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The Reformation (Renaissance and Reformation)

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  1. Introduction
  2. The Reformation of the 16th century, sometimes known as “Protestant Reformation” in order to distinguish it from a Catholic “Reformation,” was a pan-European movement that called for reform of the Roman Catholic Church as well as the entirety of Christian society. For many of the reformers, however, more was at issue than mere reform; they called for a fundamental re-conceptualization of theology. The Reformation failed in influencing the Catholic Church. Martin Luther, the early leader of the movement, was excommunicated by the Catholic Church, but defiantly pursued his understanding of the Christian faith. As a result of the Reformation new Protestant churches with distinct theological profiles emerged. Several features have characterized scholarship on the Reformation. For one, the historiography of the Reformation has traditionally tended to followed confessional lines, with Protestant scholars painting a negative picture of the state of the Catholic Church on the eve of the Reformation, and an exuberant picture of the achievements of the reformers. Catholic scholars saw things the other way around. More recently a more judicious treatment, less confessionally oriented, of the religious turbulence of the 16th century has emerged. Also, historians of the Reformation have employed different conceptual frames of reference, particularly regarding the question of the primary factor (religion, politics, personal ambition, economics) of the turbulence. This bibliography considers the broad outlines of the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century. Other entries consider the Reformation in England, France, and the German lands; the Catholic Reformation; the Radical Sects; and key Reformation individuals.
  3. General Overviews
  4. The Reformation is one of the most studied topics in European history. Its detractors and supporters both have long maintained its preeminence, for better or worse, among European religious and intellectual movements, underlying such findings by their scholarly output. The last thirty years especially have seen a considerable interest in bringing the totality of the Reformation experience to the public, with Cameron 1991, Collinson 2004, and especially Cunningham and Grell 2000 representative of such notable compilations. Chadwick 2001 concentrates on the Reformation’s beginnings, showing how new intellectual and theological trends began to affect a society ready for change. MacCulloch 2004 concentrates more on the Reformation experience of the British Isles, while Bossy 1985 subsumes the Reformation as a chapter in the long process of the dissolution of European religious homogeneity. Levi 2002 agrees to an extent, seeing the Reformation in terms of the long duré that connects it to the Renaissance and Humanism. MacCulloch 2004, on the other hand, stresses the Reformation’s uniqueness not only as a standalone movement, but as a precursor to many aspects of modernity. While Rublack 2005 stresses the primacy of political and social contexts, Hillerbrand 2007 emphasizes the centrality of religion in the Reformation’s development.
  5. Bossy, John. Christianity in the West, 1400–1700. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985.
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  7. A well-written account that sees Reformation as a bookend event in the broader context of the dissolution of medieval Christendom. The account is sympathetic to traditional interpretations of Christianity—less so to the “corrected” 16th-century version.
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  9. Cameron, Euan. The European Reformation. Oxford: Clarendon, 1991.
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  11. A text encyclopedic in approach, with helpful summaries of the current scholarly emphases and consensus. Cameron’s research spans the entire geographical breadth of Europe, from Spain and Scandinavia to its eastern borderlands, and concentrates on the intellectual background of the movement, its theological and political undertones, as well as on the myriad of personalities involved.
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  13. Chadwick, Owen. The Early Reformation on the Continent. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.
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  15. Surveys the Protestant Reformation through the 1560s, studying the shifts in values within the broad population, both urban and rural, as new ideas take hold about the Bible, marriage and women’s roles, and the order of worship.
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  17. Collinson, Patrick. The Reformation: A History. New York: Modern Library, 2004.
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  19. Brief synthesis with a large reach, considering Erasmian pre-reform, the Lutheran revolt, other reform movements and Calvinism in particular, the Reformation in the British Isles, and the relation of the Reformation to politics and the arts.
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  21. Cunningham, Andrew, and Ole Peter Grell. The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse: Religion, War, Famine, and Death in Reformation Europe. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
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  23. Fascinating overview of the Reformation era structured horse by horse—white, red, black, and pale—corresponding to the four themes of religious change, the consequences of war, food and famine, and death and dying, in an expanding Europe haunted by apocalyptic fear.
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  25. Hillerbrand, Hans J. The Division of Christendom: Christianity in the Sixteenth Century. Louisville, KY: Westminster, 2007.
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  27. A comprehensive narrative that focuses on the understanding of the dynamics of the Reformation as an interplay of religion and politics with a healthy dose of serendipity. The book, however, takes issue with those who claim religion was not of primary importance to the spirit of the times.
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  29. Levi, Anthony. Renaissance and Reformation: The Intellectual Genesis. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2002.
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  31. Substantial overview of the 14th to 16th century focusing on the relation between religion and culture and highlighting the continuities between scholasticism, humanism, and Reformation thought.
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  33. MacCulloch, Diarmaid. The Reformation. New York: Viking, 2004.
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  35. Magisterial synthesis in just under eight hundred pages, claiming world historical uniqueness for the Reformations, both Protestant and Catholic, as precursor to modernization and Enlightenment. Covers the Protestant rupture to 1570 in the first part; a “divided Europe” (1570–1648) fragmented into confessional units in the second; and social and cultural themes arcing across the whole period in the third.
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  37. Rublack, Ulinka. Reformation Europe. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
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  39. A reappraisal of the Reformation that focuses on general European history and there again on social history, though with proper attention to religious happenings. The author accentuates the personality of the reformers themselves, as well as their social strategies and the politics of the place, as opposed to confessional issues, in tracing the early success of the Reformation.
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  41. Collections
  42. One approach to studying the many aspects and shades of the Reformation is through collections of analytical and expository essays. Here, Hsia 2004 and Pettegree 2002 stand as major compilations of works adumbrating the whole spectrum of Reformation research from the movement’s preconditions to its spread, receptions, and importance. Scribner, et al. 1994 is similar, except for the additional focus on events outside of Germany proper.
  43. Hsia, R. Po-chia, ed. A Companion to the Reformation World. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2004.
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  45. Collection of 29 essays surveying recent approaches to the study of the Reformation, including the preconditions of the Reformation, the German and European Reformations, the Catholic response, and Christian Europe in world perspective.
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  47. Pettegree, Andrew W., ed. The Reformation World. New York: Routledge, 2002.
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  49. An insightful collection of essays on aspects of the European Reformation. Sets the stage with a discussion of the Catholic Church before the reformation, the importance of Conciliarism and Humanism, then deals with Luther, the Princely and the Popular Reformations, the spread of the movement outside of Germany, the Second Reformation of Calvin and company, and finally discusses the Reformation’s social impact.
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  51. Scribner, Robert, Roy Porter, and Mikuláš Teich, eds. The Reformation in National Context. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
  52. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511599569Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  53. Similar to Pettegree 2002, a collection of interpretative essays aiming to demonstrate the importance of events beyond Germany. The geographical context covers Germany as well, but concentrates on delineating the Reformation’s ebb and flow in the rest of Latin Europe (though Austria is excluded). The work collectively hinges on the centrality of the major reformers, here identified as Luther, Calvin, Zwingli, Melanchthon, and Bullinger, in the progress of the movement.
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  55. Reference Works
  56. A number of important single- and multi-volume reference works offer the Reformation scholar a slew of research tools that approach the topic from a variety of angles. Of particular interest here are the Theologische Realenzylopädie (TRE) (Balz, et al. 1977) and Lexikon für Theologie und Kirche (LTK) (Buchberger, et al. 1993–2001), which offer competing Protestant and Catholic interpretations. Whitford 2008 and Hillerbrand 1997, on the other hand, attempt a more even-handed approach, concentrating instead on delineating what were then the most pressing issues in Reformation research. Carney 2001 and Bergin and Speake 2004 cover not only the period of the Reformation but that of the Renaissance as well.
  57. Balz, Horst Robert, et al., eds. Theologische Realenzyklopädie (TRE). 36 vols. Berlin: De Gruyter, 1977–.
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  59. This monumental reference work covers more than the 16th century. Its treatment of 16th century events and personages, however, is superb.
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  61. Bergin, Thomas Goddard, and Jennifer Speake, eds. Encyclopedia of the Renaissance and the Reformation. Rev. ed. New York: Facts on File, 2004.
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  63. Concise one-volume reference with some 2,100 brief entries, covering all aspects of life in the period of the 14th through 16th centuries.
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  65. Buchberger, Michael, et al., eds. Lexikon für Theologie und Kirche. 11 vols. 3d ed. Freiburg, Germany: Herder, 1993–2001.
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  67. A parallel reference work to the TRE, offering a Catholic perspective and details of Catholic phenomena.
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  69. Carney, Jo Eldridge, ed. Renaissance and Reformation, 1500–1620: A Biographical Dictionary. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2001.
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  71. More than three hundred entries by seventy-two contributors, providing a concise introduction to the personalities of the early Reformation era, embracing creative elites as well as political figures and women as well as men.
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  73. Hillerbrand, Hans J., ed. Oxford Encyclopedia of the Reformation. 4 vols. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.
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  75. Covers all aspects of religious life of the 16th century in the broadest possible tableau that includes more than 1,200 titles ranging from particular aspects of theological thought and confessional ideology to popular and social culture entries on prostitution, art, and witchcraft. This is a cogent reference work that focuses on the representation of historical consensus and accepted theories rather than on novel research approaches or revisionist hypothesis.
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  77. Whitford, David M. Reformation and Early Modern Europe: A Guide to Research. Kirksville, MO: Truman State University Press, 2008.
