today inhabited. Includes aerial shots of the huacas and pre-Hispanic temples until urban sprawl affected them.
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Ludeña, Wiley. Lima: Historia y urbanismo. Lima: Ministerio de Vivienda, Construcción y Saneamiento, 2004.
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Comprehensive study of the process of urban expansion from the 19th to the 20th century. It contains extensive references about the neighborhoods/districts and state intervention in the city’s development.
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Maticorena Estrada, Miguel, Carlos del Águila, Richard Chuhue, and Antonio Coello, eds. Coloquio de Historia de Lima (17°: 2010: Lima, Perú). Lima: Centro Cultural de San Marcos, 2010.
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Paper compilations presented at the Colloquium of Lima, discussion group, led by Professor Miguel Maticorena for several years, whose central theme is the city’s history. Different topics are discussed, such as the social, political, and cultural history of Lima.
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Lima, 16th to 17th Centuries

The first two centuries of the city’s colonial history has been approached from different angles: society, religion, culture, and so on. In terms of the Aboriginal population at the time of the Spanish foundation of the city of Lima, references are scattered, but thanks to various sources, specialists have completed an overview of its demographic evolution (Cárdenas-Ayaipoma 1989). After the city’s foundation, with the creation of Cabildo, a large documentary volume was generated (Gutiérrez 2005), giving testimony of the efforts to manage the city and organize the citizens’ daily lives. Thus the Cabildo books are one of the most important sources, offering varied perspectives that enable a deeper understanding of this period (Durán Montero 1994).

Cárdenas-Ayaipoma, Mario. La población aborigen del valle de Lima en el siglo XVI. Lima: CONCYTEC, 1989.
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Through analysis of inhabitant registration and estimates of the time, the author sets the impact of Spanish colonization in the space where the city of Lima was founded.
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Durán Montero, Ana María. Lima en el siglo XVII: Arquitectura, urbanismo y vida cotidiana. Sevilla, Spain: Diputación Provincial de Sevilla, 1994.
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Describes various aspects of the city, with central reference to the register of the indigenous population from 1613. It contains valuable information about urban patterns, crafts, culture, and social organization.
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Gutiérrez, Laura, ed. Lima en el siglo XVI. Lima: Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, Instituto Riva Agüero, 2005.
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An extensive compilation that addresses various aspects of Lima’s city history. It includes essays about the way in which they organized space, urban regulations, social groups, economy, culture, and religion. The documentary base used here was the Cabildo books, supplemented with different types of documentation. This book gives a very complete picture of the city’s foundation and development during the 16th century, accompanied by an extensive and very comprehensive bibliography.
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Social History, Economy, and Culture

This section lists sources dedicated to Lima’s social history. These works especially address the relationship between the urban environment and the indigenous communities, the emergence of colonial institutions, and the urban culture (Charney 2001, Lowry 1991). Since its foundation, Lima has generated a demand for goods and services that was satisfied by means of an extensive rural surrounding and the constant migration of indigenous people, Spaniards, and Africans (Garófalo 2005, Jaramillo 1992, Vergara 2011). These dynamic forces intermixed in an urban environment, creating new habits, regardless of the colonial legislation (McKinley 2010). Similarly, the growth of trade and the emergence of artisans, vendors in the streets, slaves, and servants made up complex social hierarchies and accompanied the emergence of local elites who governed civil and ecclesiastical institutions (Jouve Martín 2005, Suárez 1995, Guibovich 1999, Young Kydalla 2011).

Charney, Paul. Indian Society in the Valley of Lima, Peru, 1532–1824. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 2001.
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Taking advantage of different sources, this work studies the disintegration process of pre-Hispanic societies in the valley and its restructuring within the colonial domination, in a long-term perspective. The Peruvian coast was one of the most affected by demographic decline, although the indigenous communities developed mechanisms of preservation of their ethnic identity incorporating religious, social, and economic elements of the Spanish culture.
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Garófalo, Leo. “La sociabilidad plebeya en las pulperías y tabernas de Lima y el Cuzco, 1600–1690.” In Más allá de la dominación y la Resistencia: Estudios de historia peruana, siglos XVI-XX. Edited by Paulo Drinot and Leo Garófalo, 104–135. Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, 2005.
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The city taverns, known as chinganas and chicherias, not only served food and drink; they also were places to socialize and in which various social and ethnic groups came into contact by exchanging their cultural patterns.
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Guibovich, Pedro. “Cultura y élites: Las historias sobre Lima en el siglo XVII.” In Beneméritos, aristócratas y empresarios: Identidades y estructuras sociales de las capas altas urbanas en América hispánica. Edited by Bernd Schröter and Christian Büschges, 53–65. Madrid: Iberoamericana, 1999.
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Discusses the city’s characteristic description in the 17th century and its relationship with rhetoric, political, and social tensions of that time.
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Jaramillo, Miguel. “Migraciones y formación de mercados laborales: La fuerza de trabajo indígena de Lima a comienzos del siglo XVII.” Economía 15.29 (1992): 265–320.
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Takes as a main source the city census of 1613. The author studies the urban demand and its impact on the development of an early colonial market reflected in the various trades that begin to appear in the urban scenario.
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Jouve Martín, José. Esclavos de la ciudad letrada: Esclavitud, escritura y colonialismo en Lima (1650–1700). Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, 2005.
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This study analyzes culture dissemination, written between slaves, who not only learned to read and write to define access to the lettered city but who also disseminated oral legal knowledge and knowledge about everyday living in a legal society experience.
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Lowry, Lyn Brandon. “Forging an Indian Nation: Urban Indians under Spanish Colonial Control (Lima, Perú, 1535–1765).” PhD diss., University of California Berkeley, 1991.
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Analyzes the way in which the indigenous population articulated with the colonial state since the city’s founding until the Bourbon reforms in the second half of the 18th century.
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McKinley, Michelle. “Freedoms: Slavery, Legal Activism, and Ecclesiastical Courts in Colonial Lima,1593–1689.” Law and History Review 28.3 (2010): 749–790.
DOI: 10.1017/S0738248010000623Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Discusses slaves’ legal and discursive strategies and their advocates in the Church courts, showing its importance and more visible results from the perspective of law history.
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Suárez, Margarita. Comercio y fraude en el Perú colonial: Las estrategias mercantiles de un banquero. Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, 1995.
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Discusses the importance of the commercial elite in Lima during the 17th century, talking about the case of banker Juan de la Cueva. The book questions the idea of a crisis in colonial economy during that century, however, during this time Lima elites enjoyed of great autonomy and wealth.
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Vergara, Teresa. “Vivir y crecer en Lima: Niños y jóvenes indígenas en el siglo XVII.” In La marginación en el Perú, siglos XVI–XXI. Edited by Claudia Rosas, 95–114. San Miguel: Estudios Generales Letras, Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, 2011.
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The demand for labor in the city motivated early migration of children and indigenous youth into domestic service and the labor market for other trades, such as craft.
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Young Kydalla, Etheyo. “Colonial Music, Confraternities, and Power in the Archdiocese of Lima.” PhD diss., University of Illinois, 2011.
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Doctoral dissertation that analyzes the role of music in colonial fraternities and sororities, addressing this issue from the Lima Archbishopric and Cabildo documentary sources.
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Gender, Family and Marriage

The presence of the ecclesiastical court in the city, head of the Viceroyalty, and the presence of a social, economic, and ethnically varied population allows the analysis of social relations, gender, and daily life thanks to the trials that they preserved (Silverblatt 1998). The sources in this section have taken much of this material and tried to build the social hierarchies and the living conditions in the first centuries of colonial domination (González Del Riego 1999, Lavallé 1986, Lavallé 2003). When the works incorporate the gender variable in the social analysis, they allow a more detailed understanding of social hierarchies, ethnicity, and colonial life (Mannarelli 1993). Church institutions allowed generally marginalized sectors, such as women and slaves, to present and defend their claims, as their individual rights or as a family who felt vulnerable under their husbands or masters. This peculiarity of the Spanish colonial system allows researchers to have very valuable sources that illuminate little-known aspects of colonial history.

González Del Riego, Delfina. “El divorcio en la sociedad colonial limeña.” In Mujeres y género en la historia del Perú. Edited by Margarita Zegarra, 131–141. Lima: Cendoc-Mujer, 1999.
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In the colonial society, governed by Catholicism, divorce was permissible under certain conditions imposed by the Catholic Church, accepting that a couple could separate and that divorced women could live held in homes reserved for this purpose in the city.
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Lavallé, Bernard. “Divorcio y nulidad de matrimonio en Lima (1650–1700) (La desavenencia como indicador social).” Revista Andina 4.2 (1986): 427–464.
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Focuses on the analysis of the colonial society from the causes of divorce and marriage annulment. The author criticizes the suggestion of relating directly the already mentioned judgments and society, suggesting a series of alternatives to understand the contents of the judicial complaints.
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Lavallé, Bernard. “El argumento de la notoria desigualdad en la relación de pareja (Lima y Quito, siglos XVII y XVIII).” In Familia y vida cotidiana en América Latina, siglos XVIII-XIX. Edited by Scarlett O’Phelan, Fanni Muñoz, Gabriel Ramón, and Mónica Ricketts, 231–252. Lima: Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, 2003.
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Comprehensively addresses comparative arguments of parents or guardians of the bride and groom before the courts in order to prevent marriages, citing differences between the contracting parties.
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Mannarelli, María Emma. Pecados Públicos: La ilegitimidad en Lima, siglo XVII. Lima: Flora Tristán, 1993.
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A classic study on the issue of illegitimacy, one of the major variables of the status of the individuals in the colonial era. Using this perspective, the author manages to compose a comprehensive portrait of colonial society, relations of gender, and social structure.
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Silverblatt, Irene. “Family Values in Seventeenth-Century Peru.” In Native Traditions in the Postconquest World. Edited by Elizabeth Hill Boone and Tom Cummins, 63–89. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1998.
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Western values about family were brought to America as part of European colonization. This document explains the process of changing values and traditional gender roles to European models.
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Religion and Society

Religious institutions were not limited to large orders, temples, or monasteries. They also introduced spiritual practices that crossed all social sectors by modifying the pre-Hispanic customs into a long process of exchange among Europeans, Africans, and Americans. The Church did not prevent all social groups from being included in Catholicism; on the contrary, it invited them into it (Coello De La Rosa 2006, Charney 2012). Elites, indigenous, slaves, mestizos, and castes all had various forms of religious participation through brotherhoods, the fulfillment of sacraments, and the protection of religious authorities. For example, Ramos 2010 shows the importance of wills preserved in the church archives to understand the evolution of colonial society. Likewise, Gose 2014 defines honor and its use in colonial America using information from the city. In addition, the Church was responsible for ensuring the correct compliance of the Catholic doctrine, repressing and punishing those practices considered heretical or demoniac (Flores Espinoza 1991, Osorio 1999). Thus it generated extensive documentation consisting of judgments, administrative documents, wills, and other documents that allow the observation of society from a different perspective. Also included are religious practices that arose from contact between ancient pre-Hispanic religions and Spanish Catholicis (Mujica Pinilla 2001, Rostworowski de Diez Canseco 1992).

