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Philadelphia (Atlantic History)

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  1. Introduction
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  3. Philadelphia, founded in 1682, became the largest city in British North America, recognized as a political and economic hub and ultimately served as the first capital of the United States. Quakers founded Philadelphia and retained disproportionate political, economic, and social power long after they had lost demographic dominance. An important strain of scholarship has thus examined the Society of Friends and traced its influence on the politics and pluralism of the region. The ethnic and religious diversity of Philadelphia and Pennsylvania have inspired numerous works examining and attempting to explain how it came to be and how it worked; these range from optimistic accounts that argue for a pragmatic embrace of pluralism to considerably darker interpretations that emphasize fear of Native Americans as bridging previously indifferent or hostile communities. Philadelphia receives significant attention as a critical site contributing to the origins of American financial institutions and fostering dynamic Atlantic commercial engagement. Recent work has likewise focused on the city’s contributions to the evolution of distinctively American forms of political engagement, civic associations, and partisanship, both before and after the American Revolution. Particularly around the bicentennial, a number of works focused on the mobilization of artisans and the “lower sorts.” A related strain of historiography focuses on the lives of ordinary people in the city, with extensive attention to the poor, women, African Americans, and bound labor. These works shift away from mid-20th-century scholarly interest mainly in elites and instead paint a picture of an urban community characterized after 1760 by limited social and economic mobility and resistance to social control from above. Because Philadelphia provides an impressive documentary base, one important strain of scholarship uses the city as a laboratory in which to observe historical phenomena like the public sphere and tavern life, constructions of masculinity, or the lives of single women. While such accounts are sensitive to the context of the city, Philadelphia is not in itself the main variable nor the generator of the specific phenomenon being studied. On the other end of the spectrum, some works position the city as distinctive in its size, diversity, population, and economic importance. Such works attribute to Philadelphia great importance in pioneering political, institutional, economic, constitutional, and social forms of later national and global import. Still, other scholars study Philadelphia in comparison with other places, usually in North America and often but not always other cities. In sharp contrast, however, a recent scholarly strain has pointed to the importance of the rural, western interior, both as an inculcator of political and social change, and as an example of the limitations of Philadelphia’s putative cosmopolitanism.
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  5. General Overviews
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  7. As the largest city in British North America; provincial capital; hub of economic and commercial activity; home to numerous religious and ethnic groups; cosmopolitan center of libraries, hospitals, and voluntary associations; revolutionary center; and market for numerous printers and their newspapers, it is difficult to provide anything like a “general” overview of Philadelphia. The sheer scope and variety of source material makes any such endeavor difficult. A clear chronological account is provided in Weigley, et al. 1982. Bridenbaugh and Bridenbaugh 1942 is dated but a useful starting point for an outline of the major events after about 1723. Roney 2014 outlines the evolution of Philadelphia’s civil society from the foundation the city, through the creation of municipal government, religious institutions, and diverse voluntary associations to the eve of the American Revolution. Warner 1968 remains a classic articulation of the importance of privatism and physical space in Philadelphia. Finally, Nash 2002 considers history making in Philadelphia—providing an outline of historical events through the way they were preserved and remembered by later city residents.
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  9. Bridenbaugh, Carl, and Jessica Bridenbaugh. Rebels and Gentlemen: Philadelphia in the Age of Franklin. New York: Reynal and Hitchcock, 1942.
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  11. This narrative history is rich in detail about the history of 18th-century Philadelphia. Its argument that two cultural groups, one aristocratic and one democratic, battled against one another for dominance is a product of Consensus history that has since largely been bypassed. However, this work remains a trove of facts about early Philadelphia and a good starting point for an overview, though the lack of footnotes is often frustrating.
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  13. Nash, Gary B. First City: Philadelphia and the Forging of Historical Memory. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2002.
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  15. Nash examines the contested efforts to remember and preserve Philadelphia’s past. Three institutions—the Library Company of Philadelphia, Historical Society of Pennsylvania, and the American Philosophical Society—played an outsized role in constructing a historical memory of the city that prioritized certain groups at the expense of others. Featuring rich treatment of artifacts and material culture (including more than 130 images), this book has three chapters devoted to Philadelphia between settlement and the early republic.
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  17. Roney, Jessica Choppin. Governed by a Spirit of Opposition: The Origins of American Political Practice in Colonial Philadelphia. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2014.
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  19. Roney examines Philadelphia governance from 1682 to 1776. She charts the uncertain beginnings of local government, largely effected through churches; the origins, strengths, and weaknesses of the municipal corporation, founded in 1701; the importance of non-state and quasi-state-affiliated actors and organizations to civic, political, and economic life; and finally, the political coup effected in the summer of 1776 to replace provincial government with a new, revolutionary government.
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  21. Scharf, J. Thomas, and Thompson Westcott. History of Philadelphia, 1609–1884. 3 vols. Philadelphia: L. H. Everts, 1884.
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  23. This is the earliest narrative history of Philadelphia, and though it is dated, it remains a valuable resource for historians of the city. Volume 1 proceeds chronologically from 1609 to the 1880s. Volumes 2 and 3 are organized thematically, with chapters on art, culture, religion, medicine, law, the military, municipal government, education, city landmarks, and so on.