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  79. A well-done survey of recent research that approaches Reformation studies from the triple perspective of confessionalization, geographical trends (with essays on core regions as well as the periphery), and popular culture, here concentrating on the diverse subjects of books and book-printing, witchcraft, gender roles, art history, and popular religion.
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  81. Bibliographies
  82. Several basic bibliographical tools are available for the student of the Reformation. The first are the bibliographies cited in the sources under Reference Works and Bautz, et al. 1990. The scope of areas covered is broader than the religious developments but encompasses all of the 16th century. To these should be added the Verzeichnis der im deutschen Sprachbereich erschienenen Drucke des XVI. Jahrhunderts (VD 16) (Bezzel 1983–1995), a monumental attempt to list 16th-century bibliographical entries produced in the German-speaking territories. German Reformation pamphlet literature, so central to the success of the movement, has been covered by Pegg 2003 and Köhler 1991–1996. The Early Modern Pamphlets Online did the same for Dutch pamphlets. French texts are included in Joutard 1977. A broader assessment of Protestant text has been included in The Digital Library of Classic Protestant Texts, while the Catholic side was presented by the Reformationsgeschichtliche Studien und Texte.
  83. Bautz, Friedrich Wilhelm, et al., eds. Biographisch-Bibliographisches Kirchenlexikon. Hamm, Germany: T. Bautz, 1990–.
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  85. A most helpful biographical and bibliographical resource—an impressive encyclopedia of Christian biographies. It is accessible online.
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  87. Bezzel, Irmgard, ed. Verzeichnis der im deutschen Sprachbereich erschienenen Drucke des XVI. Jahrhunderts (VD 16). 22 vols. Stuttgart, Germany: Hiersemann, 1983–1995.
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  89. A comprehensive listing of all books and pamphlets published in the “German language areas” in the 16th century, together with identification of locations.
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  91. The Digital Library of Classic Protestant Texts. Alexandria, VA: Alexander Street, 2001–2007.
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  93. A database of texts of more than 1,500 publications by some 325 Protestant authors of the 16th and 17th centuries. This includes, in addition to theological works, also catechisms, liturgical writings, biblical commentaries, etc.
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  95. The Early Modern Pamphlets Online: Dutch Pamphlets. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2009.
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  97. This digitalized data bank covers two Dutch collections: 1) Dutch Pamphlets (1486–1853), the Knuttel Collection, some 34,000 pamphlets in the Koninklijken Bibliotheek in The Hague; and 2) Dutch Pamphlets (1542–1853), of the Van Alphen Collection of 2,800 pamphlets in the university library in Groningen.
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  99. Joutard, Philippe, ed. Historiographie de la Réforme. Paris: Delachaux and Niestle, 1977.
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  101. The product of a conference organized by the Centre de la Pensée Politique Contemporaine, this work offers an interesting French perspective on Reformation literature that includes both German and French texts.
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  103. Köhler, Hans-Joachim, ed. Bibliographie der Flugschriften des 16. Jahrhunderts. Teil 1: Das frühe 16. Jahrhundert: (1501–1530). 3 vols. Tübingen, Germany: Bibliotheca-Academica-Verlag, 1991–1996.
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  105. A bibliography of the pamphlet literature of the 16th century, concentrating on the German-speaking regions.
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  107. Pegg, Michael A., ed. A Catalogue of German Reformation Pamphlets (1516–1550) in Libraries of Alsace. Pt. 2. Baden-Baden, Germany: Koerner, 2003.
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  109. This is just one of the author’s several titles concentrating on bibliographical collections of Reformation pamphlet literature held by libraries in particular geographical locations. Other titles deal with collections held by libraries in Britain and Ireland (1973), Switzerland (1983), and Sweden (1995). This particular inventory of pamphlets is limited geographically but is helpful.
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  111. Reformationsgeschichtliche Studien und Texte. 85 vols. Münster, Germany: Aschendorffsche Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1906–.
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  113. A comprehensive effort to publish Catholic primary sources and monographs from the 16th century.
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  115. Journals
  116. Reformation studies have found a variety of outlets. Most historical and theological journals, such as the Renaissance Quarterly, Zeitschrift für Theologie und Kirche, the Archive for Reformation History, the Sixteenth Century Journal, and Renaissance and Reformation/Renaissance et Réforme, publish articles on aspects of the Reformation. Studies in Medieval and Reformation Traditions is more a book series than a journal, but its serial nature warrants its inclusion among these titles. Many of these journals are available online. Of interest is also the ATLA Database which, though primarily concerned with English-language publications, contains a good selection of articles and reviews.
  117. Archive for Reformation History (Archiv für Reformationsgeschichte) (1903–).
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  119. This journal is published jointly by the German Verein für Reformationsgeschichte and the American Society of Reformation Research.
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  121. ATLA Database.
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  123. This database, sponsored by the American Theological Libraries Association, offers a comprehensive listing of periodical publications and reviews, with a more extensive coverage of English-language publications.
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  125. Renaissance and Reformation/Renaissance et Réforme (1964–).
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  127. A bilingual journal, published by the Centre for Reformation and Renaissance Studies at the University of Toronto.
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  129. Renaissance Quarterly (1959–).
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  131. Published by the Renaissance Society of America, the journal often includes articles on theological topics, including some that deal specifically with the Reformation.
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  133. Sixteenth Century Journal (1972–).
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  135. As the title indicates, this scope is here much broader than the Reformation, though articles on the Reformation are an important part.
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  137. Studies in Medieval and Reformation Traditions. 111 vols. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1966–.
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  139. A book series examining in each volume different aspects of three monumental movements in European and world history: The Middle Ages, the Renaissance, and the Reformation.
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  141. Zeitschrift für Theologie und Kirche. (1891–).
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  143. A German-language journal that covers all aspects of religious research, historical and otherwise. The journal has published many articles dealing specifically with the Reformation.
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  145. Theological Aspects
  146. The Reformation became a religious revolution with the introduction of new theological principles and the reemphasis on some old ones. Authors in this section focus on the novelty of Reformation thought as its theological doctrines penetrated heretofore closed and highly structured systems of accepted beliefs and rituals. Wandel 2005 deals with one of the more salient features of the theological revolt, namely the Eucharist Controversy. George 1988 focuses on the primacy of theological thought among the leading reformers, while Hamm 2008 looks at the concept of spiritual freedom from the perspective of the reforming community. Finally, in a short article, Hamm 2000 conceptualizes the question of Reformation’s newness and innovation.
  147. George, Timothy. The Theology of the Reformers. Nashville, TN: Broadman, 1988.
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  149. A competent summary of the emphases in the theologies of the major reformers. The inclusion of Menno Simons among the staples of Luther, Zwingli, and Calvin makes this a standout work.
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  151. Hamm, Berndt. “Wie innovativ war die Reformation?” Zeitschrift für Historische Forschung 27 (2000): 481–497.
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  153. A cogent statement aiming to analyze both sides of the debate about the “newness” of the Reformation.
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  155. Hamm, Berndt. Die Reformation: Potentiale der Freiheit. Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck, 2008.
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  157. In a series of four lectures, and building on his earlier work on Zwingli, the author expands on the concept of Christian theology of personal liberation, this time focusing on the central importance to the topic of Martin Luther.
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  159. Wandel, Lee. The Eucharist in the Reformation: Incarnation and Liturgy. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge, 2005.
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  161. Wandel argues that the incarnation was at the center of the story of the Reformation and suggests how divergent religious identities were formed around the debate on the nature of the Host.
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  163. Regional Settings
  164. The study of the Reformation outside of Germany has heretofore been mostly the province of native scholars, who gave their research intensity commensurate with the importance of the religious turbulence for the broader history of their particular nation. Such studies focus generally on the question of whether the impulses for religious change came from within the particular country or from Martin Luther and events in Germany. A full discussion of events and personalities associated with the Reformation in England and France are provided in separate bibliography entries. As for the Northern and Eastern European reaches, Asche 2003 offers a summary statement on the collective history of Scandinavian (Denmark, Norway, Sweden) Reformation, as does Schwaiger 1962. Roberts 1968 concentrates on the interaction of politics and religion in the kingdom of Sweden. Schwarz-Lausten 2008 does the same for Denmark. Similarly, Schmidt 2000 treats the regions under Polish-Lithuanian dominion. Bächtold and Dömling 2002 concentrates fully on the role of individuals in the Swedish Reform movement. Lubieniecki 1995, really a translation of source materials, traces the history of the Socinian Church in the Polish lands. Schramm 1965, on the other hand, gives a competent response to the question of why the Reformation failed in Poland.
  165. Asche, Matthias, ed. Dänemark, Norwegen und Schweden im Zeitalter der Reformation und Konfessionalisierung: nordische Königreiche und Konfession 1500 bis 1660. Münster, Germany: Aschendorff, 2003.
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  167. A summary statement on the confessional developments in 16th-century Scandinavian countries that treats them more as a mirror than an annex of the events in central Europe, especially as seen from the perspective of state-building and confessionalization.
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  169. Bächtold, Hans Ulrich, and Anna Katharina Dömling, eds. Olavus Petri und die Reformation in Schweden: Schriften aus den Jahren 1528–1531. Zug, Switzerland: Achius, 2002.
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  171. Important writings of the Swedish reformer Olavi Petrus presented in a German translation.