Charney, Paul. “‘For My Necessities’: The Wills of Andean Commoners and Nobles in the Valley of Lima, 1596–1607.” Ethnohistory 59.2 (2012): 323–351.
DOI: 10.1215/00141801-1536903Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Based on an analysis of noble indigenous wills, the author approaches the religious culture of the 16th century, after the first decades characterized by the elimination of the pre-Hispanic cults and dissemination of Catholic evangelization. From these sources, he establishes the ways in which the principles of the Christian religion were assimilated and integrated into the practices of indigenous groups in the Lima Valley.
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Coello De La Rosa, Alexander. Espacios de exclusión espacios de poder: El Cercado de lima colonial (1568–1606). Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, 2006.
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The indigenous Cercado of the city was a colonial reduction that housed the indigenous people displaced after the city’s foundation and the reorganization of the colonial space. The book deals with the reasons for its creation and the various controversies about the evangelization methods and control of indigenous people applied by the Jesuits.
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Flores Espinoza, Javier. “Hechicería e idolatría en Lima colonial (siglo XVII).” In Poder y violencia en los Andes. Edited by Henrique Urbano, 53–74. Cusco, Peru: CERA Bartolomé de Las Casas, 1991.
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The various religious customs of social groups gathered in Lima generated a mixture of practices at the edge of what was tolerable for the religious authorities. The text shows its characteristics from some cases judged in the city.
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Gose, Peter. “Honor (Spanish American).” In Lexikon of the Hispanic Baroque Transatlantic Exchange and Transformation. Edited by Evonne Levy and Kenneth Mills, 159–166. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2014.
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Explains the importance of honor in the colonial world and how this value incorporated various elements, such as race, legitimacy, and geographical origin, among other factors.
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Mannarelli, María Emma. Hechiceras, beatas y expósitas: Mujeres y poder inquisitorial en Lima. Lima: Fondo Editorial del Congreso del Perú, 1998.
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The Inquisition tried to control not only the dissident religious thoughts but also the different practices contrary to Catholic orthodoxy. Within them, women developed a series of religious forms, which were not always adopted by the Church’s hierarchy.
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Mujica Pinilla, Ramón. Rosa Limensis: Mística, política e iconografía en torno a la patrona de Lima. Lima: Instituto Francés de Estudios Andinos, 2001.
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Santa Rosa de Lima is one of the representative women of religious piety of the early colonial centuries. The representation of image, through paintings and prints, and wide distribution throughout Latin America justifies its importance in the study of colonial religiosity.
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Osorio, Alejandra. “Hechicerías y curanderías en la Lima del siglo XVII; Formas femeninas de control y acción social.” In Mujeres y género en la historia del Perú. Edited by Margarita Zegarra, 59–75. Lima: Cendoc-Mujer, 1999.
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The activities of women who healed or offered various gadgets to get spiritual benefits or materials were among the practices pursued by the religious authorities. This article looks at how the Inquisitorial Court also sought them out in order to control their customs and their daily lives.
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Ramos, Gabriela. Death and Conversion in the Andes: Lima and Cuzco, 1532–1670. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame, 2010.
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Compares the Catholic religion of the indigenous societies of Lima and Cusco, proposing how various pre-Hispanic cults were simplified by evangelization, establishing the Christianization of death as the central axis of the Catholic preaching integration mechanisms. Its main source is hundreds of indigenous wills that show how fast this process was assimilated.
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Rostworowski de Diez Canseco, María. Pachacámac y el Señor de los Milagros: Una trayectoria milenaria. Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, 1992.
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Attempts to establish religious associations between the pre-Columbian deity and the colonial worship of the Señor de los Milagros, currently present in the city culture. It is one of the few papers that seeks to establish the continuities in religious ideology from the relationship of both cults with earthquakes.
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Brotherhoods

The religious brotherhoods are one of the most important institutions of the colonial world, dedicated to all the social groups present in the urban world, both male and female. Their practices are not restricted to religious cults; works have highlighted the role fulfilled as mechanisms of sociality and social ascent. Through these institutions, several of the major contemporary cults developed, such as the Señor de los Milagros (Arrelucea Barrantes 2011), la Virgen del Carmen, and others. These associations had an administration led by the brotherhood members, a regulation, and an equity, which allowed them to purchase goods to join the colonial economy (Garland 1994, Lévano Medina 2010, Mansilla Justo 2010). Thus social and economic ties generated through religion gradually transformed society, incorporating new religious sensibilities due to the encounter of different social groups (Montoya Estrada 2010, Vega 2001, Vetter Parodi 2010).

Arrelucea Barrantes, Maribel. “El Señor de los Milagros: Religiosidad y cultura afroperuana, siglos XVI–XVII.” Tiempos: Revista de historia y cultura 6 (2011): 119–150.
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Explains historically the rise of the famous worship of El Señor de los Milagros, one of the most important deities of Peru and Lima; it originated among Lima slaves and then spread to all sectors of society.
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Garland, Beatriz. “Las cofradías de Lima durante la Colonia: Una primera aproximación.” In La venida del Reino: Religión, evangelización y cultura en América. Siglos XVI–XX. Edited by Gabriela Ramos, 199–228. Cuzco, Peru: Centro Bartolomé de las Casas, 1994.
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One of the first approaches to the issue of the colonial brotherhoods. It explains the administrative mechanisms and the role of regulations in these religious associations.
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Lévano Medina, Diego. “La Administración de los Bienes Temporales en las Cofradías limeñas del siglo XVII.” In Corporaciones religiosas y evangelización en Iberoamérica: Siglos XVI–XVIII. Edited by Diego Lévano Medina and Kelly Montoya Estrada, 117–150. Lima: Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, 2010.
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Addresses the complexities of the brotherhoods’ goods administration, a heritage that rarely caused conflicts between brotherhoods and religious authorities.
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Mansilla Justo, Judith. “Poder y prestigio social en las cofradías de españoles, siglos XVII y XVIII.” In Corporaciones religiosas y evangelización en Iberoamérica: Siglos XVI–XVIII. Edited by Diego Lévano Medina and Kelly Montoya Estrada, 227–256. Lima: Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, 2010.
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Discusses the role of brotherhoods in Lima as mechanisms of social ascent through the charges and social relations provided.
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Montoya Estrada, Kelly. “Una procesión de Viernes Santo en Lima del siglo XVII.” In Corporaciones religiosas y evangelización en Iberoamérica: Siglos XVI–XVIII. Edited by Diego Lévano Medina and Kelly Montoya Estrada, 151–168. Lima: Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, 2010.
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Deals with the study of one of the main colonial religious festivals organized, not only by the hierarchy but with the participation of numerous brotherhoods.
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Vega, Walter. “Manifestaciones religiosas tempranas: Cofradías de negros en Lima, siglo XVI.” Historia y Cultura 24 (2001): 113–122.
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Religious associations were not restricted solely to the Spanish or indigenous populations; freedman or slaves were also incorporated into brotherhoods, which soon became popular among the African population due to the benefits received.
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Vetter Parodi, Luisa. “Plateros indígenas y europeos: De las Cofradías de Santa Ana y San Eloy.” In Corporaciones religiosas y evangelización en Iberoamérica: Siglos XVI–XVIII. Edited by Diego Lévano Medina and Kelly Montoya Estrada, 199–226. Lima: Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, 2010.
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The trade brotherhoods are one of the varieties of religious associations in the colony. In this case the author studies brotherhoods in which silver artisans were a part, divided by their ethnicity.
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Monasteries and Religious Life

The city monasteries fulfilled a fundamental role in the colonial society (Van Deusen 2001). They hosted large male and female populations who articulated the social hierarchies through alliances and economic ties. In addition, they were generators of a different type of religious practices, not always tolerated by the colonial regime (Iwasaki Cauti 1993). The pious practices of Catholic religious life, opened to all groups, allow us to understand aspects such as the fear of natural disasters, the gender dimension, and ideals about earthly and heavenly life, among other aspects (Contreras 2011). Also through these institutions we understand the economic ties generated between the Lima elites and their resident members in convents and monasteries (Suárez 1993). Finally, the presence inside various social groups, including slave men and women, allows us access to different sources illustrating issues such as honor, status, and colonial life (Van Deusen 2001, Wood 2004).

Contreras, Ray Mitchell. “‘Las esposas de Jesucristo implorando perdón al cielo:’ Las religiosas de los monasterios limeños frente a los movimientos telúricos en los siglos XVII y XVIII.” In Trabajos de historia: Religión, cultura y política en el Perú, siglos XVII y XX. Edited by Dino León Fernández, Alex Loayza Pérez, and Marcos Garfias Dávila, 75–92. Lima: Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos Fondo Editorial, 2011.
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Shows the reactions of the religious against constant earthquakes that affected Lima, being them part of the spiritual world, which held the colonial universe.
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Iwasaki Cauti, Fernando. “Mujeres al borde de la perfección: Rosa de Santa María y las alumbradas de Lima.” Hispanic American Historical Review 73.4 (1993): 581–613.
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Holy bear women are a religious phenomenon that has attracted huge interest from different angles of investigation. This paper attempts to contextualize the life of the famous Santa Rosa de Lima, a woman elevated to the altars very early in the 17th century.
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Suárez, Margarita. “El poder de los velos: monasterios y finanzas en Lima: Siglo XVII.” In Estrategias de desarrollo: Intentando cambiar la vida. Edited by Patricia Portocarrero, 165–174. Lima: Flora Tristán, 1993.
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Monasteries were not only a place for meditation and prayer for men and women dedicated to the religious life. The resources they captured—money and goods—served as a stimulus for the colonial economic life.
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Van Deusen, Nancy. Between the Sacred and the Worldly: The Institutional and Cultural Practice of Recogimiento in Colonial Lima. Stanford, CA: University of Stanford, 2001.
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Deals with the practice of female Recogimiento, a mystical practice, which was meant to be a life of confinement and virtue in search of divine perfection in convents, spatially at home, and in other places. The practice was adapted to local needs, evidenced in the hundreds of documents reviewed in colonial archives.
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Van Deusen, Nancy. The Souls of Purgatory: The Spiritual Diary of a Seventeenth-Century Afro-Peruvian Mystic, Ursula de Jesus. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2004.
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There are not many dairies written by women in colonial times and even fewer written by slave women. In this case, the author presents an introductory study about the valuable diary belonging to Úrsula de Jesús, a slave donated to the Santa Clara convent; her confessor, who accompanied her writings in the book edition, suggested she write all of her mystical experiences through the years.
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Wood, Alice L. “Religious Women of Color in Seventeenth-Century Lima: Estefanía de San Ioseph y Ursula de Jesu Cristo.” In Beyond Bondage: Free Women of Color in the Americas. Edited by David Barry Gaspar and Darlena Clark Hine, 286–316. Urbana: University Of Illinois Press, 2004.
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Dedicated to two Afro-descendant women who had mystical experiences during the 17th century and who lived in a recogimiento situation. What makes this a singular case is the origin of both women, connected to the slavery experience, which helped them develop their spirituality.
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Lima, 18th to 19th Centuries

The colonial city suffered, in later times of the colonial period, from the implementation of a series of reforms applied by the Bourbon dynasty. The significance of the changes; the controversies that generated from their implementation; and the possible social, economic, and cultural impacts have been some of the issues that have been addressed in the historiography devoted to the city (Pérez Canto 1985). The importance of the transformations also evidenced the huge documentation stored in local files, which have allowed a heavy academic output that covers many different topics (Haitin 1983). In addition, the temporal proximity with the independence process has awarded this century a particular relevance in studies. Some studies, such as Flores Galindo 1991, approach the city’s history covering most of the 18th century and even until the early years of the 19th century. They deal with topics such as social history, economy, and culture. The works cited in this section provide a city overview, especially from an economic and social dimension. Demographic, urban, and social structure, social hierarchies, and their transformation from the 18th century’s last decades are some aspects highlighted in these works, all of them based on different types of file documentation.