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  25. Warner, Sam Bass, Jr. The Private City: Philadelphia in Three Periods of Its Growth. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1968.
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  27. Warner argues that privatism and a “committee system” of municipal government characterized colonial Philadelphia, which he vividly describes as a small, cramped, face-to-face walking city. The book is in three parts; the first treats Philadelphia in the 1770s.
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  29. Weigley, Russell F., Nicholas B. Wainwright, and Edwin Wolf. Philadelphia: A 300-Year History. 2d ed. New York: W. W. Norton, 1982.
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  31. This collection of chronologically based essays narrates Philadelphia’s history from before the permanent arrival of the English up to 1982.
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  33. Published Primary Sources
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  35. Philadelphia has an embarrassment of archival riches. The Library Company of Philadelphia, Historical Society of Pennsylvania, American Philosophical Society, and Philadelphia City Archives contain a wealth of print and manuscript material, while many area archives have more specialized collections—the most notable possibly being the Quaker & Special Collections at Haverford College. Published primary sources likewise are extensive; those listed in this section are only a beginning. The Pennsylvania Archives (1838–1935) and Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography (1877–) are an obvious starting point for almost any research question. Penn 1981–1987 and Franklin 1959– offer the perspective of political insiders, while Moraley 1992 and Drinker 1991 and the edited collection Life in Early Philadelphia contribute viewpoints from residents who held considerably less power. Many exciting online resources make primary sources available, for example, collections of maps and images.
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  37. Drinker, Elizabeth. The Diary of Elizabeth Drinker. 3 vols. Edited by Elaine Forman Crane. Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1991.
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  39. The thirty-six manuscript journals of Elizabeth Sandwith Drinker, a middle-class Quaker woman married to a prominent Philadelphia merchant, cover the years from 1758 until her death in 1807. This source provides vivid accounts of Philadelphia life before, during, and after the revolution and offers perhaps one of the most extensive primary sources by a woman in 18th-century America. Abridged versions are also available.
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  41. Eddy, Henry Howard, and Martha L. Simonetti. Guide to the Published Archives of Pennsylvania, Covering the 138 Volumes of Colonial Records and Pennsylvania Archives, Series I–IX. Harrisburg, PA: Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, 1949.
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  43. Published in ten multivolume series over the course of a century, the Pennsylvania Archives can be difficult to navigate, especially as some volumes reproduce and reorder material previously published in an earlier series. This guide provides a brief explanation and overview of the ten series of Pennsylvania Archives (Colonial Records and Series I–IX) as well as an alphabetical finding list.
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  45. Fold3.
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  47. This website, directed primarily toward genealogists, offers free and searchable access to all 138 volumes of Pennsylvania Archives. It also provides an overview of the ten series and what may be found in each.
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  49. Franklin, Benjamin. The Papers of Benjamin Franklin. 10 vols. Edited by Leonard W. Labaree. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1959–.
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  51. Benjamin Franklin lived in Philadelphia from 1727 to 1757, and from 1785 to 1790. He worked as a printer, author, assemblyman, agent to England, representative to the Continental Congress and Constitutional Congress, and President of Pennsylvania from 1788 to 1790. The published papers include extremely helpful framing and annotation; the papers have also been made available in a digital version that is searchable, but the digital version does not include the annotations.
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  53. Greater Philadelphia GeoHistory Network.
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  55. This website contains thousands of maps of Philadelphia and environs from the 17th century to the present, many of them interactive.
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  57. Minutes of the Common Council of the City of Philadelphia, 1704–1776. Philadelphia: Crissy & Markley, 1847.
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  59. The minutes of the Common Council document one aspect of local government until the Revolution. Topics include market regulation; tavern licensing; and the evolving relationship of the municipal corporation with the proprietary Penn family, the governor, and the Quaker-dominated Assembly.
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  61. Moraley, William. The Infortunate: The Voyage and Adventures of William Moraley, an Indentured Servant. Edited by Susan E. Klepp and Billy G. Smith. University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1992.
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  63. William Moraley arrived in Philadelphia in 1729 as an indentured servant. For five years he attempted to make a go of it in and around Philadelphia, but eventually returned to England where he wrote an account of his experiences. The editors’ introduction and annotations provide context for this remarkable memoir.
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  65. Penn, William. The Papers of William Penn. 3 vols. Edited by Mary Maples Dunn and Richard S. Dunn. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981–1987.
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  67. As the founder of the colony and the original visionary behind Philadelphia’s layout, Penn’s papers provide invaluable insight into the city’s original imagined ideal, initial plan, and the first contentious decades of settlement.
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  69. Pennsylvania Archives. Colonial Records and Series I–IX. 138 vols. Pennsylvania Historical & Museum Commission, Philadelphia.
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  71. Vital records of Pennsylvania from 1664 to 1902 but concentrating on the colonial, revolutionary, and early national periods. Documents include proceedings of the General Assembly, minutes of the Provincial Council and Supreme Executive Council, papers of governors, tax records, militia rolls, church baptismal and marriage records, land warrantee lists, election returns, and records of foreigners arriving on ships.
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  73. Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography. 1877–.