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  173. Lubieniecki, Stanisław. History of the Polish Reformation: And Nine Related Documents. Translated by George Huntston Williams. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress, 1995.
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  175. An interesting and important rendering into English of a major historical work written by a 17th-century minister of the Polish Brethren (the Socinians) who portrays the history of his movement as the culmination of the restoration of the True Church in Poland.
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  177. Roberts, Michael. The Early Vasas: A History of Sweden, 1523–1611. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1968.
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  179. Despite being published more than forty years ago, still the best volume on the intertwining of religion and politics in Sweden. Though the book’s thrust is political, namely the emergence of 16th-century Sweden as a world power, the importance of religious experience is given its share.
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  181. Schmidt, Christoph. Auf Felsen gesät: die Reformation in Polen und Livland. Göttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, 2000.
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  183. A German language synopsis of the Reformation’s undertaking in Poland-Lithuania, Prussia, and Livland. The narrative concentrates on both the political and the personal, namely the reaction of the Polish state to new theological impulses and the importance of individual reformers like Jan Laski and Melchior Hoffman in the growth and proliferation of the movement.
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  185. Schramm, Gottfried. Der polnische Adel und die Reformation, 1548–1607. Wiesbaden, Germany: F. Steiner, 1965.
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  187. Makes the case that the influential Polish nobility (szlachta) had no political reason to join the reform movement, thus causing the Reformation in the end to fail in Poland.
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  189. Schwaiger, Georg. Die Reformation in den nordischen Ländern. Munich: Kösel, 1962.
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  191. A readable introduction to the major issues and concerns of the Reformation in the Scandinavian countries, written for nonspecialists.
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  193. Schwarz-Lausten, Martin. Die Reformation in Dänemark. Gütersloh, Germany: Gütersloher Verlagshaus, 2008.
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  195. Brief, but very good in outlining the convergence of religion and politics in 16th-century Denmark.
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  197. Reformers
  198. The early Reformation had a plethora of theological voices that sooner or later lined up in support or in contrast to Martin Luther. They deserve credit for having been instrumental, positive or negative, in the decision about the formal introduction of reform in a community. Greschat 1981 is a good general introduction to the personalities of the Reformation. Estes 2005 sees a continuity in the theological thought of Luther and Melanchthon. A plethora of other writers concentrate on particular important individuals and should be looked at in the context of the subsections on Martin Luther, Theodore Beza, Martin Bucer, John Calvin, Philip Melanchthon, Menno Simons, Thomas Muntzer, and Huldrych Zwingli.
  199. Estes, James Martin. Peace, Order, and the Glory of God: Secular Authority and the Church in the Thought of Luther and Melanchthon, 1518–1559. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2005.
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  201. A study emphasizing the similarities, rather than the differences, in the thoughts concerning limits of magisterial control over religious matters of the two major reformers.
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  203. Greschat, Martin, ed. Gestalten der Kirchengeschichte. Vol. 6, Die Reformationszeit II. Stuttgart, Germany: Kohlhammer, 1981.
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  205. Part of a multivolume project of superb individual biographies that covers virtually all the reformers, both those well known and those obscure.
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  207. Martin Luther
  208. The Wittenberg reformer (1483–1546) towers over the course of Reformation events in the 16th century, having attracted through the centuries both positive and negative reactions. Since Luther was not a “systematic” thinker but sharpened his ideas very much in polemic and controversy, it has not proved simple to offer systematic statements of his thought. Moreover, both historians and theologians have explored Luther, the latter often on the basis of their own theological perspective. Bainton 1950 provides a well-written study focusing on Luther’s life rather than thought. Still a favorite. Marius 1999 is a highly critical albeit well-written biography that argues Luther was marked by an unsettling fear of death. Lohse 1999 presents a most useful summary of Luther’s thought. Bayer 2008, likewise, is a straightforward account of Luther’s theology. Finally, Edwards 1983 focuses on the “old” Luther and the last fifteen years of the great reformer’s life. Additional materials are found in the separate bibliography entry on Luther.
  209. Bainton, Roland Herbert. Here I Stand: A Life of Martin Luther. New York, Abingdon-Cokesbury, 1950.
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  211. Although nearly sixty years old at the time of this writing, Bainton’s magisterial biography of the famed reformer, though it concentrates more on the varied story of his life than on the dimensions of his theological thought, is not only still readable, but an absolute necessity.
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  213. Bayer, Oswald. Martin Luther’s Theology: A Contemporary Interpretation. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2008.
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  215. Bayer, a German systematic theologian, presents Luther’s theology on the basis of key texts under the heading of God’s promises to humankind.
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  217. Edwards, Mark. Luther’s Last Battles: Politics and Polemics, 1531–1546. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University, 1983.
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  219. The “old” Luther has not had much attention in scholarship; this volume seeks to remedy this by focusing on the political context of the last fifteen years of Luther’s life.
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  221. Lohse, Bernd. Martin Luther’s Theology: Its Historical and Systematic Development. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress, 1999.
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  223. An account of the developmental odyssey of Luther’s thought from his Augustine days all the way to his debates with the Antinomians.
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  225. Marius, Richard. Martin Luther: The Christian between God and Death. Cambridge, MA: Belknap, 1999.
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  227. A biography negative in its approach, emphasizing Luther’s anti-Semitism, his melancholy phobia of salvation-less death, and his penchant for diatribe rather than discussion, that assesses the reformer’s contribution in creating a world racked with religious strife with the recurring message that had he not lived, we as a society would have been better off.
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  229. Works
  230. The reason for Luther’s centrality to the unfolding of the Reformation lies in the combination of an exciting life story and provocative theological insights that have been very well preserved. Luther 1883 is the definitive scholarly edition of Luther’s writings in German, while Luther 1955–1986 is the authoritative English edition of most, though not yet all, of Luther’s writings. For Luther’s thoughts on women, see Karant-Nunn and Wiesner-Hanks 2003. McKim 2003 provides a collection of essays from historians and theologians who present Luther’s major writing themes and the ways in which his ideas spread and continue in importance.
  231. Karant-Nunn, Susan C., and Merry E. Wiesner-Hanks, eds. Luther on Women: A Sourcebook. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
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  233. A major entry in the question of whether the Reformation was detrimental or beneficial for women, this collection of important texts of the reformer is taken from all facets of his production, ranging from Table Talk to his Biblical exegesis, and it presents Luther’s views on the role and activity of women clearly and methodically.
  234. Find this resource:
  235. Luther, Martin. D. Martin Luthers Werke: kritische Gesammtausgabe. Weimar, Germany: Böhlau, 1883–.
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  237. The first volume appeared in the anniversary year 1883, and additional volumes have appeared to the present. The edition itself is divided into four sections: Luther’s Writings (cited as WA with 72 folio volumes), Letters (cited as WA Br) with 17 volumes, Bible Translation (cited as WA DB with 12 volumes), and Table Talks (cited as WA TR with six volumes).
  238. Find this resource:
  239. Luther, Martin. Luther’s Works. 55 vols. Edited by Jaroslav Pelikan and Helmut T. Lehmann. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1955–1986.
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  241. Arranged in two sections (exegetical writings and theological writings, the latter including sub-sections, such as “Word and Sacraments”). An effort is currently under way to issue English translations also of Luther’s writings that were not included in the original 55 volumes of this American edition. This translation is also available as Luther’s Works on CD-ROM (Philadelphia: Fortress, 2002).
  242. Find this resource:
  243. McKim, Donald K., ed. The Cambridge Companion to Martin Luther. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
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  245. In a series of essays by eminent Luther scholars (most of them Lutheran as well), the collection goes on to examine the entirety of the Wittenberg reformer’s life, opus, and importance—not only to the 16th-century reform movement but to modernity as well.
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  247. John Calvin
  248. John Calvin was the most important 16th-century theologian alongside Martin Luther. His Institutio religionis Christianae, at first a summary of basic Protestant teaching, became a masterful exposition of the Protestant faith (as Calvin himself understood it). At the same time, Calvin also engaged intensely in practical churchmanship, both in leading the church in Geneva and by encouraging reform developments in European countries, especially France. There are quite a few treatments of Calvin in scholarly literature. For general studies of Calvin, see McKim 2004 and Selderhuis 2008. Bouwsma 1988 is still a readable and classic biography of the great reformer. Zachman 2006 provides an ideological reading of Calvin’s life, while Volcker 2009 concentrates on the Calvin-inspired interaction of religion and state on the personal lives of Geneva’s citizens. Cottret 2000 is an attempt to firmly root Calvin within the context, both social and theological, of his times, while Helm 2004 mainly distances the reformer from modern religious concerns. Finally Selderhuis 2007 analyzes the influence of the Book of Psalms on the development of Calvin’s theological positions.
  249. Bouwsma, William. John Calvin: A Sixteenth-Century Portrait. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988.
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  251. A classic biographical study that seeks to understand Calvin psychologically by approaching his theological ideas from the perspective of the reformer’s deep-seated anxiety regarding his own relationship with God and personal salvation.
  252. Find this resource:
  253. Cottret, Bernard. Calvin: A Biography. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2000.
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  255. A competent, brief biography by an expert that attempts to posit Calvin astride the general culture of his times, as opposed to taking him out of his context. Concentrating most forcefully on the early life of Calvin, Cottret shows how the political, theological, and humanistic environment of the early 16th-century France was indispensible to the formulation of the young reformer’s thoughts.