Flores Galindo, Alberto. La ciudad sumergida: Aristocracia y plebe en Lima, 1760–1830. Lima: Horizonte, 1991.
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Originally published in 1984, this is, without a doubt, one of the most important works about the city’s history and the colonial period in general. The fundamental thesis of the author is that the colonial society articulated by involving two sectors: the colonial aristocracy, whose economic power was based on land ownership, public offices, nobility titles, and slave possession.
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Haitin, Marcel. “Late Colonial: Economy and Society in an Era of Reform and Revolution.” PhD diss., University of California, 1983.
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One of the first investigations that intended to study Lima addressing society and economic variables. The paper analyzes the demographic and ethnic composition, the socioeconomic structure, and the economic situation in the decades prior to the Declaration of Independence. It is a well-documented thesis, with accurate statistics that are not found in other works.
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Pérez Canto, María del Pilar. Lima en el siglo XVIII: Estudio socioeconómico. Madrid: Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, 1985.
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Shows a panoramic view of the demographic, social, and economic characteristics of Lima. Using the censuses of that time, and various materials to establish the social structure and the way in which it evolved during the 18th century.
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Slavery

One of the most important issues is the presence of urban slavery (Arrelucea Barrantes 2009a). The papers on this matter have established their demographic importance, and include the complexity of relations between masters and slaves and forms of resistance and freedom, among other aspects (Arrelucea Barrantes 2006, Rivoldi 2003). Slavery was a highly complex phenomenon. Legislation not only gave slaves a series of unknown benefits out of Latin-American slavery; it also affected everyday relations between masters and slaves by factors as diverse as coexistence, negotiation, and violence. Even sexual relations between masters and slaves were not so scarce (Arrelucea Barrantes 2009b). In addition, the slaves took direct action against the slave system, using judicial means or even fleeing the master’s control, becoming cimarr	ones inhabiting the so-called palenques (Espinoza 1988).

Arrelucea Barrantes, Maribel. “Poder masculino, esclavitud femenina y violencia. Lima, 1760–1820.” In Mujeres, familia y sociedad en la historia de América Latina, siglos XVIII–XXI. Edited by Scarlett O’Phelan and Margarita Zegarra, 147–170. Lima: Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, 2006.
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Slavery not only was characterized as being a compulsive way of working; its existence generated complex relations between masters and slaves, in which gender was a central element to understanding the slavery world.
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Arrelucea Barrantes, Maribel. Replanteando la esclavitud: Estudios de etnicidad y género en Lima borbónica. Lima: CEDET–AECI, 2009a.
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Reviews the historiography devoted to slavery and offers several other articles that deal with the role of gender, sex, violence, and other mechanisms of resistance to the slave system.
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Arrelucea Barrantes, Maribel. “Slavery, Writing, and Female Resistance: Black Women Litigants in Lima’s Late Colonial Tribunals.” In Afro-Latino Voices: Documentary Narratives from the Early Modern Ibero-Atlantic World, 1552–1808. Edited by Leo Garófalo and Kathryn Mc Knight, 269–284. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett, 2009b.
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Judicial files saved the voices of slave men and women. These voices are rescued in this paper; and the forms of slave resistance developed in the courts are discussed.
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Espinoza, Victoria. “Cimarronaje y palenques en la costa central del Perú 1700–1815.” In Primer Seminario sobre Poblaciones Inmigrantes. Vol. I. Edited by Humberto Rodríguez Pastor, 29–42. Lima: Concytec, 1988.
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Cimarrones and the palenques were the places where runaway slaves took refuge beyond the control of the colonial power. This study is one of the first dedicated to this topic.
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Rivoldi, Rosario. “El uso de la vía judicial por esclavas domésticas en Lima a fines del siglo XVIII y principios del XIX.” In Etnicidad y discriminación racial en la historia del Perú. Edited by Scarlett O’Phelan, 147–171. Lima: Instituto Riva Agüero, Banco Mundial, 2003.
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Examines the importance of the courts the slaves’ protest, who took advantage of the legislation to improve the conditions of slavery and even try to win their release.
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Gender, Family, and Everyday Life

The articles in this section address gender relations and family construction; most of them were developed with file documentary sources. Some papers, such as Bustamante Otero 2001, address domestic violence, a reality that also crossed boundaries in social hierarchies. Parish documents take advantage of other works to rebuild social relationships through marriage documents, demonstrating a great social dynamic that allowed relationships in different groups (Cosamalón-Aguilar 1999). The documents allow us to rebuild the family structure (Rosas 2006), childhood places in colonial culture (Premo 2005), the image of women during Illustration (Rosas 1999), and aspects of the daily lives of men and women (Cosamalón-Aguilar 2003, Zegarra 1999).

Bustamante Otero, Luis. “El pesado yugo del santo matrimonio: Divorcio y violencia conyugal en el arzobispado de Lima (1800–1805).” Histórica 25.1 (2001): 5–27.
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Takes as a basis divorce demands and shows intimate violence as one of the central aspects to understanding colonial society.
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Cosamalón-Aguilar, Jesús. Indios detrás de la muralla: Matrimonios indígenas y convivencia interracial en Santa Ana (Lima, 1795–1820). Lima: Fondo Editorial Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, 1999.
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Uses parochial documents for the analysis of interethnic marriages, finding that, despite what was previously thought, the number of couples formed by Negro and indigenous people was not small.
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Cosamalón-Aguilar, Jesús. “Una visión del cuerpo femenino y de la enfermedad a partir de dos diagnósticos médicos, Lima, 1803.” Anuario de Estudios Americanos 60.1 (2003): 109–139.
DOI: 10.3989/aeamer.2003.v60.i1.170Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Analyzes the image of women in the medical discourses in Lima at the beginning of the 19th century; contains a pair of medical diagnoses.
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Premo, Bianca. Children of the Father King: Youth, Authority, & Legal Minority in Colonial Lima. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005.
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One of the few works dedicated to children and young people in colonial times. Not only checks the relevant legislation but also discusses its actual application using specific cases.
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Rosas, Claudia. “Jaque a la dama: La imagen de la mujer en la prensa limeña de fines del siglo XVIII.” In Mujeres y Género en la historia del Perú. Edited by Margarita Zegarra, 143–171. Lima: Cendoc-Mujer, 1999.
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During the Illustration period, the image of women and their role in domestic and public spaces suffered a set of transformations that the author explores through press media broadcasting in Lima.
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Rosas, Claudia. “La visión ilustrada de las amas de leche negras y mulatas en el ámbito familiar (Lima, siglo XVIII).” In Passeurs, mediadores culturales y agentes de la primera globalización en el mundo ibérico, siglos XVI–XIX. Edited by Scarlett O’Phelan and Carmen Salazar-Soler, 211–343. Lima: Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, 2006.
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Negro nursemaids, free or slave, were of great importance in the domestic environment. However, at the end of the 18th century, their presence began to be questioned by the enlightened discourse.
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Zegarra, Margarita. “El honesto velo de nuestro sexo: Sociabilidad y género en mujeres de sectores populares, en la Lima del 800.” In Mujeres y Género en la historia del Perú. Edited by Margarita Zegarra, 183–204. Lima: Cendoc-Mujer, 1999.
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Studies the urban spaces in which women from popular sectors socialized with other groups, especially the so-called chinganas and pulperias in the city (taverns).
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Urban and Environmental History

The 1746 earthquake that almost destroyed Lima is one of the most developed issues in recent years. This work shows through the generated documentation other aspects of the city’s history (Sánchez Rodríguez 2003, Sánchez Rodríguez 2005). On the other hand, other works have developed that deal with the relationship of Lima with its environment (Carcelén Reluz 2011). Some works, such as Ramón Joffré 2004, Sifuentes de la Cruz 2004, and Moreno Cebrián 1981, highlight the urban changes applied by the Bourbons at the end of the 18th century, such as the streets and the police jurisdictions rearrangement and the construction of the first city cemetery. Noteworthy research dedicated to seismic movements offer an overview of the event and its immediate reactions as well as show how society and politics worked in a crucial moment in the history of the city (Pérez-Mallaína Bueno 2001, Walker 2008).

Carcelén Reluz, Carlos. “Desastres en la historia del Perú: Climas, terremotos y epidemias en Lima durante el siglo XVIII.” Investigaciones Sociales 15.26 (2011): 97–113.
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Reviews the major climatic events, natural disasters, and diseases throughout the 18th century, a period in which occurred one of the most terrible earthquakes that affected Lima throughout its history.
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Moreno Cebrián, Alfredo. “Cuarteles, barrios y calles de Lima a fines del siglo XVIII.” Jarhbuch für Geschichte von Staat, Wirtschaft and Gesellschaft Lateinamerikas 18 (1981): 97–162.
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A study on urban reforms applied by the Bourbons in Lima, who applied a territorial reorganization that included quarter and neighborhood demarcations, which replaced the traditional denominations.
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Pérez-Mallaína Bueno, Pablo Emilio. Retrato de una ciudad en crisis: La sociedad limeña ante el movimiento sísmico de 1746. Sevilla, Spain: Escuela de Estudios Hispanoamericanos, CSIC. Lima: Instituto Riva-Agüero, PUC-Lima, 2001.
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The 18th century witnessed the most devastating earthquake that hit the city; this book uses this seismic event as a prism from which we can see the different tensions affecting the state and colonial society.
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Ramón Joffré, Gabriel. “La política borbónica del espacio urbano y el cementerio general (Lima, 1760–1820).” Histórica 28.1 (2004): 91–130.
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Explores the changes in urban space and the introduction of the city’s first general cemetery as an example of the Bourbon policy.
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Sánchez Rodríguez, Susy Mariela. “Apelando a la caridad y a las diversiones: Una aproximación a la reconstrucción de la ciudad de Lima después del terremoto de 1746.” In Familia y vida cotidiana en América Latina, siglos XVIII–XX. Edited by Scarlett O’Phelan Godoy, Fanni Muñoz Cabrejo, Gabriel Ramón Joffré, and Mónica Ricketts Sánchez Moreno, 155–184. Lima: Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, 2003.
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After the earthquake’s impact, the authorities began plans to rebuild the city; this paper develops the strategies to obtain funds to fulfill that goal.
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Sánchez Rodríguez, Susy Mariela. “Del gran temblor a la monstruosa conspiración: Dinámica y repercusiones del miedo limeño en el terremoto de 1746.” In El miedo en el Perú, siglos XVI al XX. Edited by Claudia Rosas, 103–121. Lima: Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú Fondo Editorial, 2005.
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The earthquake not only caused physical destruction; it also resulted in alterations in the everyday behavior of the city inhabitants, psychologically affected by the tremendous event.
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Sifuentes de La Cruz, Luis. Las murallas de Lima en el proceso histórico del Perú: ensayo acerca de la historia y evolución urbana de la ciudad de Lima entre los siglos XVII y XIX. Lima: Concytec, 2004.
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An urban element of great importance was the construction of Lima’s wall at the end of the 17th century, which was demolished in the last third of the 19th century. The book describes its history and its relationship with the urban evolution.
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Walker, Charles. Shaky Colonialism: The 1746 Earthquake-Tsunami in Lima, Peru, and Its Long Aftermath. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2008.
DOI: 10.1215/9780822388920Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Deals with the study and the consequences of the earthquake in the medium and long term, given that, after the destruction, the colonial state had to rebuild the city and the symbolic elements of power in the capital.
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Social History

The city and its urban settings were far-reaching for the emergence of relationships between the different groups and the creation of new collective practices. The particular topic is always the presence of different ethnicities living in the urban space (Mazet 1985). In the last quarter of the 18th century, the illustrated culture of elites imposed new tastes and amusements, excluding the popular sectors and generating new conflicts (Estenssoro Fuchs 1996, Chuhue 2013). Part of these new sensitivities consisted of suppressing the loudest attractions for fun and entertainment of the lower classes—a mestizo population product of an urban increase and centuries of constant human exchange (Estenssoro Fuchs 1999). In addition, an insecurity sensation and violence reflected an increase in banditry, considered a real social problem due to road travelers’ attacks and criminals (Vivanco Lara 1983).