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  75. This publication of the Historical Society of Pennsylvania includes excellent scholarly work but, especially in its first fifty volumes, also focuses on publishing primary sources from its collections. This is a rich resource for a wide variety of diaries, letters, and other transcribed primary documents.
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  77. Smith, Billy G., ed. Life in Early Philadelphia: Documents from the Revolutionary and Early National Periods. University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1995.
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  79. This collection of primary sources is organized in thematic chapters, each introduced by a different scholar of early Philadelphia. Documents range from church records, alms house occurrence dockets, newspaper advertisements for runaways, diaries, letters, and printed materials like broadsides. In most cases they shed light on the lives of ordinary men and women rather than elites.
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  81. Teitelman, S. Robert, and Howell J. Heaney, eds. Birch’s Views of Philadelphia in 1800. Philadelphia: Free Library of Philadelphia, 1982.
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  83. This website reproduces the two hundredth anniversary edition of William Birch’s views of Philadelphia. Each of Birch’s 1800 plates are juxtaposed with photographs taken in 1960 and 2000 from the same angle of the same spot.
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  85. Watson, John F. Watson’s Annals of Philadelphia and Pennsylvania. Philadelphia: John F. Watson, 1857.
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  87. John Fanning Watson collected the reminiscences of Philadelphians about their city in three volumes published 1830–1879. The resulting “memoirs, anecdotes, and incidents” straddle the line between primary and secondary sources. This digitized version offers quick navigation and the ability to search within chapters. Because these works predate copyright law, other versions can be found online. The original manuscript notes that Watson kept are available at the Historical Society of Pennsylvania.
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  89. Before the English
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  91. When Europeans first became aware it existed, the land that later became Philadelphia was owned by the Lenni Lenape. The Dutch began trading with them as early as 1615 but suffered a serious setback when they tried to establish a permanent settlement. European claims to the territory swung between the Swedes (1638), the Dutch, (1655), and after 1664 the English. Recent scholarship has focused renewed attention to the importance of the 17th century to understanding later developments. It stresses the role of the Lenape, Swedes, Finns, and Dutch, to crafting a deliberate, peaceful, cosmopolitan, and fluid nexus long before William Penn arrived. Where Soderlund 2015 and Fur 2009 stress the political and peacekeeping role of the Lenape, Thompson 2013 and Haefeli 2003 suggest that the fluidity and cosmopolitanism of the European settlers did not eliminate but buttressed national and religious identity.
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  93. Fur, Gunlög. A Nation of Women: Gender and Colonial Encounters among the Delaware Indians. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009.
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  95. Using Swedish, Dutch, and Moravian sources, Fur reveals the important role Delaware women played as peacemakers. She argues that the Delaware embraced its identity as “a nation of women” because of this ideal of peace, even as notions of gender and femininity became more complicated after contact with Europeans, and particularly with Moravian missionaries.
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  97. Haefeli, Evan. “The Pennsylvania Difference: Religious Diversity on the Delaware before 1683.” Early American Studies 1.1 (2003): 28–60.
  98. DOI: 10.1353/eam.2007.0054Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  99. Haefeli outlines the history of religious life in the Delaware Valley from the foundation of New Sweden in 1639 to the foundation of Pennsylvania in 1682. New Sweden and New Netherlands each permitted only limited religious toleration. Pennsylvania’s radical change was, unlike previous regimes, to disallow any official mechanism for the support of an established church, facilitating future religious diversity.
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  101. Hoffecker, Carol E. New Sweden in America. Papers presented at the New Sweden in America conference, held at the University of Delaware, March 1988. Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1995.
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  103. This essay collection, the product of a 1988 conference, examines the Swedish context for colonization, relations with Native Americans, and Swedish and Finnish settlers’ experiences in the Delaware Valley, as well as indicating sources for future research.
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  105. Soderlund, Jean R. Lenape Country: Delaware Valley Society before William Penn. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2015.
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  107. Soderlund argues that the Lenape imposed strict limits on the Swedes, Finns, Dutch, and English who tried to settle in the Delaware Valley, creating the conditions for decades in which profitable trade, religious freedom, respect for diversity, and collaborative use of local land and resources among all groups could flourish.
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  109. Thompson, Mark L. The Contest for the Delaware Valley: Allegiance, Identity, and Empire in the Seventeenth Century. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2013.
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  111. Thompson explores the Delaware Valley in the 17th century when it was a nexus claimed and contested by numerous European and indigenous nations. He argues that the fluid cosmopolitanism adopted by settlers to navigate changes in authority from above did not subvert but reinforced national identities. The numerical and political success of the British after 1682 allowed Penn confidently to grant social and political equality to members of other nations, absorbing them into a British civil society.
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  113. Religion
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  115. Contemporaries and scholars alike emphasize Philadelphia’s diverse religious and ethnic populations, facilitated by William Penn’s official policy of religious toleration. Scholars debate and try to contextualize how different denominations reproduced themselves and adapted to conditions in Philadelphia. Readers should also examine the section Ethnicity, which is also closely connected to the topic of religion.