  256. Find this resource:
  257. Helm, Paul. John Calvin’s Ideas. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.
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  259. Based on research into late medieval theology and philosophy Helm builds a complex picture of John Calvin’s epistemic religiosity that distances the Genevan reformer from modern religious concerns and understandings, where all too many recent accounts that see Calvin as a spiritual or philosophical precursor of modernity tend to put him.
  260. Find this resource:
  261. McKim, Donald K., ed. The Cambridge Companion to John Calvin. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004.
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  263. Another of the Cambridge Companion series, this is a good introduction to Calvin’s life and theological thought.
  264. Find this resource:
  265. Selderhuis, Herman J. Calvin’s theology of the Psalms. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2007.
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  267. An effort to delineate Calvin’s theology on the basis of his exegesis of the Psalms. The Psalms, perhaps more than any other Biblical source, had increasingly greater significance for the maturing of Calvin’s theological thought.
  268. Find this resource:
  269. Selderhuis, Herman J., ed. Calvin-Handbuch. Tübingen, Germany: Mohr and Siebeck, 2008.
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  271. A thorough examination of the life and works of the Genevan reformer, especially strong on the analysis of Calvin’s theological themes as well as his teachings’ reception all over the globe. A 2009 English edition, translated by Henry J. Baron, Judith J. Guder, and Randi H. Lundell, is also available from Eerdmans.
  272. Find this resource:
  273. Volcker, Reinhardt. Die Tyrannei der Tugend: Calvin und die Reformation in Genf. Munich: Beck, 2009.
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  275. Calvin a European Taliban? A generally negative study of Calvin that explores the supervision of faith and morals in Geneva that led, the author argues, to the establishment of an intolerant, closed-minded society.
  276. Find this resource:
  277. Zachman, Randall C. John Calvin as Teacher, Pastor, and Theologian: The Shape of His Writings and Thought. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2006.
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  279. An examination of Calvin’s ideas in the context of his relationship to other reformers, pastors, and his chosen audiences.
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Works
  282. Like Luther, Calvin’s theological contributions are both important and voluminous. Selderhuis 2005 and the Ioannis Calvini Opera Omnia (Calvin 1992) form two massive repositories, one digitized and one in print, of the writings of the Genevan reformer. Kingdon and Watt 2007 presents a fascinating look at the minutes of the Genevan Consitory at the time of Calvin’s activity.
  283. Calvin, John. Ioannis Calvini Opera Omnia. Geneva, Switzerland: Librairie Droz, 1992–.
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  285. The definitive scholarly edition of the writings of the Genevan reformer, in progress since 1863. This reprint of the original 19th-century edition of Calvin’s writings in the Corpus Reformatorum series is now variously extended, especially through the editions of Calvin’s sermons and an electronic database (Selderhuis 2005).
  286. Find this resource:
  287. Kingdon, Robert M., and Isabella M. Watt, eds. Registres du Consistoire de Genève au temps de Calvin.T. 4: (1548):avecextraits des Registres du Conseil, 1548–1550. Geneva, Switzerland: Droz, 2007.
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  289. A fascinating selection from the minutes (“registers”) of the Genevan Consistory and its effort to deal with the faith and morals of Genevan citizen.
  290. Find this resource:
  291. Selderhuis, Herman J., ed. Calvini Opera Database: The Complete Works of John Calvin. Apeldoorn, The Netherlands: Instituut voor Reformatieonderzoek, 2005.
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  293. This digitalized version of Calvin’s writings makes the texts as found in the Corpus Reformatorum fully searchable, in a combination of original image and text.
  294. Find this resource:
  295. Huldrych Zwingli
  296. The Zurich patriot reformer became both a symbol of the spread of the Reformation and of its ideological and theological splintering. Bibliographic collections of this great Swiss reformer include the older Locher 1969 and the newer Baschera, et al. 2007. For an assessment of Zwingli’s life and work in the context of the Swiss Reformation, see Gordon 2002. Büsser 1985 focuses more on the much discussed question of Zwingli’s intellectual origins, while Gäbler 1999, as its title suggests, offers a competent overview of Zwingli’s life and work.
  297. Baschera, Luca, Hans Jakob Haag, and Christian Moser. “Neue Literatur zur zwinglischen Reformation.” Zwingliana 34 (2007): 149–167.
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  299. A serial bibliography of Zwinglian and Swiss-Reformation studies that provides an insightful look at recent scholarship. See Zwingliana 35 (2008): 187–212, for a continuation of this article.
  300. Find this resource:
  301. Büsser, Fritz. Wurzeln der Reformation in Zürich: zum 500. Geburtstag des Reformators Huldrych Zwingli. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1985.
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  303. This entry in the Studies in Medieval and Reformation Thought series focuses on the much discussed question of Zwingli’s intellectual origins.
  304. Find this resource:
  305. Gäbler, Ulrich. Huldrych Zwingli: His Life and Work. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1999.
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  307. A competent introduction to the life and works of the Swiss Reformer by an expert in the field.
  308. Find this resource:
  309. Gordon, Bruce. The Swiss Reformation. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 2002.
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  311. The book restores the Swiss Reformation to a co-equal status with its German counterpart in terms of its impact on the spread of Reformation thought, without ever losing sight of the importance of the local social and political context in the theological development of Zwingli and Bullinger. This detailed narrative is well informed by references to primary and secondary sources.
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  313. Locher, Gottfried W. Huldrych Zwingli in neuer Sicht. Zurich, Switzerland: Zwingli Verlag, 1969.
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  315. While somewhat outdated, this detailed bibliography is still indispensable for a serious study of Swiss developments.
  316. Find this resource:
  317. Works
  318. The writings of Zwingli propelled the Reformation into territories unforeseen by the major early reformers. For a scholarly edition of Zwingli’s writings see the Sämtliche Werke collection (Zwingli 1905–1968) and the English translations in Zwingli 1987. Bromily 1953 focuses on some of Zwingli’s major theological themes.
  319. Bromiley, G. W., ed. Zwingli and Bullinger. Library of Christian Classics. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1953.
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  321. Published by the Library of Christian Classics series, which also carries titles on the Spiritual and Anabaptist Writers, Melanchthon and Bucer, and Luther and Erasmus, this book serves as a thematic introduction to the work of the two major Swiss reformers. Content-wise skewed heavily towards Zwingli, it discusses the Zurich reformer’s major themes of baptism, the Eucharist, educating the young and the certainty of the Word of God.
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  323. Zwingli, Huldrych. Huldreich Zwinglis Sämtliche Werke: Unter Mitwirkung des Zwingli-Vereins in Zürich. Edited by Emil Egli und Dr. Georg Finsler. Corpus Reformatorum 88–101. Berlin: C. A. Schwetschke und Sohn, 1905–1968.
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  325. The scholarly edition of Zwingli’s collected writings in the major Corpus Reformatorum series offers the best source for the understanding of his theological positions.
  326. Find this resource:
  327. Zwingli, Huldrych. Early Writings. Edited by Samuel Macauley Jackson. Durham, NC: Labyrinth, 1987.
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  329. A featured collection of the Swiss reformer’s early theological writings translated into English by an expert in the field.
  330. Find this resource:
  331. Philip Melanchthon
  332. Martin Luther’s junior colleague at Wittenberg lacked his charismatic personality and, moreover, showed himself by temperament not comfortable in the public roles into which he was frequently cast. Nonetheless, Melanchthon exerted a key influence of the development of Lutheran confessional theology. Manschreck 1958 and Schäuble 1997 present competing biographies of the reformer, with Schäuble’s effort both more durable and modern, while Maag 1999 and Frank and Köpf 2003 underline Melanchthon’s influence on the spread of Reformation outside of Wittenberg.
  333. Frank, Günter, and Ulrich Köpf, eds. Melanchthon und die Neuzeit. Stuttgart-Bad Cannstatt, Germany: Frommann-Holzboog, 2003.
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  335. A series of essays reflecting on Melanchthon’s influence in the growth of a Lutheran confessional theology.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. Maag, Karin, ed. Melanchthon in Europe. His Work and Influence beyond Wittenberg. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 1999.
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  339. A series of essays that focus on Melanchthon’s theological pedagogy and on his relationship—and therefore influence on—other reformers, with an added emphasis on his moderate and diplomatic use of language.
  340. Find this resource:
  341. Manschreck, Clyde. Melanchthon, the Quiet Reformer. New York: Abingdon, 1958.
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  343. An older portrait of the famous successor to Luther, no longer reliable, but still a readable biography.
  344. Find this resource:
  345. Schäuble, Heinz. Melanchthon: eine Biographie. Munich: Beck, 1997.
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  347. A well researched and most knowledgeable biography by the dean of Melanchthon scholars.
  348. Find this resource:
  349. Works
  350. To access Melanchthon’s writings, Corpus Reformatorum (Bretschneider and Bindseil 1834–1860) offers the most inclusive collection, while Melanchthon 1988 contains a sample of his most salient works. Pauck 1969 presents a particular piece of Melanchthon that offers considerable insight into the mind of the young reformer.
  351. Bretschneider, Karl Gottlieb, and Heinrich Ernst Bindseil, eds. Corpus Reformatorum. Series 1. 28 vols. Leipzig, Germany: C. A. Schwetschke, 1834–1860.
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  353. Melanchthon’s writings were published as part of an ambitious 19th century editorial project titled Corpus Reformatorum that included also the writings of Zwingli and Calvin. In recent decades Melanchthon’s correspondence has been published in nine volumes.