Chuhue, Richard. “Cafés, Ilustración y plebe: Una mirada a los espacios públicos y la participación popular en Lima borbónica.” Revista del Archivo General de la Nación 28 (2013): 71–109.
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The sociability in the colonial era was mainly in public spaces, in which various social sectors met, creating tensions and conflicts.
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Estenssoro Fuchs, Juan Carlos. “La plebe ilustrada: El pueblo en las fronteras de la razón.” In Entre la retórica y la insurgencia: Las ideas y los movimientos sociales en los Andes, siglo XVIII. Edited by Charles Walker, 33–66. Cusco, Peru: Centro de Estudios Regionales Andinos Bartolomé de Las Casas, 1996.
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Analyzes the limitations of the pictorial speech insofar as the creation of an “educated people” in various social sectors. From the view of the controversies that sparked the opening of a dance school directed by mulattos, it describes the operation and limits of the colonial society and politics at the end of the colonial period.
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Estenssoro Fuchs, Juan Carlos. “Los colores de la plebe: Razón y mestizaje en el Perú colonial.” In Los cuadros del mestizaje del Virrey Amat: La representación etnográfica en el Perú colonial. Edited by Natalia Majluf, 67–107. Lima: Museo de Arte, 1999.
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Historical study about the meaning of the caste paintings in Lima, showing its relationship with colonial thought and the structure of colonial society.
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Mazet, Claude. “Mourir a Lima au XVIIIe siecle: Las tendances de la mort.” Ibero-Amerikanisches Archiv 11.1 (1985): 83–126.
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One of the few studies of historical demography that leverages the records of mortality in hospitals, establishing the main tendencies and the internal composition of colonial mortality. The second part of the article appears in Ibero-Amerikanisches Archiv 11.2 (1985): 127–160.
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Vivanco Lara, Carmen. El bandolerismo en el Perú: Lima 1760–1819. Lima: Biblioteca Peruana de Historia, Economía y Sociedad, 1983.
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The bandits, who lived outside the law, offer the possibility of understanding the colonial world from the margins. Participants of these practices belonged to different ethnic groups, which is why they present the option of understanding the colonial universe from another perspective.
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Urban Elites

Many of the most profound changes generated by the Bourbons were concentrated on elites because of commercial, military, and religious reforms. For these reasons a historiography is devoted to that issue that deals with various aspects. One of the aims of reformers was to change the composition of members of the Audiencia de Lima, dominated by Peruvian Criollos (Burkholder 1972, Campbell 1972). Another set of reforms sought to limit their economic power through the opening of authorized ports to trade with Spain and put an end to the privileges of the Lima merchant’s guild (Latasa 2003, Mazzeo 1999). At the same time, the bureaucracy started to be professional, ending the selling of public charges, while the French outfit became the fashionable trend at that time (O’Phelan 2007, Sánchez Rodríguez 2006). Lima elites tried to keep their prestige by inheritance, marriage, and honor, strategies that enabled them to survive the changes applied by the Spanish Crown and even the troubled independence process (O’Phelan 2002, Rizo-Patrón Boylan 2000).

Burkholder, Mark A. “From Creole to Peninsular: The Transformation of the Audiencia of Lima.” Hispanic American Historical Review 52.3 (1972): 395–415.
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The Bourbons worried about displacing the criollos from important positions, including being hearers in the Audiencias. This paper shows how criollos were being systematically replaced by Peninsular throughout the 18th century, displacing the local elites from the mechanisms of colonial power.
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Campbell, Leon G. “A Colonial Establishment: Creole Domination of the Audiencia of Lima during the Late Eighteenth Century.” Hispanic American Historical Review 52.1 (1972): 1–25.
DOI: 10.2307/2512140Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Suggests that despite efforts to reduce the power of the criollos at the Audiencia, elites kept their primacy until the end of the 18th century.
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Latasa, Pilar. “Comerciantes, burócratas y aristócratas en la Lima borbónica: Revisión historiográfica.” In Reformismo y sociedad en la América borbónica: In memoriam Ronald Escobedo. Edited by Pilar Latasa, 227–252. Pamplona, Spain: Ediciones Universidad de Navarra, 2003.
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Reviews and comments in detail on the historiography devoted to Lima elites, accompanied by a conceptual and theoretical perspective that locates the contributions and limitations of all works cited.
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Mazzeo, Cristina Ana, ed. Los comerciantes limeños a fines del siglo XVIII: Capacidad y cohesión de una élite, 1750–1825. Lima: Pontificia Universidad Católica Del Perú, 1999.
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Compilation of works that, through the authorship of several researchers, deals with the history of several merchant families in Lima and their efforts to survive the changes introduced by the Bourbons. The methodology of the book consists in studying the families, parental ties, and business to try to establish some patterns.
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O’Phelan, Scarlett. “‘Ascender al estado eclesiástico’: La ordenación de indios en Lima del siglo XVIII.” In Incas e indios cristianos: Elites indígenas e identidades cristianas en los Andes coloniales. Edited by Jean-Jacques Decoster, 311–329. Cuzco, Peru: Centro de Estudios Regionales Andinos Bartolomé de Las Casas, 2002.
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During the 18th century, indigenous elites in the process of social ascent demanded to be admitted in the priestly orders, giving rise to much debate.
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O’Phelan, Scarlett. “La moda francesa y el terremoto de Lima en 1746.” Boletín Francés de Estudios Andinos 36.1 (2007): 19–38.
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French fashion was evident in the 18th century, and due to the catastrophe in 1746 and the huge amount of documentation that was generated, the author reconstructs the rise of French fashion promoted by smuggling and relaxation of the Spanish trade monopoly.
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Rizo-Patrón Boylan, Paul. Linaje, dote y poder: La nobleza de Lima de 1700 a 1850. Lima: Fondo Editorial Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, 2000.
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One of the studies that allows us to understand how elites were able to maintain their heritage and prestige over time, developed from the study of some noble families of the city.
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Sánchez Rodríguez, Susy. “‘Temidos o admirados’: Negocios franceses en la ciudad de lima a fines del siglo XVIII.” In Passeurs, mediadores culturales y agentes de la primera globalización en el mundo ibérico, siglos XVI–XIX. Edited by Scarlett O’Phelan and Carmen Salazar-Soler, 441–469. Lima: Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, 2006.
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Describes and analyzes the presence of French traders in Lima, especially from trade reforms that eased the Lima trade monopoly.
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Religion, Society, and Culture

Brotherhoods represent religious practices, addressed in these papers as places of social exchange. Music and the arts are also considered important in papers devoted to this issue (Estenssoro Fuchs 1989) Colonial religiosity expressed in the various cults was not only an expression of the individual piety; they lived collectively, and that is why it is a way to approach the society of that time (Lévano 2003, Egoavil 1986). The Afro-descendant population actively participated in the brotherhoods and colonial cults, although sometimes the religious authorities tried to suppress some of their practices (Arrelucea Barrantes 2012, Cussen 2010, Millar 2005). This way, the colonial culture enriched their expressions, including music and architecture—spaces in which one can find local influences (San Cristóbal Sebastián 2011).

Arrelucea Barrantes, Maribel. “Las cofradías de esclavos en Lima colonial: Espacios de negociación y tensión.” Retornos: Revista de Historia y Ciencias Sociales 12 (2012): 3–26.
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Brotherhoods were not only religious places; they were also scenarios in which the slaves developed adaptation mechanisms and resistance to the slave system, not always easy given the complexities of the colonial system.
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Cussen, Celia. “Santos apócrifos africanos frente a la Inquisición, Lima, 1816.” In Del Nuevo al Viejo Mundo: Mentalidades y representaciones desde América. Edited by Alejandra Araya, Azun Candina, and Celia Cussen, 119–135. Santiago de Chile: Fondo de Publicaciones Americanistas y Universidad de Chile, 2010
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Analyzes the presence and persecution of African-descent apocryphal saints, cults that developed spontaneously in the colonial society.
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Egoavil, Teresa. Las cofradías en Lima: Siglos XVII y XVIII. Lima: Seminario de Historia Rural Andina, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, 1986.
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Brotherhoods were religious associations disseminated as part of the colonial project of evangelization, including the participation of all social sectors. This paper develops their inventory and the documentation available for study.
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Estenssoro Fuchs, Juan Carlos. Música y sociedad colonials: Lima: 1680–1830. Lima: Colmillo Blanco, 1989.
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One of the first works dedicated to studying the role of music in the colonial society. It uses the piano scores available in the archives and also narrates the use and dissemination of music in colonial projects and its transformation after the Bourbon reforms and independence.
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Lévano, Diego. “De castas y libres: Testamentos de negras, mulatas y zambas en Lima Borbónica, 1740–1790.” In Etnicidad y discriminación racial en la historia del Perú. Edited by Scarlett O’Phelan, 127–146. Lima: Instituto Riva Agüero, Banco Mundial, 2003.
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Wills are a vital source for understanding the colonial social structure because they provide a life account of people’s goods and avatars that we otherwise would not have.
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Millar, René. La Inquisición de Lima: Signos de su decadencia, 1726–1750. Santiago de Chile: Centro de Investigaciones Diego Barrios Arana, 2005.
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Study devoted to a religious institution that acted from its headquarters in Lima and during the colonial time was devoted to controlling the ideology and religious practices of European- and African-origin populations.
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San Cristóbal Sebastián, Antonio. Arquitectura virreinal religiosa de Lima. Lima: Universidad Católica Sedes Sapientiae, 2011.
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Overview of religious architecture, city churches, and monasteries, accompanied by illustrations.
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Economic History

As the center of the colonial power, Lima exerted a preponderant role in the production and economic circulation circuits. In addition, the presence of haciendas and urban demand generated intense economic activity, which is the source of some relevant papers such as Haitin 1986. These works present a fairly complete picture of the city’s economic evolution, especially discussions about the crisis of the colonial system and its relationship with the city‘s economic conditions. They also discuss the artisan guilds, associations that met with various producers and manufacturers that provided goods to the city, which regulated access to labor, operating conditions, and product prices (Cosamalón Aguilar 2013, Quiroz 1995, Quiroz 2008). Finally, the small and medium-sized properties that surrounded and supplied Lima were affected by the reforms imposed by the Spanish Crown (Vegas de Cáceres 1996).

Cosamalón Aguilar, Jesús A. “Precios y sociedad colonial (1700–1810): Transformaciones en los mercados y ciclos económicos en Lima.” Historia Mexicana 63.1 (2013): 51–109.
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Deals with the study of prices in the city throughout the 18th century and seeks to prove that they remained low or stagnant during most of the century. In addition, the study analyzes how the Bourbon reforms contributed to reorganizing the Viceregal markets.
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Haitin, Marcel. “Urban Market and Agrarian Hinterland: Lima in the Late Colonial Period.” In The Economies of Mexico and Peru During The Late Colonial Period, 1760–1810. Edited by Nils Jacobsen and Hans Jürgen Puhle, 181–198. Berlin: Colloqium Verlag, 1986.
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Analyzes the social and economic impact of the Bourbon reforms in the context prior to the wars of independence. This period is critical to understanding the influence of this context on subsequent events, in which capital would play a central role.
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Quiroz, Francisco. Gremios, Razas y libertad de industria: Lima colonial. Lima: Facultad de Ciencias Sociales, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, 1995.
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The colonial unions clashed numerous times with the colonial power to limit the entry of new trade masters, especially in times of economic crisis. The book deals with the conflicts between the different guilds and ethnic rivalries between them.
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Quiroz, Francisco. Artesanos y manufactureros en Lima colonial. Lima: Banco Central de Reserva del Perú, Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, 2008.
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Studies the mechanisms of labor, market, and the form of guilds organization in Lima and the colonial industry. Very documented study that offers numerous important statistics.
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Vegas de Cáceres, Ileana. Economía rural y estructura social en las haciendas de Lima durante el siglo XVIII. Lima: Fondo Editorial Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, 1996.
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Studies the hacienda structure that surrounded colonial Lima from the documents produced by a long-running conflict between the colonial authorities and the tenants.
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Lima’s Independence Period

The city was the scene of the Independence Oath and the installation of the new Republican regime. The elites of colonial origin and the liberating army did not always live in harmony, because the independence movement did not originate in Lima (Anna 1979, Montoya 2002). However, once the city became the new capital, continued efforts developed to consolidate the new state, appealing to Republican symbols and a new political rhetoric (Ortemberg 2012). Mazzeo 2011, McEvoy 2002, and Morán Ramos 2007 focus on Lima’s economic and social conditions during the independence process. The crisis was expressed in the emergence of new political elites who displaced those of old colonial origin, as they gradually built a new government base. This process was full of tension in Lima and other regions due to different postures of local elites in favor or not of independence and the fear that it would unleash a social revolution. In addition, with the development of a public discussion sphere, the culture was profoundly altered, allowing the emergence of newspapers, associations, and new symbolic expressions and radically changing the political language (Ricketts 2001).