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  117. Quakers
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  119. Quakers, as the charter generation, dominated the founding of the city and the colony and wielded disproportionate cultural, social, political, and economic clout long after they ceased to be a demographic majority. Much of the work on Philadelphia’s religious life focuses on the Quakers. Frost 1973 and Levy 1988 explain the structure and hierarchy of the Society of Friends through close attention to family. Bauman 1971 and Marietta 1984 continue an inward focus on Philadelphia Friends in seeking to explain what Marietta called a “reformation” of Quakerism in the middle of the 18th century during the crisis of the Seven Years War. More recently, Calvert 2009 argues that Quakers contributed a strain of constitutional thought separate from the Whig thought so influential elsewhere in the British Atlantic. Calvert’s work contrasts with Smolenski 2010, which, instead of seeing continuity and an internally consistent Quaker position, argues that Quakers, in common with other Atlantic creoles, were changed by contact with non-Quakers in Pennsylvania.
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  121. Bauman, Richard. For the Reputation of Truth: Politics, Religion, and Conflict among the Pennsylvania Quakers, 1750–1800. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins, 1971.
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  123. Bauman explains the history of Quaker withdrawal from Pennsylvania politics in the later 18th century through an examination of three camps within Quakerism: worldly Quakers, deeply religious Quakers, and politiques who vacillated between the former two. The American Revolution fostered unity through the experience of persecution. After the war, Friends avoided government position and instead worked as outsiders to advance causes like antislavery and amity with Native Americans.
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  125. Calvert, Jane E. Quaker Constitutional and the Political Thought of John Dickinson. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2009.
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  127. Calvert explores Quaker constitutional theory as it was practiced in colonial Pennsylvania and as it influenced founder John Dickinson. She argues that Quakers pioneered civil disobedience and forms of peaceful dissent.
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  129. Frost, J. William. The Quaker Family in Colonial America: A Portrait of the Society of Friends. New York: St. Martin’s, 1973.
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  131. In this overview of British American Quaker religion and life, Frost stresses the interrelated importance of the meeting and the Quaker family. Though this work does not focus on Philadelphia per se, it provides a strong explanation of the Atlantic Quaker faith, demonstrating the unified nature of Quaker thought facilitated by the dense ties and communication between Friends throughout America and Britain.
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  133. Levy, Barry. Quakers and the American Family: British Settlement in the Delaware Valley. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988.
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  135. Levy argues that Quakerism depended on the family to transmit the faith through generations. The desire for familial economic independence underlay the Quaker migration to Pennsylvania, where prosperity helped families provide a nurturing environment for children. Later in the 18th century, with this independence in decline, children began marrying out of Meeting. Quakers elected to disown them, remaining true to their spiritual beliefs, but diminishing their social and political position in Pennsylvania.
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  137. Marietta, Jack D. The Reformation of American Quakerism, 1748–1783. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1984.
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  139. Marietta examines the reformation of American (particularly Pennsylvanian) Quakerism in the mid-18th century, dividing his study for the sake of clarity into social and political components. On the social front, reformers emphasized an active embrace of Quaker doctrine, ending passive membership in the church by aggressively rooting out members who broke discipline. On the political front, conservative Quakers clashed with reformers who urged them to leave formal politics.
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  141. Smolenski, John. Friends and Strangers: The Making of a Creole Culture in Colonial Pennsylvania. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2010.
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  143. Smolenski portrays the foundation of Pennsylvania as chaotic if not outright tortured. The eventual stability that the colony achieved came through “an ongoing process of cultural creolization,” in which Quakers encouraged other colonists and Indians to behave in Quaker ways, but in the process they themselves adapted to form a creolized new identity. Smolenski’s work situates Pennsylvania’s experiences with creolization in an Atlantic context, inviting comparison with other populations.
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  145. Non-Quakers
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  147. Scholars of the diverse array of non-Quaker denominations in Philadelphia tend to focus on a single religious group to describe how it adapted to Philadelphia. Butler 1978 is one of the few works on religion to look deeply at multiple faith traditions in Philadelphia side by side. The author argues that the English churches paralleled one another in the structural challenges of reproducing their denominations in Pennsylvania. Lindman 2008 studies American Baptists with a focus on Philadelphia as a center of organization. Wolf and Whiteman 1957 and Pencak 2002 chart the rise both of Judaism in Philadelphia and its disproportionate backlash in popular and elite anti-Semitism. Light 1996 illustrates the conflicts in attempting to adapt Catholic hierarchy to American conditions, while Warren 2004 places those fights in an Atlantic context by focusing on the Atlantic emigrants and visitors to Philadelphia who influenced the debate. Lambert 1994 moves away from inward-facing religious history to connect religion with larger forces shaping the Atlantic world, specifically evangelical religion, the rise of print culture, and the consumer revolution.
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  149. Butler, Jon. “Power, Authority, and the Origins of American Denominational Order: The English Churches in the Delaware Valley, 1680–1730.” Transactions of the American Philosophical Society (New Series) 68 (1978): 1–85.
  150. DOI: 10.2307/1006282Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  151. Through analysis of the four major English denominations in the Delaware Valley from 1680 to 1730, Butler argues that Quakers, Baptists, and Presbyterians were successful because they imported the hierarchical institutions they had known in Europe, while Anglicans suffered because they were unable to do so. The origins of American denominational order, then, were not egalitarian but instead lay in strong ministerial control and supple hierarchy that originated in European precedents.