  354. Find this resource:
  355. Melanchthon, Philip. A Melanchthon Reader. Translated by Ralph Keen. New York: Lang, 1988.
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  357. A part of the American University Studies Series VII, Theology and Religion, this quick introduction to the topic offers a well-chosen sample of Melanchthon writings.
  358. Find this resource:
  359. Pauck, Wilhelm, ed. Melanchthon and Bucer: Philip Melanchthon’s Loci communes rerum theologicarum; Martin Bucer’s De regno Christi. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1969.
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  361. A good introduction to theological concerns of Martin Bucer and the early Philip Melanchthon. The first edition of his Loci shows Melanchthon’s mind in the 1520s, before his later divergence from some of Luther’s views.
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  363. Martin Bucer
  364. Bucer was instrumental in having reform notions formally adopted in Strasbourg, but he also worked tirelessly to bridge the theological gaps between various Protestant reformers. Seebass 2005 offers a comprehensive bibliography that serves as a good introduction, while Greschat 2004 concentrates on presenting Bucer as a peacemaker and consensus builder at a time of religious friction.
  365. Greschat, Martin. Martin Bucer: A Reformer and His Times. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 2004.
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  367. A superb biography by a master historian. The work follows the fascinating story of this often underrated Strasbourg reformer and restores him to a role of importance in the theological and political movement that formed the background to his life. While others obdurately held on to their theological positions, Bucer, a former Dominican and humanist, was better known for his preference for debate, dialogue, and consensus.
  368. Find this resource:
  369. Seebass, Gottfried, ed. Martin Bucer Bibliography. Gütersloh, Germany: Gütersloher Verlagshaus, 2005.
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  371. A comprehensive bibliography of Bucer’s work. A first stop for any researcher interested in the multifaceted work of this often underrated reformer.
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  373. Works
  374. Bucer’s theological works are of major interest to any scholar of the Reformation. For an excellent compilation of his writings, both public and private, see Hamm 2008. Pauck 1969, on the other hand, provides a good introduction to Bucer’s thought by his focus on a single major piece.
  375. Hamm, Berndt, ed. Martini Buceri Opera. Briefwechsel/Correspondance (Oktober 1531–März 1532). 5 vols. Studies in Medieval and Reformation Traditions 136. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2008.
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  377. A massive compilation of Martin Bucer’s public materials and private correspondence by one of the major scholars of the Reformation.
  378. Find this resource:
  379. Pauck, Wilhelm, ed. Melanchthon and Bucer: Philip Melanchthon’s Loci communes rerum theologicarum; Martin Bucer’s De regno Christi. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1969.
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  381. A sample of major writing from the mind of Martin Bucer and the early Philip Melanchthon. The De regno Christi is one of Bucer’s most important works that clearly delineates his theological and social thought.
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  383. Menno Simons
  384. Menno Simons is credited with having stabilized the North German and Dutch Anabaptists, disheartened by the catastrophic outcome of the Anabaptist rule in Münster. He both traveled and wrote prolifically. For a good bibliography of his works, see Horst 1962. For the best available biography, see Bornhäuser 1973. Isaak 2006 offers a new interpretation of the theological development of Simons that places him near some more radical Anabaptist leaders, while Voolstra 1997 is a complete re-envisioning that challenges many accepted interpretations.
  385. Bornhäuser, Christoph. Leben und Lehre Menno Simons’: ein Kampf um das Fundament des Glaubens (etwa 1496–1561). Neukirchen-Vluyn, Germany: Neukirchener, 1973.
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  387. The best and most comprehensive biography available on the life and work of this important Anabaptist leader.
  388. Find this resource:
  389. Horst, Irvin Buckwalter. A Bibliography of Menno Simons ca. 1496–1561, Dutch Reformer. Nieuwkoop, The Netherlands: de Graaf, 1962.
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  391. A thorough compilation of all the editions of Menno Simons’s writings from the 16th century to the 20th, including notes and contextual analysis. A secondary listing of works written about the Anabaptist reformer appears in the index.
  392. Find this resource:
  393. Isaak, Helmut. Menno Simons and the New Jerusalem. Kitchener, ON: Pandora, 2006.
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  395. A highly focused account on the development of Menno Simons’s theological positions. Though greatly influenced by Melchior Hoffman, Simons took a variety of Hoffman’s premises and arrived at differing answers. But the similarities were many, including a longing for the establishment of the “Earthly Jerusalem” where the elect were to govern the weak.
  396. Find this resource:
  397. Voolstra, Sjouke. Menno Simons: His Image and Message. North Newton, KS: Bethel College, 1997.
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  399. A source-rich presentation that asks the reader to reinterpret several known facets of the life and work of the Anabaptist leader, creating a new image of a stern and uncompromising apostle whose message, but not whose memory, was eventually rebuked by his own congregation and whose famous pacifism developed out of political need rather than as a statement of principle.
  400. Find this resource:
  401. Works
  402. Menno Simons is one of the major Anabaptist writers. Verheus 1989 and Dankbaar 1981 provide competent large-scale compilations of his output. Wenger 1986 offers an older but equally good English-language version of the reformer’s theological production.
  403. Dankbaar, Willem Frederik, ed. Documenta anabaptistica Neerlandica. Deel 3: Marten Mikron: een waerachtingh verhaal der t’zamensprekinghen tusschen Menno Simons ende Martinus Mikron van der menschwerdinghe Iesu Christi. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1981.
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  405. A part of a series in a massive attempt to make Dutch Anabaptist sources available to the student and researcher.
  406. Find this resource:
  407. Verheus, S. L., ed. Menno Simons. Opera omnia theologica of alle de godtgeleerde wercken. Amsterdam: Bataafsche Leeuw, 1989.
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  409. Not scholarly but comprehensive presentation of the best-known and oft-quoted work of the Anabaptist Menno Simons. A reprint of the original 1681 publication.
  410. Find this resource:
  411. Wenger, John C., ed. The Complete Writings of Menno Simons: c. 1496–1561. Scottdale, PA: Herald, 1986.
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  413. A new English translation providing all the currently known writings of the Anabaptist reformer, including a selection of tracts and hymns being offered for the very first time.
  414. Find this resource:
  415. Thomas Müntzer
  416. Thomas Müntzer has received much attention, first from Lutheran theologians who found much fault with his theology, then from Marxist historians who saw him as the radical visionary of a new society in the age of the Reformation. Gritsch 1989 is an example of the first approach, while Friesen 1990 could be interpreted to represent the second. Müntzer’s theological thought is analyzed by Scott 1989, who sees the presence of mystical components in his theology, and by Schwarz 1977, who attempts to connect the radical reformer to the earlier Hussite movement in Bohemia. Quillisch 1999 concentrates on Müntzer’s political goals and ambitions. Seebass 2002 sees Müntzer’s heir in the persona of Hans Hut.
  417. Friesen, Abraham. Thomas Muentzer, a Destroyer of the Godless: The Making of a Sixteenth-Century Religious Revolutionary. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990.
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  419. Based mostly on secondary sources, due to the lack of much primary material regarding the topic, this book offers a sound interpretation of Müntzer as influenced by both Erasmus and Luther.
  420. Find this resource:
  421. Gritsch, Eric W. Thomas Müntzer: a Tragedy of Errors. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress, 1989.
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  423. A strikingly sympathetic view, even though from a Lutheran perspective, of “the first Protestant theocrat.” The book attempts to weave a personal account of the reformer’s life and steers clear of the interpretatory minefield where the conflicting theories of the Protestants, Catholics, and Marxists have tried to place him.
  424. Find this resource:
  425. Quilisch, Tobias. Das Widerstandsrecht und die Idee des religiösen Bundes bei Thomas Müntzer: ein Beitrag zur politischen Theologie. Berlin: Duncker and Humblot, 1999.
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  427. A keen and nuanced examination of Müntzer’s actual political involvement in Thuringia and in Muehlhausen.
  428. Find this resource:
  429. Schwarz, Reinhard. Die apokalyptische Theologie Thomas Müntzers und der Taboriten. Tübingen, Germany: Mohr, 1977.
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  431. An interesting attempt to connect Müntzer’s political and theological program to the 15th-century Hussites.
  432. Find this resource:
  433. Scott, Tom. Thomas Müntzer: Theology and Revolution in the German Reformation. New York: St. Martin’s, 1989.
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  435. Emphasizes the evasiveness of our sources on Müntzer and sees him as violently anticlerical and influenced by German mysticism.
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  437. Seebass, Gottfried. Müntzers Erbe: Werk, Leben und Theologie des Hans Hut. Gütersloh, Germany: Gütersloher Verlagshaus, 2002.
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  439. In what has become a minor trend in Muntzer studies, the life and work of the Thuringian revolutionary is seen as having a continuation in the later Hutterite movement.
  440. Find this resource:
  441. Works
  442. The social and religious revolutionary has left a considerable corpus of works that even the destruction of his movement at Frankenhausen could not fully erase. Both Müntzer 1990 and Müntzer 1988 offer good source materials, with the latter in English. Müntzer 1983 concentrates on the “Sermon to the Saxon Princes,” one of Müntzer’s major works.
  443. Müntzer, Thomas. Die Fürstenpredigt: theologisch-politische Schriften. Stuttgart, Germany: Reclam, 1983.
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  445. Müntzer’s “Sermon to the Saxon Princes,” given in Allstedt in 1524, has become a pivotal document in the development of his radical program. Based on the second chapter of the Book of Daniel, Muntzer warns of the end of days and the necessity to follow a prophet anointed by God.