Anna, Timothy. The Fall of the Royal Government in Peru. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1979.
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Although it does include the city as a specific subject of analysis, the events, which are the subject of the book, puts Lima at center stage. The author develops the process of Peruvian independence and decline of the Spanish power, dedicating great space to the tensions and decisions affecting the city during that time.
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Mazzeo, Cristina Ana. “Las transformaciones del estado colonial y el poder de las élites limeñas en la construcción del Perú republicano.” In Las relaciones de poder en el Perú: estado, regiones e identidades locales siglos XVII–XIX. Edited by Cristina Mazzeo, 173–214. Lima: Fundación Carolina, Fondo Editorial Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, 2011.
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The Peruvian Independence Oath was taken in the Viceregal capital, but this did not mean that the Lima elites took homogeneously this separatism. The construction of their new role in the independent state is the subject of this essay.
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McEvoy, Carmen. “‘Seriamos excelentes vasallos, y nunca ciudadanos’: prensa republicana y cambio social en Lima, 1791–1822.” In The Political Power of the World. Press and Oratory in Nineteenh-Century Latin America. Edited by Ivan Jaksic, 35–63. London: Institute of Latin American Studies, 2002.
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Analysis of political speeches in the press of the Independence period, in order to understand the new political rhetoric that accompanied the creation of a new state.
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Montoya, Gustavo. La Independencia en el Perú y el fantasma de la revolución. Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, Instituto Francés de Estudios Andinos, 2002.
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Although this paper deals with the process of independence in general, it contains a proposal to understand the conservatism of the Lima elite and their fears at the prospect of a social revolution.
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Morán Ramos, Luis Daniel. Sociedad colonial y vida cotidiana en Lima a través de las páginas de El Investigador (del Perú), 1813–1814. Lima: Colección de la Prensa Peruana, 2007.
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This article was carried in a newspaper published during the term of press freedom enshrined in the Spanish Constitution of Cadiz and shows little-known aspects of daily Lima.
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Ortemberg, Pablo. Rituels du pouvoir à Lima: De la monarchie à la République (1735–1828). Paris: Éditions de l’École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales, 2012.
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Important book developed by parties and civic rituals at the transit of the colonial period to the early Republican period. It explores the continuities and transformations in the generation of a new rhetorical political independence.
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Ricketts, Mónica. “El teatro en Lima: Tribuna política y termómetro de civilización, 1820–1828.” In La Independencia en el Perú: de los borbones a Bolívar. Edited by Scarlett O’Phelan, 429–454. Lima: Instituto Riva Agüero, 2001.
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The theater was not only a fun urban environment; at the time of Independence, it was also an important forum of political debate and civilization. The study covers the final years of the colonial period until the consolidation of the Independence process.
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Republican Lima (1826–1879)

This section is dedicated to what is known as the Republican Period: the consolidation of independence that starts with Simon Bolivar’s departure from Peru until the outbreak of the War of the Pacific (1879–1883). During this period, several important transformations in the city are developed from an initial stage marked by inertia and decadence that followed the Independence War to the explosive economic growth generated by the guano exportation in the second half of the 19th century. Papers in this section show multiple aspects of the city’s history in a perspective of several decades in the 19th century. Águila 2003 and Panfichi and Portocarrero 1995 deal with long-lasting processes, from the social and cultural history. Tastes, urban infrastructure, the elite character, the social composition, and other aspects transformed the ancient colonial-origin city into a modern Republican capital. In addition, the emergence and spread of the press allowed researchers to investiage a series of aspects that were not detectable in official source documents.

Águila, Alicia del. Los velos y las pieles: Cuerpo, género y reordenamiento social en el Perú republicano (Lima, 1822–1872). Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, 2003.
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Cultural changes in the city during the 19th century are the subject of this book. It explores, clothing, daily life, entertainment, and so on and how these aspects related to social, economic, and political changes.
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Panfichi, Aldo, and Felipe Portocarrero, eds. Mundos interiores: Lima 1850–1950. Lima: Universidad del Pacífico, 1995.
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Edition of papers that has as its central axis a time between the 19th and 20th centuries, addressing various topics such as the urban city evolution, ethnicity, prison construction, the diverse neighborhoods, culture, politics, and social movements.
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Policy

Policy changes included a new social order that demanded a new behavior and coexistence rules from the city inhabitants, different from the colonial order, and also new political practices reflected in election campaigns (Monsalve Zanatti 2005b). This process was not always easy; on the contrary, during the 19th century there were frequent tensions and confrontations between various groups and the authorities (Monsalve Zanatti 2009, Giesecke 1978, Whipple 2013). The first Republican decades were marked by conflicts between caudillos, military personnel, and politicians who fought for control of the nascent state (Peralta Ruiz 1999). However, caudillistas’ struggles expanded the dissemination of citizenship through participation in the armies and electoral processes. An important conflict scenario was the economic policy that had to be applied in the state; the main debate was between protectionists and free traders, with the latter winning in the mid-19th century (Gootenberg 1982). From this moment on, the foundation of citizenship began to formalize, while the state stabilized, moving away from caudillistas attempts (Monsalve Zanatti 2005a).

Giesecke, Margarita. Masas urbanas y rebelión de la historia: Golpe de estado. Lima 1872. Lima: CEDHIP, 1978.
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Develops an urban protest, one of the most serious in the city’s history, which erupted in response to the attempt of a coup d’etat promoted by soldiers in order to prevent the consecration of Manuel Pardo as the first civilian president in the history of Peru.
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Gootenberg, Paul. “The Social Origins of Protectionism and Free Trade in Nineteenth-Century Lima.” Journal of Latin American Studies 14.2 (1982): 329–358.
DOI: 10.1017/S0022216X00022446Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
The introduction of liberal economic policies did not take place automatically during the Republican Period; on the contrary, it was accompanied by violent conflicts and debates due to implications that had occasionally affected or benefitted groups. The text describes and analyzes the groups behind the debates and conflicts that were involved.
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Monsalve Zanatti, Martín. “Civili(zed) Society and Public Sphere in Multiethnic Societies Over Citizenship in Lima, Peru (1850–1880).” PhD diss. Stony Brook University, 2005a.
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Thesis developed by the emergence of a civil sphere through partnerships that mobilized public opinion in Lima, reflected in the increased circulation of news media, of the participation of the popular groups, and public debate.
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Monsalve Zanatti, Martín. “Del sufragio a la sociedad civil: Pánicos morales, utopías laborales, y las campañas electorales limeñas de 1850 a 1858.” In Más allá de la dominación y la Resistencia: Estudios de historia peruana, siglos XVI–XX. Edited by Paulo Drinot and Leo Garófalo, 215–237. Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, 2005b.
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Nineteenth-century elections were subject to tensions and clashes, not only by political competition but also for the presence of different ethnic and social origin groups, which the candidates mobilized in order to defeat their opponents, which often ended in violence.
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Monsalve Zanatti, Martín. “Opinión pública, sociedad civil y la “cuestión indígena”: La Sociedad Amiga de los Indios (1867–1871).” A contra corriente 7.1 (2009): 211–245.
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Describes and analyzes one of the major controversies of the 19th century: the situation of indigenous peoples and their political participation. The text follows discussions of the Lima elite in this regard and the tensions generated by this issue in civil society.
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Peralta Ruiz, Víctor. “El mito del ciudadano armado: La “Semana Magna” y las elecciones de 1844 en Lima.” In Ciudadanía política y formación de las naciones: Perspectivas históricas de América Latina. Edited by Hilda Sábato, 231–252. México City: El Colegio de México Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1999.
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The candidates appealed to the presence of armed individuals as part of their electoral strategies; however, these practices ended up dispelling the participation of the middle and higher classes. This paper looks at a particular case in Lima, in which violence accompanied a choice.
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Whipple, Pablo. La gente decente de Lima: y su resistencia al orden republicano. Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, 2013.
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Analyzes the resistance of elites and middle-class Lima stockings to the new social and symbolic order imposed by the Republic. New laws and regulations were discussed and fought for in a society in which hierarchies of honor of colonial origin were not easily disassembled.
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Education

Educational projects were essential for the construction of the new Republican state, because the early independent authorities were concerned with implementing educational models consistent with ideological imperatives, although at the beginning they lacked of political stability and necessary funds (Espinoza Ruiz 2007, Espinoza Ruiz 2011). However, from the mid-19th century they resumed and strengthened while civil society was expanding and consolidating. One of the main efforts of the Peruvian state consisted of spreading basic primary education, mainly in the cities (Espinoza Ruiz 2005). Although efforts were not always successful, projects demonstrate the growing interest of elites of spreading the idea of nation and citizenship to the country inhabitants. Similarly, the leading schools dedicated to higher education also received the interest of political authorities, implementing major reforms in their classrooms (Loayza Pérez 2011).

Espinoza Ruiz, Grover Antonio. “Modelando a los ciudadanos del mañana: El proyecto educativo disciplinador de Lima entre 1850 y 1900.” In Más allá de la dominación y la Resistencia: Estudios de historia peruana, siglos XVI–XX. Edited by Paulo Drinot and Leo Garófalo, 238–259. Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, 2005.
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Educational projects were essential for the construction of a new Republican order, directed from the state in order to form the citizens according to the ideals of the elites.
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Espinoza Ruiz, Grover Antonio. “Libros escolares y educación primaria en la ciudad de Lima durante el siglo XIX.” Histórica 31.1 (2007): 135–170.
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Describes and analyzes the educational materials and projects developed in Lima to spread education in urban areas.
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Espinoza Ruiz, Grover Antonio. “Estado, comunidades locales y escuelas primarias en el departamento de Lima, Perú (1821–1905).” Cuadernos de Historia 34 (2011): 83–108.
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Shows the efforts of the Peruvian government in the creation of a national education system throughout the 19th century until the reforms addressed by José Pardo at the beginning of the 20th century.
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Loayza Pérez, Alex. “Reformas educativas y cultura política: Los colegios San Carlos y Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe, Lima 1840–1857.” In Trabajos de historia: Religión, cultura y política en el Perú, siglos XVII y XX. Edited by Dino León Fernández, Alex Loayza Pérez, and Marcos Garfias Dávila, 147–188. Lima: Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos Fondo Editorial, 2011.
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Study of the reforms applied to two of the most important schools in Lima, just at the time that the Peruvian state began to consolidate due to the gains provided by the guano export.
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Urban History

The changes applied by the Bourbons in Lima continued by interventions in Republican times, although only during the second half of the 19th century. Papers devoted to these issues not only describe the transformations but also demonstrate the close relationship between these changes and nation-building projects that gave them sense (Lossio 2002). The development of health policies to improve the life quality of inhabitants is one of the highlighted aspects of this period, at the same time that appeared the notion of public adornment and the control of the streets by authorities, repressing and preventing various popular activities developed in these scenarios (Majluf 1994). This process developed with a series of measures that have as an aim to transform the city into a modern city, with streets, avenues, and squares similar to the large cities of Europe (Ramón Joffre 1999, Ramón Joffre 2002).