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  153. Lambert, Frank. “Pedlar in Divinity”: George Whitefield and the Transatlantic Revivals, 1730–1770. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994.
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  155. Though not a work explicitly about Philadelphia, Lambert’s work places the revivalism of George Whitefield in an Atlantic context of expanding print media and an embracing of the public sphere. Whitefield, who inspired a passionate response in Philadelphia during his visits, worked in partnership with Benjamin Franklin to employ novel new media strategies to amplify his message and its appeal, both locally and throughout the British Atlantic world. Whitefield profited by spreading his message, Franklin by increasing his sales.
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  157. Light, Dale B. Rome and the New Republic: Conflict and Community in Philadelphia Catholicism between the Revolution and the Civil War. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1996.
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  159. Light focuses on Philadelphia as central in the fight to determine the course of American Catholicism. He identifies three distinct periods. In the first, 1787 to 1815, American republican ideas undermined Catholic hierarchy. In the second, 1815 to 1830, the Philadelphia church experienced dramatic, public schism in the struggle between local trusteeism and Catholic universalism. Finally, in the third period from 1830 to 1860, the universalists won and created a centralized Catholic hierarchy.
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  161. Lindman, Janet Moore. Bodies of Belief: Baptist Community in Early America. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008.
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  163. Lindman’s study of early American Baptists focuses in part upon the Philadelphia Baptist Association that, because of its organizational acumen and coherence, became a center of Baptist activism in North America.
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  165. Pencak, William. “Jews and Anti-Semitism in Early Pennsylvania.” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 126 (2002): 365–408.
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  167. Pencak briefly outlines the history of the Philadelphia Jewish community through the 18th century, but spends the majority of his article tracing popular and, later, elite anti-Semitism. He argues that in the context of the tiny Jewish population, late-18th-century anti-Semitism derived largely from political imperatives, as certain groups wished to highlight their own suitability as citizens by casting Jews as unworthy “others.”
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  169. Warren, Richard A. “Displaced ‘Pan-Americans’ and the Transformation of the Catholic Church in Philadelphia, 1789–1850.” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 128 (2004): 343–366.
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  171. Warren situates within an Atlantic context the antebellum struggle within the American Catholic Church to define itself. As Philadelphia Catholics debated whether to prioritize a nativist institution shaped by local trustees or to accept Catholic clerical authority over all aspects of church governance, Catholics from the Caribbean, Latin America, and Ireland shaped the nature and tone of the discussion.
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  173. Wolf, Edwin, II, and Maxwell Whiteman. The History of the Jews in Philadelphia from Colonial Times to the Age of Jackson. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1957.
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  175. Wolf and Whiteman chart the origins of the Philadelphia Jewish community around a few immigrant families in the early 18th century and its maturation around the Sephardic Mikveh Israel Synagogue and the Ashkenazic Rodeph Shalom Synagogue. Chapters treat the social, cultural, economic, and political life of the community as well as contributions to the American Revolution, finance, and philanthropy.
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  177. Culture and Enlightenment
  178.  
  179. Philadelphians prided themselves on the cosmopolitanism of their city, famously calling it “the Athens of America.” Reid-Maroney 2001 argues that the Enlightenment and evangelical religious awakening were complementary rather than adversarial developments. Roney 2014, Haulman 2014, and Koschnik 2007 examine the rich voluntary associational culture that flourished in Philadelphia from the 1720s onward, in all cases linking voluntary associations—whether civic, social, or explicitly partisan—with political culture. Brigham 1995 shows the close relationship between entrepreneur and public in creating one of Philadelphia’s most famous cultural institutions, Charles Willson Peale’s Museum.
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  181. Brigham, David. Public Culture in the Early Republic: Peale’s Museum and Its Audience. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1995.
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  183. Brigham explores the public culture of early republican Philadelphia through Charles Willson Peale’s museum. He argues that Peale did not create the museum alone, but rather in tandem with the public that supported it through their visits, annual subscriptions, donations, and purchases.
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  185. Haulman, Kate. “Rods and Reels: Social Clubs and Political Culture in Early Pennsylvania.” Early American Studies 12 (2014): 143–173.
  186. DOI: 10.1353/eam.2014.0003Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  187. Haulman examines the shifting function of Philadelphia social, sporting, and ethnic clubs over the course of the 18th century. At mid-century they were integral components of political culture, but after independence became more insularly social, a haven from larger democratizing forces that elites did not necessarily support.
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  189. Koschnik, Albrecht. Let a Common Interest Bind Us Together: Associations, Partisanship, and Culture in Philadelphia, 1775–1840. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2007.
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  191. Koschnik argues for the importance of Philadelphia voluntary associations to the genesis, maturation, and survival of proto-political parties in the early republic. Federalists, particularly after 1800, founded professional, artistic, and historical associations that were ostensibly non-partisan but in fact provided a haven for like-minded men to associate and consolidate political views and coordinate action.
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  193. Reid-Maroney, Nina. Philadelphia’s Enlightenment, 1740–1800: Kingdom of Christ, Empire of Reason. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2001.