  446. Find this resource:
  447. Müntzer, Thomas. The Collected Works of Thomas Müntzer. Edited by Peter Matheson. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1988.
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  449. An excellent English translation of the salient works of the radical Thuringian reformer who led the peasant masses in their revolt against the social order.
  450. Find this resource:
  451. Müntzer, Thomas. Schriften, Liturgische Texte, Briefe. Berlin: Union Verlag, 1990.
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  453. An edited collection of a sample of Müntzer’s diverse writings that includes, as the title suggests, liturgical texts and letters.
  454. Find this resource:
  455. Theodore Beza
  456. Beza was Calvin’s successor in Geneva. He, too, engaged himself enormously on a European wide scale. For his role in Geneva, see Backus 2007.
  457. Backus, Irena, ed. Théodore de Bèze, 1519–1605: Actes du colloque de Genève, Septembre 2005. Geneva, Switzerland: Droz, 2007.
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  459. An account of the life and times of the Genevan reformer. The work describes his early years as well as his eventual succession to Calvin, all in the context of city and national politics that eventually propelled this humanist-turned theologian to leadership in the Reformed Church.
  460. Find this resource:
  461. Works
  462. A strikingly prolific correspondence shows Beza as a correspondent who engaged with reform-minded individuals all over Europe. For a superb overview of Beza’s multivolume correspondence, see Beza 2008.
  463. Beza, Theodore. Correspondance de Théodore Bèze. 33 vols. Edited by Hippolyte Aubert, Alain Dufour, Béatrice Nicollier-de Weck, and Hervé Genton. Geneva, Switzerland: Droz, 2008.
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  465. A massive compilation of Beza’s correspondence underlines the importance of this famed Genevan reformer’s work.
  466. Find this resource:
  467. Other Reformers
  468. The Reformation was the work of many individuals, both well known and little known. Some of these lesser-known personalities imprinted themselves in the histories of their localities or left behind religious tracts of considerable worth for students of social or political history. Finally, some political leaders of the times, though not theologians themselves, had a considerable impact on the development of theological discourse within their territories by their extension, or denial, of protection. Cahill 2001 concentrates on one such leader, Philipp of Hesse, and his importance for the early Reformation movement, in the best study on this complicated ruler. Zschoch 1995 offers an interesting case study on Rhegius, the reformer of Augsburg. McKee 1999 presents two volumes on Katharina Schütz, a reformer in her own right and the wife of Strasbourg reformer Matthew Zell. Baschera 2007 discusses the exiled Italian reformer Girolamo Zanchi’s major theological treatise.
  469. Baschera, Luca, ed. De religione christiana fides (Confession of the Christian Religion). Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2007.
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  471. An edited translation (original text included) of Girolamo Zanchi’s (1516–1590) major work that, through the use of reformed scholasticism—or a systematic defense of Reformed dogma in view of Aristotelian philosophy—was meant to have been a unifier of the Reformed tradition.
  472. Find this resource:
  473. Cahill, Richard Andrew. Philipp of Hesse and the Reformation. Mainz, Germany: von Zabern, 2001.
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  475. Published under the auspices of the Mainz Institute for European History, Cahill’s dissertation work forms the only English-language account of the early years of Philip the Magnanimous, and his influence on matters both political and religious.
  476. Find this resource:
  477. McKee, Elsie. Katharina Schütz Zell. 2 vols. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1999.
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  479. A well-researched biography of an important but oft-forgotten female supporter of the Reformation.
  480. Find this resource:
  481. Schütz Zell, Katharina. Church Mother: The Writings of a Protestant Reformer in Sixteenth-Century Germany. Edited and translated by Elsie McKee. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006.
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  483. A selection from Zell’s works in McKee’s English translation, demonstrating her important role in the defense of clerical marriage.
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  485. Zschoch, Helmut. Reformatorische Existenz und konfessionelle Identität: Urbanus Rhegius als evangelischer Theologe in den Jahren 1520 bis 1530. Tübingen, Germany: Mohr, 1995.
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  487. An account of the theological principles of the German Lutheran reformer, best known perhaps for his unhesitant attempt to keep the Protestant camp united in the Holy Roman Empire.
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  489. Confessionalization
  490. By all odds the most important historiographical turn in 16th-century scholarship of recent years has been the “confessionalization” paradigm. It holds that toward the end of the 16th century Europe experienced across the board a tendency to make all of society conform to the “confession” (here understood as “creed” or “statement of faith”) that was formally accepted in a particular city, territory, or land. Schilling 1988 offers the basic essay on the paradigm, repeated and strengthened for the English reader in Schilling 1996. Hsia 1989 draws in broad strokes the development of confessional tendencies out of political necessities for developing 16th century territorial states. Rummel 2000 analyzes the effect of confessionalization on the German humanists.
  491. Hsia, R. Po-chia. Social Discipline in the Reformation: Central Europe, 1550–1750. London: Routledge, 1989.
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  493. Examines how political structures in three local Central European regions interacted with religious identification in the process of “confessionalization,” by which communities were disciplined to a desirable pattern of belief and behavior.
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  495. Rummel, Erika. The Confessionalization of Humanism in Reformation Germany. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000.
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  497. Shows the effect the Reformation had on German (and European) Humanism and how the deep theological divisions born of the movement split German Humanists into confessional camps.
  498. Find this resource:
  499. Schilling, Heinz. “Die Konfessionalisierung im Reich.” Historische Zeitschrift 246 (1988): 1–45.
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  501. The basic essay on the “confessionalization” paradigm as it played itself out in the Holy Roman Empire. The idea of confessionalization would eventually lead to the formulation of the cuius region eius religio concept.
  502. Find this resource:
  503. Schilling, Heinz. “Confessional Europe.” In Handbook of European History, 1400–1600. Vol. 2. Edited by Thomas A. Brady, Heiko A. Oberman, and James D. Tracy, 641–681. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1996.
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  505. An extended summary in English of Schilling’s “Confessionalization” paradigm, included in a major compilation on the state of research on all things Renaissance and Reformation, written by some of the luminaries of their prospective fields.
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  507. Women
  508. Was the Reformation a revolution in regard to the accepted relations between genders, or did it only accentuate traditional dogmas and paradigms? This question accounts for much of the scholarly output regarding the role and place of women from both sides of the confessional divide. Depending on one’s point of view, the Reformation either allowed women greater social flexibility or actually denied them certain aspects of religious expression and reinforced familial patriarchal tendencies. More modern accounts lean toward more balanced views. For a hallmark study on the Protestant Reformation’s impact on women, see Roper 1989. Stjerna 2009 is the most recent and the most insightful study of the role women themselves played in the Protestant Reformation. Brown 2007 explores the relationship between gender and radical religion. Wiesner-Hanks 2000 offers a broad study of Christianity and sexuality in the context of the early modern world that also includes chapters on the Reformation. Parker 2003 presents the writings of one particular female supporter of the Reformation.
  509. Brown, Sylvia, ed. Women, Gender, and Radical Religion in Early Modern Europe. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2007.
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  511. A volume of essays exploring the relationship between gender and radical religion, by focusing on the literary product and activism of 17th- and 18th-century women.
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  513. Parker, Holt N. Olympia Morata: The Complete Writings of an Italian Heretic. The Other Voice in Early Modern Europe. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003.
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  515. Translated writings of a major female supporter of Calvin. Also includes an analytical introduction by the translation that posits the life and work of this fascinating woman into the theological and social context of the age.
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  517. Roper, Lyndal. The Holy Household: Women and Morals in Reformation Augsburg. New York: Oxford University Press, 1989.
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  519. A hallmark study on the consequences for women of the Protestant Reformation, this carefully researched treatise is one of the first to challenge the notion, prevalent in Protestant historiography, of the movement’s beneficent impact on the gender issue.
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  521. Stjerna, Kirsi Irmeli. Women and the Reformation. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2009.
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  523. This recent and insightful study provocatively argues that whereas the role and function of women in society did change because of the Reformation, such change was more complex than what could be simply subsumed under the adjectives “good” or “bad,” or “progressive” or “regressive.” Rather, it was more of a qualitative change in the women’s appraisal of themselves as opposed to a quantitative improvement or worsening of their social condition.
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  525. Wiesner-Hanks, Merry. Christianity and Sexuality in the Early Modern World: Regulating Desire, Reforming Practice. New York: Routledge, 2000.
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  527. A monumental attempt to show how Christian doctrines and dogmas shaped the concepts of gender and sexuality in early modern Europe, developed by examining high and popular culture models for gender relations and permissible expressions of sexuality, institutions pertaining to their enforcement, and the success or failure of the methods for such enforcement.
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  529. Art
  530. Art, here understood in its representative form, both pictorial and written, from the very beginning became a battleground of the confessional divide. The antagonists—Protestants and Catholics alike—used art to underscore their religious identity and intent. Artistic content especially was utilized to showcase one’s devotion to the traditional concept of the divine, as when Catholic art maintained its flavor of deep religious symbolism, or to the emerging humanistic—and hence more abstract—relationship with the godhead, where portrayal of everyday life and activities took on spiritual connotations. Either way, art became a weapon, used by both sides in their ongoing struggle, as explained by Harasimowicz 1996 in a series of essays that connect representative expression and religious confession. Dillenberger 1999 agrees and traces the stories of several painters, some of whom became partisans of the Reformation, to show the relationship between confessionalization and art. Christensen 1979 presents a survey of the role pictorial arts had in the spread of the Reformation. Along the same lines, Koerner 2004 shows how images became indispensable for the Reformation movement, while Blickle 2002 contributes to the topic of iconoclasms in the context of Reformation’s introduction in cities and towns. Wandel 1995 also analyzes iconoclasm from the perspective of religious expression. Gülpen 2002 argues how the German Humanists undertook a cohesive media campaign in support of Luther. Schulze 2004 is also a useful study on the archetype of Protestant painters.