Lossio, Jorge. Acequias y gallinazos: Salud ambiental en Lima del siglo XIX. Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, 2002.
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The main theme of this book is hygiene and health measures in the city throughout the 19th century, the fight against diseases and epidemics by the authorities, and the reactions of the population to such measures.
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Majluf, Natalia. Escultura y espacio public: Lima, 1850–1879. Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, 1994.
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Shows the close connection between urban changes and political projects during the second half of the 19th century, developed thanks to the money provided to the state by guano exportation.
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Ramón Joffre, Gabriel. La muralla y los callejones: Intervención urbana y proyecto político en Lima durante la segunda mitad del siglo XIX. Lima: SIDEA-PROMPERU, 1999.
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Examines different aspects of Lima urban history, expansion, structure, population, hygiene measures, imaginaries, and the relationship with the political projects of the era.
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Ramón Joffre, Gabriel. “The Script of Urban Surgery: Lima, 1850–1940.” In Planning Latin America’s Capital Cities, 1850–1950. Edited by Arturo Almandoz, 170–192. New York: Routledge, 2002.
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Studies the urban changes in the city from a long-term perspective, showing the continuity plans between the Guano Era and the earthquake that hit the city in 1940.
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Social History

Some papers have developed issues from the social perspective, emphasizing the hierarchies, gender, marginalization, and ethnicity (Cosamalón-Aguilar 2004, Cosamalón-Aguilar 2005). Among the outstanding issues, we have the study of crime and prisons and Republican state projects that allow us to observe the deepening of discriminatory and racist tendencies in the 19th century (Aguirre Romero 2004). On the other hand, the social structure was affected by a constant process of an ascendant and falling social mobility due to economic and cultural changes (Gálvez-Peña 2004, Molestina 1990, McEvoy 2004). In addition, the mestizaje process became more complex with the arrival of new European and Asian populations, while the positive image of women was built around the domestic space, confined at home, even though many of them worked for their livelihood (Cosamalón-Aguilar 2006). In this century, we can study the legal changes, the diffusion of political liberalism, and the rebuilding of the elites from different types of documents, such as the ecclesiastical trials or judicial disputes (Hünefeldt 2000).

Aguirre Romero, Carlos A. “‘Los irrecusables datos de la estadística del crimen’: La construcción social del delito en la Lima de mediados del siglo XIX.” In La experiencia burguesa en el Perú (1840–1940). Edited by Carmen Mc Evoy, 309–329. Madrid: Iberoamericana, 2004.
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Discusses how a new social tool—statistics—was used as a powerful argument to sustain the ineffectiveness of the penal law, demanding tougher sentences against offenders.
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Cosamalón-Aguilar, Jesús A. “El lado oscuro de la luna: Un ensayo acerca de los sectores populares limeños en el siglo XIX.” In La experiencia burguesa en el Perú (1840–1940). Edited by Carmen Mc Evoy, 151–192. Madrid: Iberoamericana, 2004.
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Studies the popular sectors of the city, composed of artisans, day laborers, vendors, servants, and so on, and its relationship with the policy and the emergence of the civil party
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Cosamalón-Aguilar, Jesús A. Mestizaje e interrelación social en Lima antes de la Guerra del Pacífico: Un acercamiento desde los expedientes matrimoniales. Lima: Instituto Riva Agüero, 2005.
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Shows the interbreeding mechanisms in the 19th century, miscegenation mechanisms that became more complex with the arrival of other European and Asian immigrants.
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Cosamalón-Aguilar, Jesús A. “Plebeyas limeñas: Una mirada al trabajo femenino (Lima, siglo XIX).” In Mujeres, familia y sociedad en la historia de América Latina, siglos XVIII–XXI. Edited by Scarlett O’Phelan and Margarita Zegarra, 263–286. Lima: Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, 2006.
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Shows the characteristics of women’s work, its internal structure, and the presence of different ethnic groups. It also tries to reach the everyday experience of women’s work and the perception of their own situation.
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Gálvez-Peña, Carlos. “‘Morir con decencia’: Religiosidad asistencialismo y movilidad social en Lima.” In La experiencia burguesa en el Perú (1840–1940). Edited by Carmen Mc Evoy, 437–452. Madrid: Iberoamericana, 2004.
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Reviews the pious practices of the Lima elite, which suffered important transformations during the 19th century by abandoning the old religious ways of colonial origin.
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Hünefeldt, Christine. Liberalism in the Bedroom: Quarreling Spouses in Nineteenth-Century Lima. Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2000.
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The liberal Republic transformed not only the public sphere but also changed the people’s daily life by offering new patterns of honor, regulations, and laws that sought to build a new social order. The book explores these changes through marital conflict.
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McEvoy, Carmen. “Familia, fortuna y poder: Rupturas y continuidades en un experimento burgués limeño.” In La experiencia burguesa en el Perú (1840–1940). Edited by Carmen McEvoy, 57–78. Madrid: Iberoamericana, 2004.
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During the Guano Era came far-reaching changes at the social level, constituting an elite with bourgeois customs, the subject of this paper.
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Molestina, María Soledad. Family and Inheritance: Property Transfer and Social Stratification in Lima, Perú 1820–1840. MA diss., University of Texas at Austin, 1990.
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Studies the way in which the elites of the 19th century, through marriages, dowries, and inheritances, maintained and transferred their status. The text uses parochial document sources and notaries.
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Artisans

The artisans were fundamental not only in the productive sector but also in the social sector, allowing social mobility and counted with the presence of different ethnic groups in the interior. In addition, the political movements of the time tried to incorporate artisans during the 19th century, because people with good economic and social status were located between artisans (Cosamalón-Aguilar 2012). Studies dedicated to analyze the internal structure of the craft trades, organized based on ethnic factors and class, are especially important. At the same time, under the influence of liberalism, political movements tried to incorporate artisans’ demands within their philosophies. Thus the working culture and workers began to be considered within the approaches of parties, contributing to the expansion of citizen participation (García-Bryce 2004).

Cosamalón-Aguilar, Jesús A. “Color de piel y estatus: El artesanado de Lima a mediados del siglo XIX.” In Trabajo, trabajadores y participación popular: Estudios sobre México, Guatemala, Colombia, Perú y Chile, siglos XVIII y XIX. Edited by Sonia Pérez Toledo, 85–111. Barcelona: Anthropos, 2012.
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Provides statistics about the number of artisans in mid-19th-century Lima, their ethnic characteristics and relationship with the status of individuals during the process of consolidation of liberalism.
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García-Bryce, Iñigo. Crafting the Republic: Lima’s Artisans and Nation Building in Perú 1821–1879. Albuquerque: University of Mexico Press, 2004.
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Deals with the study of artisans from various perspectives, their social structure, guilds composition, political discourses, and evolution over time.
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Slavery

Slavery continued in Peru until 1854, which is the reaso there are several works dedicated to its study in the decades prior to its abolition. Some works, such as Aguirre Romero 1993, have emphasized the long struggle of slaves to gain their freedom, appealing to practices such as journal slavery or supportive networks. Slavery especially focused on the central coast, because jobs were concentrated in this geographical area, especially in Lima (Hünefeldt 1994). Other researchers emphasize a gender perspective, telling us how slavery affected the social imaginaries (Velásquez 2000).

Aguirre Romero, Carlos A. Agentes de su propia libertad: Los esclavos de Lima y la desintegración de la esclavitud. Lima: Fondo Editorial de la Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, 1993.
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For a long time it was thought that slaves were passive agents in the abolition of slavery. This book shows that they had a much more active role and that strategies to achieve freedom were not limited to violent protests.
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Hünefeldt, Christine. Paying the Price of Freedom: Family and Labour among Lima’s Slaves, 1800–1854. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994.
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Brings together the main contributions of one of the most prominent specialists in the study of slavery between the end of the colonial period and its abolition in 1854. It deals with demographic, social, and cultural aspects.
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Velásquez, Marcel. “Las mujeres son menos negras: El caso de las mujeres esclavas en la Lima del siglo XIX.” In El hechizo de las imagines: Estatus social, género y etnicidad en la historia peruana. Edited by Narda Henríquez, 57–96. Lima: Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, 2000.
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Develops an analysis of the influence of slavery on the social imaginary, using as sources the abundant literature of that time.
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Domestic Servitude

The city has generated since its foundation a constant presence of domestic servants, which covered groups considered ethnically inferior. The work of a servant brings together aspects of exploitation, discrimination, and violence (Aguirre Romero 1996); however, it also generates spaces of coexistence and cultural exchange (Cosamalón Aguilar 2011). In some cases, the relationship between servants and masters was extremely violent, a product of customs that remained from the slave regime. Even prisons repeated such discriminatory practices, preparing women prisoners as future domestic servants (Aguirre Romero 2003). Nevertheless, the encounter between different groups resulted in a generation of an urban culture developed in the domestic space.

Aguirre Romero, Carlos. “Patrones, esclavos y sirvientes domésticos en Lima (1800–1860).” In Familia y vida privada en la historia de Iberoamérica. Edited by Pilar Gonzalbo and Cecilia Rabell, 401–422. México City: El Colegio de México, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 1996.
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Domestic servitude was employed until the mid-19th century mainly from Negro and indigenous or mestizo origins. The work compares the harsh treatment by masters and how racism worsened followed by slavery abolition.
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Aguirre Romero, Carlos. “Mujeres delincuentes, prácticas penales y servidumbre doméstica en Lima (1862–1930).” In Familia y vida cotidiana en América Latina, siglos XVIII-XIX. Edited by Scarlett O’Phelan, Fanni Muñoz, Gabriel Ramón, and Mónica Ricketts, 203–226. Lima: Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, 2003.
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The criminal justice system in the 19th century established women imprisoned for various crimes in different work activities, which reflected the present ethnic and gender prejudices.
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Cosamalón Aguilar, Jesús A. “Entre la discriminación y la integración: La servidumbre doméstica y la construcción del mestizaje en Lima en el siglo XIX.” In “Nosotros también somos peruanos”: La marginación en el Perú, siglos XVI a XXI. Edited by Claudia Rosas, 141–168. Lima: Estudios Generales Letras, Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, 2011.
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Domestic servitude was an activity covered mainly by Negro, Indians, Chinese, and mestizo groups throughout the 19th century. The paper attempts to explore not only the dimension of the activity exploitation but the integration mechanisms that developed in its interior.
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Immigration

Foreign immigration was one of the aspirations of the ruling elites throughout the 19th century and part of the 20th century. It was thought that the arrival of new groups, especially of European origin, would greatly facilitate the work of social regeneration, which was carried out in parallel with education and other reforms (Bonfiglio 2001). In Peru, the most important groups were Italians and Asians (Bonfiglio 1993, Rodríguez Pastor 2001. The latter was represented by Chinese workers, the largest immigrant population, between the mid-19th century until the War of the Pacific. The Chinese, known as “coolies,” were hired as a low-cost labor for the sugar and cotton plantations, domestic service, and other tasks of low social esteem. After completing their contracts, the vast majority of them ended up settling definitively in the territory (Casalino Sen 2005).