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  195. Reid-Maroney argues that in Philadelphia, 18th-century natural philosophy and evangelical awakening were not antagonistic but symbiotic phenomena. She roots both developments in Atlantic networks, tracing how Calvinist principles and Enlightenment thought—particularly the theories and medical education coming out of Scotland—shaped Philadelphia religion, education, and science.
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  197. Roney, Jessica Choppin. Governed by a Spirit of Opposition: The Origins of American Political Practice in Colonial Philadelphia. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2014.
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  199. Roney argues for the centrality of colonial voluntary associations in the civic, political, and economic life of Philadelphia. She demonstrates how organizations ranging from fire companies to the Pennsylvania Hospital gave men across a wide class background a voice in local civic matters.
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  201. Ethnicity
  202.  
  203. The historiography of ethnicity in Philadelphia is subsumed in larger questions about Pennsylvania generally. Though the city became the most important port of debarkation for immigrants arriving in the 18th century, most German and Scotch Irish migrants merely passed through the city en route to destinations farther west. The works cited in this section are hardly an exhaustive treatment, but rather have been selected for their focus on Philadelphia itself as a node in the Atlantic trade in servants, as discussed in Wokeck 1999; as a site in which to transplant institutions from Europe, as discussed in Roeber 1993; and as a site of struggle as diverse ethnicities tried to live together. One major debate asks to what degree the pluralism for which Pennsylvania was so celebrated in fact characterized relations among neighbors. Schwartz 1987 argues for a pragmatic embrace of pluralism, while Silver 2008 takes a darker view, arguing that it took the crisis of the Seven Years War to bridge mistrust among different ethnic groups.
  204.  
  205. Roeber, Anthony G. Palatines, Liberty, and Property: German Lutherans in Colonial British America. Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993.
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  207. Roeber studies German Lutheran culture in the Palatinate and details how migrants transplanted social, legal, and religious practices to North America. One particular focus is Saint Michael’s Lutheran Church in Philadelphia as a case study of how German beliefs and practices paralleled some English norms but differed critically in others. Interplay between traditional and new ideologies helped position Germans firmly on the side of the Patriots in the American Revolution.
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  209. Schwartz, Sally. “A Mixed Multitude”: The Struggle for Toleration in Colonial Pennsylvania. New York: New York University Press, 1987.
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  211. This book offers an overview of the many ethnic, national, and religious groups to emigrate voluntarily to Pennsylvania—primarily from England, Wales, Scotland, Ireland, and Germany. Schwartz argues that ethnic pluralism flourished in Pennsylvania in part out of most groups’ self-interested promotion of tolerance and because the lines dividing community were not clear-cut, crisscrossing religious and ethnic identities.
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  213. Silver, Peter. Our Savage Neighbors: How Indian War Transformed Early America. New York: W. W. Norton, 2008.
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  215. Silver argues that fear of Indians in 18th-century Pennsylvania created a rhetoric of “the anti-Indian sublime” that encouraged formerly hostile European ethnic groups to reconceive of themselves as part of a new common group, “white people.” Proponents mobilized this rhetoric flexibly against a range of enemies from Quakers to Loyalists. The anti-Indian sublime increased respect for pluralism, albeit only among white folks, and implicitly buttressed ideas of democracy and popular sovereignty.
  216. Find this resource:
  217. Wokeck, Marianne S. Trade in Strangers: The Beginnings of Mass Migration to North America. University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1999.
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  219. Wokeck studies patterns of European, particularly German, migration to 18th-century Philadelphia and Delaware Valley ports, stressing the emergence of increasingly commercialized credit and trade networks to move migrants. Extensive charts and graphs compare German migrants with other contemporary groups, such as the Irish.
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  221. Politics
  222.  
  223. Philadelphia’s politics have received intense scrutiny. Many works, of which Tully 1994 is the strongest example, have treated the complex provincial political scene dominated by the struggle between the General Assembly and the proprietary family. The politics of the province and of the city show considerable overlap in such works, eliciting some frustration from a growing literature on frontier communities (see Philadelphia and the West). More recent scholarship focuses on Philadelphia as its own discrete political community, eschewing formal politics for what Carp 2007 has termed politics “out of doors.” Collectively, these works characterize the rich and varied avenues for (still overwhelmingly white male) political participation through venues like taverns, as in Thompson 1999, and voluntary associations, as in Roney 2014 and Koschnik 2007. Roney 2014 argues that Philadelphia evolved without a strong municipal core and that as a result, the city’s governance and services relied on a mix of public and public-private associations manned by middle-class men, though occasionally relying on men far down the socioeconomic spectrum as well. Koschnik 2007 carries the story after the revolution, showing how voluntary associations became vehicles for partisanship before the advent of true political parties, and how they nurtured Philadelphia Federalists long after that party had ceased to be a viable national force. The section on the Revolution is also of related interest to Philadelphia politics.
  224.  
  225. Carp, Benjamin L. Rebels Rising: Cities and the American Revolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.
  226. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195304022.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  227. Carp examines the five largest cities in North America before the revolution (Boston, New York, Newport, Charleston, and Philadelphia) to show how cities were in the vanguard of revolutionary resistance in the 1770s. In his final chapter, which focuses on Philadelphia, he shows the importance of “out of doors” organizing in the face of an intransigent legislature.