  531. Blickle, Peter, ed. Macht und Ohnmacht der Bilder: Reformatorischer Bildersturm im Kontext der Europäischen Geschichte. Munich: Oldenbourg, 2002.
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  533. Several essays written from the diverging perspectives of historians and art historians that attempt to develop the importance of iconoclasms and art’s subjugation to religious and political needs from the time of the Reformation all the way to the 20th century.
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  535. Christensen, Carl C. Art and the Reformation in Germany. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 1979.
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  537. A well-researched account of the changes brought about by the Protestant Reformation to popular perception of art in Germany. The study follows the theological reimagining of art by some of the leading reformers, such as Luther, Zwingli, and Karlstadt, into an eventual Protestant representational iconography that often meandered between silent approval and iconoclastic destruction.
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  539. Dillenberger, John. Images and Relics: Theological Perceptions and Visual Images in Sixteenth-Century Europe. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.
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  541. By analyzing the work of several 16th-century artists of the Reformation period, such as Cranach the Elder and Dürer, but also including Michelangelo, Dillenberger shows how visual images became conjoined with devotional aims of various reformatory movements throughout Europe.
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  543. Gülpen, Ilonka van. Der Deutsche Humanismus und die Frühe Reformations-Propaganda 1520–1526: Das Lutherporträt im Dienst der Bildpublizistik. Hildesheim, Germany: Georg Olms, 2002.
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  545. A thorough book that argues that the German Humanists undertook a cohesive campaign, utilizing a whole range of media from print to pictorial representations, on behalf of Luther.
  546. Find this resource:
  547. Harasimowicz, Jan. Kunst als Glaubensbekenntnis: Beiträge zur Kunst- und Kulturgeschichte der Reformationszeit. Baden-Baden, Germany: Koerner, 1996.
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  549. A series of essays by experts in their fields that traces the connections between art and confessionalization in Reformation Germany.
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  551. Koerner, Joseph Leo. The Reformation of the Image. Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 2004.
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  553. Shows how the Reformation in Germany did not lead to pervasive iconoclasm, which would mean the total destruction of religious visuals, but rather to the reimagining of art as an adjunct to spiritual devotion.
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  555. Schulze, Ingrid. Lucas Cranach d. J. und die protestantische Bildkunst in Sachsen und Thüringen: Frömmigkeit, Theologie, Fürstenreformation. Bucha bei Jena, Germany: Quartus, 2004.
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  557. Using Lucas Cranach the Younger as an archetype of Protestant painters, this work develops the relationship between art and confessionalization in Reformation Germany.
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  559. Wandel, Lee Palmer. Voracious Idols and Violent Hands: Iconoclasm in Reformation Zurich, Strasbourg, and Basel. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
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  561. Examines the iconoclastic transition in three cities that early underwent the Reformation process, focusing on the experience of ordinary Christians who expressed their religious ideology in the destruction of images.
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  563. Worship
  564. Worship, the ritualized expression of faith, served to underline the revolutionary nature of the Protestant break with the Catholic. A thorough analysis of that divide has been the province of many scholarly tomes going well back in time. Sehling 1902 is one such example, its five tomes the basic edition of Protestant church orders in Germany. Karant-Nunn 1997 offers an interpretation of the Reformation’s changes in ritual, while Eire 1986 highlights the connections between worship theology and liturgy with the iconoclasms of leading reformers. Dixon 2003 offers a specialized look at changes in worship affecting the Protestant clergy themselves. An important aspect of Protestant worship was its relationship with music and hymn singing, as underlined by Brown 2005, which stakes out far-reaching claims on the importance of congregational singing for the spread and success of the Reformation. For a thematic and semantic analysis of the nature of Lutheran hymns, see Veit 1986. Oettinger 2001, on the other hand, focuses on music chiefly as a tool of propaganda.
  565. Brown, Christopher. Singing the Gospel: Lutheran Hymns and the Success of the Reformation. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, 2005.
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  567. Proposes that the singing of Lutheran vernacular hymns was used as a bridging mechanism between high and low culture that accounted for one of the reasons for the success of the spread of Protestantism. A case study of the 16th-century mining town of Joachimstal in Bohemia.
  568. Find this resource:
  569. Dixon, C. Scott, and Luise Schorn-Schütte, eds. The Protestant Clergy of Early Modern Europe. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.
  570. DOI: 10.1057/9780230518872Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  571. A symposium of essays that explores the social and religious strains experienced both by the clergy and the society they served due to the changes brought about by the Reformation process.
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  573. Eire, Carlos. War against the Idols: The Reformation of Worship from Erasmus to Calvin. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University, 1986.
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  575. A significant study that traces the development of iconoclastic tendencies in Reformation-era Europe into revolutionary and violent anti-image campaign that combined the high theological concerns of the reforming elite with the popular action of the masses. The study thus sees the 16th-century war against “graven images” as a precursor to modern mass movements and revolutions.
  576. Find this resource:
  577. Karant-Nunn, Susan. The Reformation of Ritual: An Interpretation of Early Modern Germany. New York: Routledge, 1997.
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  579. A detailed anthropological study on the struggle between custom and the more disciplinary tendencies of the German Reformers in church liturgy and ritual. The book analyzes such disparate rituals as marriage, confession, childbirth, funerals, and myriad others to present a picture of the reformers obsessed with notions of social discipline.
  580. Find this resource:
  581. Oettinger, Rebecca Wagner. Music as Propaganda in the German Reformation. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2001.
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  583. A well-presented study that analyses individual songs taken from the period of the Reformation to show how they were utilized in the theological propaganda war of the time.
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  585. Sehling, Emil, ed. Die evangelischen Kirchenordnungen des XVI. Jahrhunderts. 5 vols. Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck, 1902–.
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  587. Concentrating on the Northern German territories, and including German-speaking Polish lands, this monumental five-volume account describes the development of Evangelical church orders in the 16th century.
  588. Find this resource:
  589. Veit, Patrice. Das Kirchenlied in der Reformation Martin Luthers: eine thematische und semantische Untersuchung. Stuttgart, Germany: Steiner, 1986.
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  591. Analysis of the nature of Lutheran hymns. Luther himself insisted on the simplicity of religious language both in speech and in song, seeing the use of various linguistic devices such as metaphors, for instance, as possibly counterproductive to the spread of the faith.
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  593. Social Welfare
  594. Like all other aspects of Catholic life, the images of poverty and the role of charity underwent profound transfigurations in the wake of the Protestant challenge. With time, and with the successful spread of the reform, the accepted portrayals of the poor as holy members of the preexisting social order through which the privileged assured themselves a place in heaven have given way to a new interpretation of social poverty exclusive of spiritual worth or meaning. Now contextualized more within the civic, as opposed to a religious sphere, these new approaches led to a grand reappraisal of welfare and charitable institutions in many European cities touched by the reform movement. Geremek 1994, in a work spanning more than the Reformation, provides a good general survey of the issues raised by the changing portrayal of poverty in the 16th century. While Geremek’s analysis is economically driven, Grell 1999 answers with a series of essays on the European concern with poverty from the confessional perspective. Kreiker 1997 shows how the newly reinterpreted poor, including schoolchildren, were made to fit the reformed social order. Schmidt 2006, against the grain, concentrates more on the continuity of pre-Reformation and Reformation concerns for the poor. For an analysis of the effect of the Reformation on social welfare provision in individual cities, see Fischer 1979 for Basel, Freiburg, and Strassburg; Wandel 1990 for Zurich; and Fehler 1999 for Emden.
  595. Fehler, Timothy G. Poor Relief and Protestantism: The Evolution of Social Welfare in Sixteenth-Century Emden. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 1999.
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  597. Uses the north German city of Emden to demonstrate how church and state collaborated to provide relief for the poor. Shows the transfer of poor relief mechanisms from private or state-run agencies to religious ones due to a confluence of confessional changes and economic disasters.
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  599. Fischer, Thomas. Städtische Armut und Armenfürsorge im 15. und 16. Jahrhundert: sozialgeschichtliche Untersuchungen am Beispiel der Städte Basel, Freiburg i. Br. und Straßburg. Göttingen, Germany: Schwartz, 1979.
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  601. This monograph of the author’s doctoral dissertation brings together a massive compilation of sources from several key urban centers to mark the changes in the vision and relief of poverty that accompanied the Reformation crisis.
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  603. Geremek, Bronislaw. Poverty: A History. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1994.
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  605. The historical approach of this general survey of the history of organized responses to poverty in Western culture can only be described as Marxist, giving primacy to materialistic and economic considerations, though the author of this momentous study is anything but a Marxist.
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  607. Grell, Ole Peter, Andrew Cunningham, and Jon Arrizabalaga, eds. Health Care and Poor Relief in Counter-Reformation Europe. London: Routledge, 1999.