Bonfiglio, Giovanni. Los italianos en la sociedad peruana: Una visión histórica. Lima: Saywa, 1993.
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Italian immigration is one of the transcendental aspects of Peruvian history and especially the city, given its urban presence. The book deals with the origins of immigration, its main characteristics, and its development throughout the 19th and 20th centuries.
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Bonfiglio, Giovanni. La presencia europea en el Perú. Lima: Fondo Editorial del Congreso del Perú, 2001.
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Studies the diverse group of immigrants in Peru and especially in Lima, due to the constant presence of foreigners in the city since 19th century.
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Casalino Sen, Carlota. “De cómo los ‘chinos’ se transformaron y nos transformaron en peruanos. La experiencia de los inmigrantes y su inserción en la sociedad peruana, 1849–1930.” Investigaciones Sociales 9.15 (2005): 109–132.
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Explores the mechanisms in which Chinese immigrants managed to escape from a labor-inferiority situation and insert themselves into national life, particularly through urban incorporation.
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Rodríguez Pastor, Humberto. Hijos del celeste imperio en el Perú (1850–1900): Migración, agricultura, mentalidad y explotación. Lima: Sur-Casa de Estudios del Socialismo, 2001.
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The presence of Chinese immigrants in Peru took place beginning in the mid-19th century, hired primarily for agricultural work; however, they quickly settled in the cities. This book deals with the study of immigrants across the country, but it also contains valuable information about their presence in the city.
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Culture

This section discusses papers dedicated to the various aspects of the urban culture and that have the city as a main stage. Topics such as food, fun, sociability, visual culture, and everyday life are developed. These works are based on first-hand materials, such as travelers’ testimonials, newspapers, and brochures of the era, graphic material consisting of engravings and photographs, and other documents (Holguín Callo 2003). Majluf 2008 attempts to show Lima’s characteristics through pictorial material, like the watercolors of the famous Afro-Peruvian painter Francisco “Pancho” Fierro. Other works such as Olivas Weston 1999 have tried to reconstruct the city’s daily life and domestic spaces. Finally, public spaces, such as those dedicated to drink consumption and the theatre, offer the possibility to know more complexly how social relations articulated (Holguín Callo 2013, Rojas 2005, Ricketts 1997).

Holguín Callo, Oswaldo. “Literatura y cultura material: El mobiliario doméstico en Lima (1840–1870).” In Familia y vida cotidiana en América Latina, siglos XVIII-XIX. Edited by Scarlett O’Phelan, Fanni Muñoz, Gabriel Ramón, and Mónica Ricketts, 93–115. Lima: Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, 2003.
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Recreates the daily life of the families of the time based on literature, highlighting the emergence of a society in a transformation process toward tastes of bourgeois origin.
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Holguín Callo, Oswaldo. Cafés y fondas en Lima ilustrada y romántica. Lima: Universidad San Martín de Porres, 2013.
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Presents the main venues of sociability and fun in the 19th century, accompanied by illustrations and stories of the time.
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Majluf, Natalia. La Lima criolla de Pancho Fierro. Madrid: Ediciones El Viso, 2008.
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The Peruvian painter Francisco “Pancho” Fierro was an artist who portrayed the diversity of characters from the Republican Lima in many watercolors that are found in several Peruvian museums and around the world. He is considered an indispensable source for the capital city’s history during the 19th century.
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Olivas Weston, Rosario. La cocina cotidiana y festiva de los limeños en el siglo XIX. Lima: Universidad de San Martín de Porres, 1999.
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Shows abundant information about Lima culinary traditions, from travelers’ testimony, cookbooks, and graphic information. It approaches the issue from two perspectives: the daily diet and food for special occasions, such as parties.
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Ricketts, Mónica. “Un nuevo teatro para una sociedad mejor. El Teatro en Lima y el conflicto de la Confederación Perú-boliviana 1830–1840.” In El siglo XIX: Bolivia y América Latina. Edited by Rossana Barragán, 251–264. La Paz, Bolivia: Instituto Francés de Estudios Andinos, 1997.
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The Peru–Bolivian Confederation was a union land project of two republics that initiated a series of political debates and armed conflicts. This paper analyzes its presence in theatre plays of that time.
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Rojas, Rolando. Tiempos de carnival: El ascenso de lo popular a la cultura nacional (Lima, 1822–1923). Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, Instituto Francés de Estudios Andinos, 2005.
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The validity of popular customs was questioned almost throughout the 19th century; an example was the discussion about the carnival. However, at the beginning of the 20th century, Lima began the incorporation of these customs, a modification more according to the tastes of the elites.
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Associations

The 19th century witnessed the development of a civil society in the transformation of the public sphere developed by the liberal Republican state. Such changes took place gradually and concentrated from the second half of the 19th century, replacing the old way of sociability, religion, and corporation. Forment 2012, Chocano 2010, and Valdivia 2010 discuss formal civil associations, professional or guild, which show how an essential practice spread to create public opinion. Among them, we find charitable societies, firefighters, and Masonic Lodges.

Chocano, Magdalena. “Lima masónica: Las logias simbólicas y su progreso en el medio urbano a fines del siglo XIX.” Revista de Indias 70.249 (2010): 409–444.
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Studies lodges’ consolidation in the city throughout the 19th century, fuelled by economic growth and the arrival of numerous immigrants, members of foreign lodges.
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Forment, Carlos. La formación de la sociedad civil y la democracia en el Perú. Lima: Fondo Editorial Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, 2012.
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Although it does not specifically address Lima as a main subject, much of the information and examples in this book are developed in the capital city. The book contains information about the type of associations, their characteristics, and their relationship within the public sphere.
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Valdivia, María Inés. El liberalismo social en el Perú: Masones, bomberos, librepensadores y anarquistas durante el siglo XIX. Lima: Asamblea Nacional de Rectores, 2010.
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Studies the liberalism development and associations accompanying its expansion in the city’s daily life, from news sources and institutions themselves.
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Lima During the War of the Pacific (1879–1883)

The occupation of Lima by the troops of the Chilean army was one of the final chapters of the Pacific War, produced after the defeat of the navy and army in the southern Peruvian border (Flores Rosales 2004, Guerra Martinière 1991–1996). Chilean authorities had ruled the capital since January 1881, until the governments of the two countries signed the Treaty of Ancon in October 1883, ending the conflict. As discussed in recent research (Godoy Orellana 2011), the occupation not only altered the trade and daily life of its inhabitants; it also produced various forms of social exchanges between Chilean soldiers and Peruvian civilians.

Flores Rosales, Enrique. “Génesis de la Campaña de Lima durante la Guerra del Pacífico (1879–1883).” Boletín del Instituto Riva-Agüero 31 (2004): 195–222.
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Describes and analyzes the final campaign of the war between Peru, Bolivia, and Chile, which concluded after the capital occupation by Chilean troops.
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Godoy Orellana, Milton. “‘Ha traído hasta nosotros desde territorio enemigo, el alud de la guerra’: Confiscación de maquinarias y apropiación de bienes culturales durante la ocupación de Lima, 1881–1883.” Historia 44.2 (2011): 287–327.
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Details appropriation policies of Limean cultural property by the Chilean military, through actions that are considered controversial until today. Through a rich documentation, the author not only sets a complete inventory but also shows the way in which Chilean authorities organized these actions.
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Guerra Martinière, Margarita. La ocupación de Lima (1881–1883). 2 vols. Lima: Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, 1991–1996.
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One of the main episodes of the War of the Pacific (1879–1883) between Peru, Bolivia, and Chile was the occupation of Lima, where the final phase of the conflict began. The book addresses the political, social, and economic aspects of the Chilean occupation.
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Lima in the 20th Century (1900–1950)

Studies dedicated to Lima have multiplied in contemporary times; this is why this section lists only papers dedicated to urban development, work and urban expansion, immigration, society, and popular culture within the mid-20th-century limit. There are numerous papers for more recent issues, such as economic conditions, violence, and so on, but they exceed the limits of this bibliographic essay. During this period, Lima ceased to be a small town and turned into a metropolis, which accelerated its growth, by far becoming the first city in the country, which is why it hosts a large number of investigations from very different perspectives. The papers discussed in this section have as a common element texts compilations with very diverse subjects or studies that analyze several decades of the city’s history (Stein 1987). Most of these papers, such as Aguirre and Panfichi 2013 and Elmore 1993, develop long-term visions designed to provide an overview of changes from social groups, traditions, and ideological changes of elites and their dissemination. From these studies, we can understand the relationship between new cultural customs and social groups who practiced sports, political endeavors, or artistic expressions (Panfichi 2008). In addition, the city was the scene of new social tensions due to economic and social development (Güich and Susti G. 2007). Middle-class citizens, workers, and professionals became the new characters, confronting the old elites who would yield little by little their former key role to these new actors (Parker 1998).

Aguirre, Carlos, and Aldo Panfichi, eds. Lima, siglo XX: Cultura, socialización y cambio. Lima: Fondo Editorial Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, 2013.
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Addresses various issues relevant to the city’s history during the 20th century. Entertainment, music, culture, urban spaces, characters, imagery, and other aspects are developed in chapters devoted to each subject.
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Elmore, Peter. Los muros invisibles: Lima y la modernidad en la novela del siglo XX. Lima: Mosca Azul, 1993.
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Deals with the city representation and the way writers portrayed urban changes in novels. Includes writers such as José Gálvez, Martín Adán, José María Arguedas, Mario Vargas Llosa, and others. From this analysis, the author shows the way modernity is conceived and the characteristics of urban modernization throughout the 20th century.
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Güich, José, and Alejandro Susti G. Ciudades ocultas: Lima en el cuento peruano moderno. Lima: Universidad de Lima Fondo Editorial, 2007.
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Through the stories dedicated to Lima, especially from the second half of the 20th century, the authors state the most important urban transformations, such as the effects of migration, social changes, racism, economic crisis, and urban expansion.
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Panfichi, Aldo, ed. Ese gol existe: Una mirada al Perú a través del fútbol. Lima: Fondo Editorial Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, 2008.
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Although the book contains articles dealing generally with a football topic not in Lima, several of the articles develop topics with Lima as the main scenario, especially those that speak about the origins of their practices in the city, the emergence of the most popular clubs, and their fans.
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Parker, D. S. The Idea of the Middle Class: White Collar Workers and Peruvian Society, 1900–1950. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1998.
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Develops the status of the people in an urban environment constructed at the beginning of the 20th century, especially in the case of Lima. Economic growth generated by the export boom allowed the emergence of middle classes and new economic activities, modernizing society, but at the same time generating tensions due to these transformations.
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Stein, Steve, ed. Lima obrera, 1900–1930. 2 vols. Lima: El Virrey, 1987.
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Collection of articles that address various topics, such as the presence of Afro-Peruvian, genre, workers, and football. It is one of the readings that offers a varied city’s history panorama, trying to tell the story not only using written sources but also making reference with the voices of their own actors.
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The Modern City (1895–1930)

After the War of the Pacific (1879–1883) and the national reconstruction (1883–1895) during the government of Nicolás de Piérola, Lima began a period marked by national economic success based on the reintegration into the world’s economy, aspects reflected in the major transformations carried out in the city. The economic and political stability was the feature of the governments of the so-called Aristocratic Republic (1899–1919), continued by the authoritarian government of Augusto B. Leguía (1919–1930). The city was transformed through large urban investment, especially during the Centenary of Peruvian Independence. As a result of this modernization process, new social actors appeared as workers, professionals, employees, and so on (Drinot 2004, Walker 1986), although this did not mean the absence of social tensions evident in urban protests led by workers, artisans, and workers in general (Ruiz Zevallos 2001, Torrejón Muñoz 2010).