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  229. Koschnik, Albrecht. Let a Common Interest Bind Us Together: Associations, Partisanship, and Culture in Philadelphia, 1775–1840. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2007.
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  231. Koschnik examines how partisanship flourished in the absence of a recognizable party system, which would not emerge until the 1840s. He details the slow, conditional acceptance of partisan associations in Philadelphia between 1790 and 1815 and then, with the decline of the national Federalist Party after 1800, the way that Philadelphia Federalists used professional, artistic, and historical associations to cement their identity as continuing partisans and assure themselves of cultural ascendancy in the city they no longer controlled politically.
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  233. Roney, Jessica Choppin. Governed by a Spirit of Opposition: The Origins of American Political Practice in Colonial Philadelphia. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2014.
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  235. Roney reframes the civic participation of ordinary people in colonial Philadelphia between 1682 and 1776, showing how, in the absence of a dynamic municipal government, men organized into quasipublic and private organizations to take over everything from military defense and Indian diplomacy to poor relief, education, and firefighting. In the process, these civically engaged men fashioned a new form of political participation that facilitated the transition to revolutionary government in 1776.
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  237. Thompson, Peter. Rum Punch & Revolution: Taverngoing & Public Life in Eighteenth-Century Philadelphia. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999.
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  239. Thompson examines the rites and rituals of tavern culture in 18th-century Philadelphia, delineating how these often-contested sites facilitated a vibrant “public sphere” that in turn helped shape power, politics, and sociability.
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  241. Tully, Alan. Forming American Politics: Ideals, Interests, and Institutions in Colonial New York and Pennsylvania. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994.
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  243. In this comparative work, Tully examines colonial New York and Pennsylvania to argue that scholars must look to this region for the origins of American political culture. Both developed strong legislatures, stable popular governments, and robust partisan politics; Pennsylvania was buttressed by “civil Quakerism.” His minute depiction of Pennsylvania’s government, political factions, and key incidents makes this work still the classic primer on politics in colonial Philadelphia.
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  245. Revolution
  246.  
  247. Pennsylvania was the only polity in the American Revolution to remove from power one class of political elites and replace them largely with a cadre that had never before held formal power. Scholarship on Philadelphia and the American Revolution has focused on this transformation, trying to explain why and how it happened, and interrogating the role of the lower sorts in effecting the change, influencing the state constitution of 1776 (accepted to be the most radical constitution of the period), and shaping the militia and revolutionary governance. All the works listed except Irvin 2011 characterize the revolution as a time of “new” engagement, awakening, and empowerment for ordinary men; some like Rosswurm 1987 espouse an explicitly Marxist framework. For a contrasting view that sees a longer history of civic engagement before 1760, see Roney 2014 in the Politics section. Irvin 2011 moves away from class conflict as the central vector of Revolutionary Philadelphia to examine material culture and public culture of the revolution as a dialectic between ordinary people and national leaders, each trying to tailor these displays to their own ends.
  248.  
  249. Foner, Eric. Tom Paine and Revolutionary America. New York: Oxford University Press, 1976.
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  251. Foner describes the emergence of republicanism in Philadelphia in the era of the American Revolution. He argues that artisans became politically active for the first time, embracing radical plebeian thought and enacting a change of leadership. Paine worked with most Whigs until dissension arose over inflation. Convinced of the importance of strong central government, limited paper money, and free enterprise, Paine eventually broke with many Whigs and then left in 1787.
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  253. Irvin, Benjamin H. Clothed in Robes of Sovereignty: The Continental Congress and the People Out of Doors. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011.
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  255. Irvin examines the symbols and rituals that the Continental Congress produced in order to help fashion national identity and how ordinary people “out of doors” in Philadelphia reacted to, reshaped, and coopted those rituals, celebrations, and material objects to their own purposes.
  256. Find this resource:
  257. Nash, Gary B. The Urban Crucible: Social Change, Political Consciousness, and the Origins of the American Revolution. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1979.
  258. DOI: 10.4159/harvard.9780674182899Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  259. Nash examines northern seaboard cities between 1690 and the American Revolution. Philadelphia, though it initially lagged behind Boston and New York in revolutionary activity, by 1776 became the most radical of the seaboard cities because of the strength of a distinctive, radical lower-class movement.
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  261. Rosswurm, Steven. Arms, Country, and Class: The Philadelphia Militia and “Lower Sort” during the American Revolution, 1775–1783. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1987.
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  263. Rosswurm examines the role of Philadelphia’s “lower sorts” in the American Revolution, arguing that the militia became for them a vehicle toward political consciousness and empowerment.
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  265. Ryerson, Richard Alan. The Revolution is Now Begun: The Radical Committees of Philadelphia, 1765–1776. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1978.
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  267. Through a detailed analysis of the committees and politics of the 1760s and early 1770s, Ryerson argues that Pennsylvania’s revolutionary politics occasioned a sharp divergence from previous political life. An entirely new class of political leaders came to power in the revolution, representing a more middle-class and diverse background than the more elite, more Quaker men they replaced. Many useful appendices list all the men involved in Philadelphia’s revolutionary committees.
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  269. Trade, Commerce, and Movement
  270.  