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  609. Based on the proceedings of a major 1996 conference on poverty and poor relief, this series of essays analyzes the interaction of medicine, charitable mechanisms, and the religious dimension in select Catholic countries (lacks anything on the Austrian lands or on Poland) during the Counter-Reformation.
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  611. Kreiker, Sebastian. Armut, Schule, Obrigkeit: Armenversorgung und Schulwesen in den evangelischen Kirchenordnungen des 16. Jahrhunderts. Bielefeld, Germany: Verlag für Regionalgeschichte, 1997.
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  613. An eloquent portrayal of the lives of the poor and of schoolchildren in the context of the 16th-century confessional-inspired insistence on standardization and discipline.
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  615. Schmidt, Sebastian. Norm und Praxis der Armenfürsorge in Spätmittelalter und früher Neuzeit. Stuttgart, Germany: Steiner, 2006.
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  617. Explores the continuity of pre-Reformation and Reformation concerns for the poor, and the divergence of theory and practice in all aspects of poverty and welfare relief, especially at the time of profound social change amid newly developing contexts of encroaching territorial statehood, confessional challenges, and shifting mechanisms for poverty relief.
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  619. Wandel, Lee. Always Among Us: Images of the Poor in Zwingli’s Zurich. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
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  621. Studies the general Reformation concern for ordering the care for the poor in the context of reform in Zurich. Sources from Zwingli’s sermons, printed images of the poor, and from city legislation are utilized to argue that the Reformation’s perception of the poor remained complex, never losing sight of poverty’s symbolic role or of the dimensions of its social dependency.
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  623. Propaganda
  624. In many respects, the Reformation was a theological propaganda war of pamphlets, sermons, disputations, and martyrdoms, with both sides of the confessional debate utilizing old-and-tried as well as new methods of getting their message across to the population at large. Many scholars have chronicled these efforts, often concentrating on the novel approaches made possible by the addition of printing to the theological repertoire of the reformers. A general account of propaganda’s importance to the Reformation is offered by Wettges 1978, augmented by the later Hruza 2002. Pettegree 2005 explains the Reformation’s ability to reach its intended audience. Taylor 2003 looks at preaching as a method of religious diffusion in a European context. Kaufmann 2008 looks at the role played by the so-called Turk-pamphlets in the Reformation-era evolution of identity that began to group one’s theological enemies, whether Catholic or Protestant, in the same ideological camp as the Turks. For more regional studies of Reformation-era use of propaganda as a theological tool, see Soergel 1993 for Bavaria, Wabuda 2008 for England, Taylor 1992 for France, and Rein 2008 for Magdeburg.
  625. Hruza, Karel, ed. Propaganda, Kommunikation und Öffentlichkeit (11.–16. Jahrhundert). Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 2002.
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  627. Several contributions focus on interesting aspects of the use of propaganda as information disseminating tool in early modern Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Bohemia, and Italy.
  628. Find this resource:
  629. Kaufmann, Thomas. “Türckenbüchlein”: zur christlichen Wahrnehmung “türkischer Religion” in Spätmittelalter und Reformation. Göttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, 2008.
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  631. An analysis of how Reformation-era anti-Turkish propaganda in Germany and the images of Turks present in the so-called “Turkish pamphlets” were utilized not only in the Christian/Muslim context, but also in order to deconstruct one’s enemies in the Christian confessional divide.
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  633. Pettegree, Andrew. Reformation and the Culture of Persuasion. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
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  635. Asks how it was possible to build the mass movement of the Reformation resulting in the conversion of millions of Europeans before an age of general literacy. Explores the process of persuasion through sermons, song, dramatic performances, and visual images, among other means.
  636. Find this resource:
  637. Rein, Nathan. The Chancery of God: Protestant Print, Polemic, and Propaganda against the Empire, Magdeburg, 1546–1551. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2008.
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  639. An analysis of anti-Imperial and anti–Charles V publications and propaganda issued by the Protestant city of Magdeburg in the wake of the disastrous Schmalkaldic War of 1546–1547.
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  641. Soergel, Philip M. Wondrous in His Saints: Counter-Reformation Propaganda in Bavaria. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993.
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  643. This study of post-Reformation (late 16th-century) Bavarian shrine miracle books underlines the consistency of popular religious practices throughout the early modern period.
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  645. Taylor, Larissa. Soldiers of Christ: Preaching in Late Medieval and Reformation France. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992.
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  647. A rare English-language study of Reformation-era French sermons. The focus is on the analysis and interpretations of particular common topics brought up by a generous sampling of period sermons.
  648. Find this resource:
  649. Taylor, Larissa, ed. Preachers and People in the Reformations and Early Modern Period. Boston: Brill Academic, 2003.
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  651. A valuable collection of essays by scholars of homiletics that reinterprets the sermon away from theological concerns to focus on it as a literary genre and as an event or occurrence within a particular local social context, both Catholic and Protestant, including the French, German, Swiss, Dutch, Italian, and Scandinavian.
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  653. Wabuda, Susan. Preaching during the English Reformation. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2008.
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  655. Maintains that a particular English culture of preaching was already well-established by the time of the Reformation, and that later Protestant preachers consciously stayed true to its demands and expectations. In other words,the mechanisms and styles of preaching did not change with the advent of the English Reformation, though the message did.
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  657. Wettges, Wolfram. Reformation und Propaganda: Studien zur Kommunikation des Aufruhrs in süddeutschen Reichsstädten. Stuttgart, Germany: Klett-Cotta, 1978.
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  659. A study of the methods utilized by the 16th-century reformers to spread their theological ideas among the population of southern Germany. An account of the propaganda campaign launched by the city of Magdeburg against the government of Emperor Charles V in the wake of the Schmalkaldic War (1546–1547).
  660. Find this resource:
  661. Pamphlets
  662. In the Protestant propaganda war against things Catholic, a relatively new genre of publications, the pamphlet, played an enormously important role. It was small in size, thus financially viable and written in the vernacular. Dannenbauer 1930 is an older study with good insight; Chrisman 1996 provides a comprehensive analysis of topics and arguments within the genre of pamphlet literature. An overview of the pamphlet-led propaganda war over Martin Luther’s theological position in the early 1520s is included in Edwards 1994. Schuster 2001 is a thoughtful study of what made the pamphlets such effective means of communication. Laube 1983, though showing a Marxist interpretationist bias, nevertheless offers a judicious selection of Reformation pamphlets structured according to content.
  663. Chrisman, Miriam U. Conflicting Visions of Reform: German Lay Propaganda Pamphlets, 1519–1530. Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press, 1996.
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  665. This comprehensive study analyzes the social context of the writers of Reformation-era pamphlets in an attempt to pinpoint how each social and economic class of authors used Reformation ideology for its own advantage.
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  667. Dannenbauer, Heinz. Luther als religiöser Volksschriftsteller 1517–1520: Ein Beitrag zur Frage nach den Ursachen der Reformation. Tübingen, Germany: Mohr, 1930.
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  669. An older, insightful study that follows the spread of the Reformation through the printed word.
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  671. Edwards, Mark. Printing, Propaganda, and Martin Luther. Berkeley: University of California, 1994.
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  673. Focuses on Luther’s use of vernacular print as propaganda meant to spread his message. Argues that the public rarely had access to the more sophisticated theological message inherent in religious tracts or political pronouncements but would rather receive its information—and make up its mind—based on the simple and brief arguments found within pamphlet literature.
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  675. Laube, Adolf, Annerose Schneider, and Sigrid Looss, eds. Flugschriften der frühen Reformationsbewegung (1518–1524). 2 vols. Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, 1983.
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  677. A Communist-era production, thus showing a marked economic and Marxist bias, that analyzes in two volumes the beginnings of the Reformation in terms of vernacular pamphlet production.
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  679. Schuster, Britt-Marie. Die Verständlichkeit von frühreformatorischen Flugschriften: eine Studie zu kommunikationswirksamen Faktoren der Textgestaltung. Hildesheim, Germany: Olms, 2001.
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  681. A well-researched study of the appeal religious pamphlets had as a means of theological communication between the leaders of the reform and their listeners.
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  683. Radical Movements Of Reform
  684. Some popular dissatisfaction with the state of the Roman Catholic Church and with the progress and shape of the magisterial-driven Reformations of Luther and Calvin created an opportunity for the emergence of other theological voices whose interpretations of the Bible meandered away from standard models and offered new, often socially revolutionary conclusions. These other voices eventually included such disparate groups as the Anabaptists, Mennonites, Hutterites, Quakers, the Bohemian Brethren, Spirituals in general, and the anti-Trinitarians/Socinians, among others. Called collectively “The Radical Reformation,” after a term invented by George Huntston Williams, the emergence of these sects displayed a marked variety of religious and social approaches. For a seminal introduction, see Williams 2000. For a collection of major texts produced by these groups, see Baylor 1991.
  685. Baylor, Michael G., ed. The Radical Reformation. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1991.
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  687. A part of the Cambridge Texts in Political Thought series, this collection of important texts introduces the reader to the theological positions of many of the radical sects working on the margins of the mainstream Protestant Reformation, showing both their incredible spiritual variety and an established set of commonalities.
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  689. Williams, George Huntston. The Radical Reformation. 3d ed. Kirksville, MO: Truman State University Press, 2000.
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  691. An encyclopedic work covering all aspects of the Reformation era across the breadth of Europe from the scholar who introduced the term “Radical Reformation.” It analyzes all the major “radical” sects and discusses their origins as well as their theological stands.
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