Águila, Alicia del. Callejones y mansions: Espacios de opinión pública y redes sociales y políticas en la Lima del 900. Lima: Fondo Editorial Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, 1997.
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Urban space is fundamental to understanding the development of sociability and culture. This paper relates Lima characteristics in urban terms with its inhabitants’ customs, daily life, and political practices.
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Bonfiglio, Giovanni. Historia de la electricidad en Lima: Noventa años de modernidad. Lima: Museo de la Electricidad, 1997.
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Develops the emergence and spread of electricity in the city during the 20th century.
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Cueto, Marcos. “La ciudad y las ratas: La peste bubónica en Lima y en la costa peruana a comienzos del siglo veinte.” Histórica 15.1 (1991): 1–26.
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Studies the epidemic spread in the city and the authority’s reaction. In addition, it shows the inhabitants’ reaction before the tough sanitary measures imposed by the government.
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Drinot, Paulo. “Madness, Neurasthenia, and ‘Modernity’: Medico-Legal and Popular Interpretations of Suicide in Early Twentieth-Century Lima.” Latin American Research Review 39.2 (2004): 89–113.
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Studies medical interpretations of the suicide problem that escalated at the beginning of the 20th century and that originated various debates in society.
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Ruiz Zevallos, Augusto. La multitud, las subsistencias y el trabajo. Lima, 1890–1920. Lima: Fondo Editorial de la Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, 2001.
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At the beginning of the 20th century the country and especially Lima lived out a phase of economic expansion, which was not absent from conflicts generated by changing economic conditions. This book explores the conflicts generated due to the rise in food prices.
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Torrejón Muñoz, Luis Alberto. Rebeldes republicanos: La turba urbana de 1912. Lima: Red para el Desarrollo de las Ciencias Sociales en el Perú, 2010.
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Analyzes an urban uprising due to support the election of Guillermo Billinghurst, in which the working masses of the city participated, especially artisans.
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Walker, Charles F. “Lima de Mariátegui: Los intelectuales y la Capital durante el oncenio.” Socialismo y Participación 35 (1986): 71–88.
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Lima during the residence of José Carlos Mariátegui, the famous Peruvian Marxist intellectual, is the subject of this paper. During Mariátegui life, the city underwent major transformations.
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Culture

The city, due to the presence of the elite, popular groups and immigrants and the arrival of new technologies, was the stage for the emergence of a modern mass culture (Ortega 1986). Since the end of the 19th century and during the first decades of the 20th century, new practices of sociability and entertainment developed, like cinema, radio, and other new forms of communication that radically transformed the life of the capital inhabitants (Bustamante 2012). One of the fields developed corresponds to popular music, traditionally called “Criolla,” due to its urbano-mestizos origins (Borras 2012). The dissemination of these cultural expressions became massive with the first radio broadcasts in 1925, gradually becoming a taste of national scope, joining later the Afro-descendant music (Chocano Paredes 2012, Feldman 2009, Llorens Amico,1983). Another aspect studied corresponds to the extension of the European cultural patterns, reflected in hygiene, discipline, and new amusement, which served as differentiating practices throughout the 20th century (Mannarelli 1999, Muñoz Cabrejos 2001).

Borras, Gérard. Lima, el vals y la canción criolla (1900–1936): Lima: Instituto Francés de Estudios Andinos, 2012.
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This book is about the music of the city, starting from the study of the songbooks published at the beginning of the 20th century, offering an analytical perspective of the society that allows the reader to include experiences from popular sectors.
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Bustamante, Emilio. La radio en el Perú. Lima: Universidad de Lima. Fondo Editorial, 2012.
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Describes the origins of broadcasting in Lima and Peru after the foundation of the OAX station in 1925.
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Chocano Paredes, Rodrigo Antonio. ¿Habrá jarana en el cielo?: Tradición y cambio en la marinera limeña. Lima: Ministerio de Cultura, 2012.
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Dedicated to one of Lima’s most identified traditional dances. Makes a recount of its history and evolution over time.
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Feldman, Heidi Carolyn. Ritmos negros del Perú: Reconstruyendo la herencia musical africana. Lima: Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, 2009.
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The original Afro music has an important presence in the Lima culture; this book explores how they rebuilt their heritage throughout the 20th century and the way intellectuals, artists, and groups took part in the creation of an Afro-Peruvian heritage.
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Llorens Amico, José Antonio. La música popular de Lima: Criollos y andinos. Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, 1983.
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A pioneer and classic study about the emergence of the musical genres in Lima, product of confluences of diverse origins.
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Mannarelli, María Emma. Limpias y modernas: Género, higiene y cultura en la Lima del Novecientos. Lima: Ediciones Flora Tristán, 1999.
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Medical and modern elite speeches helped redefine gender relations, giving women a role based on a secular scientific discourse, not of religious origin.
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Muñoz Cabrejos, Fanni. Diversiones públicas en Lima, 1890–1920: La experiencia de la modernidad. Lima: Fondo Editorial de la Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, 2001.
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Deals with the transformation of diversion and other forms of leisure between the city’s Hispanic tradition and new modern customs. It offers not only an account of the major changes but also political debates around new practices and how these reflect the existence of elites with new cultural horizons.
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Ortega, Julio. Cultura y modernización en la Lima del 900. Lima: CEDEP, 1986.
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One of the first studies dedicated to understanding the processes of change at the beginning of the 20th century, especially from the field of culture.
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Architecture and Urbanism

The 20th century brought very important urban changes. The arrival of new intellectual, artistic, and ideological currents left their mark on the urban space in houses, public buildings, squares, and new entertainment places (Mejía Ticona 2007). Through these governments and constructions developed in the Lima, the city acquired a face similar to what it looks like today. Large avenues and new spaces were built. The environment was urbanized; new public and private buildings were built. However, many of these transformations did not disappear; its colonial and Republican origins, both in architecture and in the forms of everyday life, also remain (Martuccelli 2000).

Martuccelli, Elio. Arquitectura para una ciudad fragmentada: Ideas, proyectos y edificios en la Lima del siglo XX. Lima: Universidad Ricardo Palma, 2000.
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A very complete panorama of the various architectural styles in the city illustrated and analyzed from a style perspective.
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Mejía Ticona, Víctor Ramiro. Ilusiones a oscuras: Cines en Lima. Carpas, grandes salas y multicines, 1897–2007. Lima: Imprenta Forma e Imagen, 2007.
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Focuses on Lima’s cinema architecture throughout the 20th century; contains elaborated graphics and typological information about Lima cinemas that today have disappeared.
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Migration and Urban Sprawl

Migration to Lima ceased to be solely for foreigners. Internal migration to the city of Lima is one of the most important events in the history of the capital during the 20th century (Matos Mar 1977, Millones 1978, Collier 1978). The causes of this process are diverse; we can mention the explosive population growth, drought, and agrarian crisis reflected in the decrease of the ratio between population and arable land (Driant 1991, Golte and Adams 1987). In addition, the modernization of the city and the demand for labor as well as the construction of communication routes with the most remote regions of the capital contributed to an intense mobilization of people to the city of Lima (Sánchez-León and Calderón Cockburn 1980, Seppänen 2003, Verdera 1986, Vega-Centeno 2004).

Collier, David. Barriada y élites: De Odría a Velasco. Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, 1978.
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Analyzes the relationship between the neighborhoods and governments that passed through various stages of bonds with the population. Acceptance of the repression of the centralized planning and land invasions.
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Driant, Jean Claude. Las barriadas de Lima: Historia e interpretación. Lima: IFEA, 1991.
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Makes a recount of the history of the major Lima slums and tries to establish its historical meaning in the midst of the overall process of growth and development of the city.
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Golte, Jürgen, and Norma Adams. Los caballos de Troya de los invasores: Estrategias campesinas en la conquista de Lima. Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, 1987.
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Presents immigrants’ cultural strategies to settle in the city, founding populations called “young towns” and created to play a part in their origin traditions.
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Matos Mar, José. Las barriadas de Lima, 1957. Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, 1977.
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One of the first studies devoted to barrios founded by national immigrants, then called “slums,” that became the focus of attention for specialists and authorities due to the social origin of their inhabitants and the resulting needs.
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Millones, Luis. Tugurio: La cultura de los marginados. Lima: Instituto Nacional de Cultura, 1978.
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Overcrowding was one of the most important effects of urban migration, produced by the housing shortage and the lack of urban planning. This paper studies the influence of this process in the construction of a new urban culture.
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Sánchez-León, Abelardo, and Julio Calderón Cockburn. El laberinto de la ciudad: Políticas urbanas del Estado 1950–1979. Lima: Desco, 1980.
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Describes and analyzes urban main provisions, its meaning and its effects. It includes a presentation of the main projects of urbanization and its development.
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Seppänen, Maaria. “Historia local y patrimonio mundial: Ciudad letrada, arcadia colonial y el centro histórico de Lima.” Anuario Americanista Europeo 1 (2003): 107–120.
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Reviews the position of the authorities and the elite against Lima as the center of cultural heritage, starting from the criticism about the colonial imaginary of the city.
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Vega-Centeno, Pablo. “De la barriada a la metropolización: Lima y la teoría urbana en la escena contemporánea.” In Perú Hoy: Las ciudades en el Perú. Edited by Carlos Eduardo, 45–70. Lima: Desco, 2004.
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Summarizes and analyzes discussions about the process of urban development in recent decades, integrating the neighborhoods within the analysis.
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Verdera, Francisco. La migración a Lima entre 1972 y 1981: Anotaciones desde una perspectiva económica. Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, 1986.
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Shows the immigration impact on the city and its influence on the economy.
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Population

Lima continued to receive a significant immigrant population, especially from Asian origin. Its presence contributed to enriching the customs of the inhabitants, but it was not absent from conflict and ethnic tensions (Bracamonte 2001). In the 20th century, the largest group of foreigners corresponded, without a doubt, to the Japanese (Fukumoto 1997, Morimoto 1999). Initially hired as agricultural workers, the working conditions created a strike by workers, and authorities were forced to cancel the project. The process continued through free immigration, leading several thousands of Japanese to the Peruvian territory (Takenaka 2004). The presence of other immigrant groups to the city is also known during the 20th century, especially the Gypsy (Pardo-Figueroa Thays 2013).

Bracamonte, Jorge. “La modernidad de los subalternos: Los inmigrantes chinos en la ciudad de Lima, 1895–1930.” In Estudios culturales: Discursos, poderes, pulsiones. Edited by Santiago López Maguiña, Gonzalo Portocarrero, Rocío Silva Santisteban, and Víctor Vich, 167–187. Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, Universidad del Pacífico, 2001.
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Analyzes the Chinese presence after the workers traffic under contract. The Chinese were not considered a decent population who could contribute to the country’s development; they were accused of having bad habits and vices.
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Fukumoto, Mary. Hacia un nuevo sol: Japoneses y sus descendientes en el Perú. Historia, cultura, identidad. Lima: Asociación Peruano Japonesa del Perú, 1997.
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In addition to providing a historical overview of immigration, this paper includes reconstructions of daily life and the adaptation mechanisms of the families in the new territory.
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Morimoto, Amelia. Los japoneses y sus descendientes en el Perú. Lima: Fondo Editorial del Congreso del Perú, 1999.
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Japanese Immigration began in 1899 and continued with great force until the end of the decade of 1920. The presence of the Japanese was given at various points in the national territory, but good parts of them were concentrated in Lima. This paper tells the story of immigrant trafficking and its evolution.
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Pardo-Figueroa Thays, Carlos. Gitanos en Lima: Historia, cultura e imágenes de los rom, los ludar y los calé peruanos. Lima: Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, Instituto Riva-Agüero, 2013.
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The Gypsy presence in Lima, although not numerous, is notorious and has generated a series of imaginaries that the book addresses from the own Gypsy vision, its history, everyday life, and culture.
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Takenaka, Ayumi. “The Japanese in Peru: History of Immigration, Settlement, and Racialization.” Latin American Perspectives 31.3 (2004): 77–98.
DOI: 10.1177/0094582X04264745Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Shows how Japanese immigration was perceived as a racial problem throughout the 20th century.
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