  271. Scholars recognize Philadelphia as a hub for Atlantic commerce and migration. Doerflinger 1986 shaped the field considerably through a detailed account of the practices and strategies of merchants in revolutionary Philadelphia; the author portrays an economic environment that contained risks but was overall conducive to prosperity (for a contrasting view, see Smith 1990, cited under the “Lower Sorts”). Craig 2004 and Furstenberg 2014 argue for the reciprocal importance between Philadelphia and the Caribbean, with wheat and provisions from Philadelphia’s hinterlands fueling the slave economies that in return produced sugar, coffee, and other commodities. Wokeck 1999 links Philadelphia to another trade, a trade in bound labor (for more on enslaved African labor, see the Slavery and Freedom section). More recent, fresh scholarship has focused on Philadelphia as a home not for the migrants most associated with the larger province, Germans and Scotch Irish, but instead upon the French diaspora. Hodson 2010 looks at an early iteration of French migration after the expulsion of the Acadians, while Garvan 1987 and Furstenberg 2014 argue that refugees from the revolutions in France and Saint-Domingue (Haiti) profoundly shaped Philadelphia at the end of the 18th century. Moving into the early national period, Wright 2005 and Shocket 2007 focus on Philadelphia as a center of finance, both arguing for the overall salutary effects of the rise of corporations, banks, and industrial investment in Philadelphia and its region. For a sharply contrasting view about the role of banks and corporations, see Bouton 2007 (cited under Philadelphia and the West).
  272.  
  273. Craig, Michelle L. “Grounds for Debate? The Place of the Caribbean Provisions Trade in Philadelphia’s Prerevolutionary Economy.” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 128 (2004): 149–177.
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  275. Craig demonstrates the importance of the Caribbean provisions trade to Philadelphia’s economy, calling it the “bedrock” of the export (wheat) economy. Meanwhile, Philadelphia became the most important North American port for Caribbean products.
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  277. Doerflinger, Thomas M. A Vigorous Spirit of Enterprise: Merchants and Economic Development in Revolutionary Philadelphia. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1986.
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  279. Doerflinger examines Philadelphia merchants between 1750 and 1791. He argues that the key to Philadelphia’s economic success was the adversity facing merchants that led them to respond in creative and risky ways. Despite many individual failures, they succeeded collectively in expanding the scope of Philadelphia’s economic reach in the era of the American Revolution, both into the hinterland and out into Atlantic markets.
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  281. Furstenberg, Francois. When the United States Spoke French: Five Refugees Who Shaped a Nation. New York: Penguin, 2014.
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  283. In this engaging book, Furstenberg follows five refugees from the French Revolution as they resettled in Philadelphia in the mid-1790s. He uses the careers of these émigrés to reframe the history of the early republic away from an inward-facing or national story, and instead ties Philadelphia and the new nation to larger forces of war, revolution, intrigue, commerce, and slavery, which was reshaping the Atlantic basin, extending from Europe to the Caribbean to Philadelphia to the trans-Appalachian west.
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  285. Garvan, Beatrice B. Federal Philadelphia, 1785–1825: The Athens of the Western World. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1987.
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  287. Garvan’s work accompanied a 1987 exhibition at the Philadelphia Museum of Art and showcases the painting, sculpture, architecture, furniture, dress, jewelry, and other fine arts produced in Philadelphia in the early national period. She demonstrates especially the shifting influence of European fashion as Philadelphians forsook English for French material culture.
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  289. Hodson, Christopher. “Exile on Spruce Street: An Acadian History.” William and Mary Quarterly 67 (2010): 249–278.
  290. DOI: 10.5309/willmaryquar.67.2.249Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  291. Hodson links the French Acadian diaspora of the mid-1750s to Philadelphia through the narrative device of the life of Charles White, born Charles Leblanc, one of the refugees forcibly expelled from Acadia. White went on to become an important figure in the Philadelphia-Acadian community and to make his fortune in his adopted city. When he died intestate claimants throughout the Atlantic world applied for a share in the inheritance, revealing the breadth of the Acadian diaspora.
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  293. Shocket, Andrew M. Founding Corporate Power in Early National Philadelphia. De Kalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2007.
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  295. Shocket charts the rise of corporate institutions in early national Philadelphia, focusing on banks, internal improvement companies (especially canals), and municipal government services, here focusing on public waterworks. He finds a dense network of corporate elites aggregating political and economic power in the city but ties the rise of corporations to the expansion of economic opportunity, the market revolution, and political democratization.
  296. Find this resource:
  297. Wokeck, Marianne S. Trade in Strangers: The Beginnings of Mass Migration to North America. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1999.
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  299. Wokeck demonstrates the increasingly commercialized credit and trade networks used to move free labor across the Atlantic for a profit. Her book focuses on German migration, but includes rich data, charts, and graphs contextualizing German immigration vis-à-vis Irish and other contemporary migrant groups.
  300. Find this resource:
  301. Wright, Robert E. The First Wall Street: Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, and the Birth of American Finance. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005.
  302. DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226910291.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  303. Wright demonstrates how Philadelphia functioned as the financial center of the new United States for a half century. Colonial-era factors contributed, but the Bank of North America and then the Bank of the United States were the events that most established Chestnut Street as “the first Wall Street.” After New York became more dominant after the mid-1830s, Philadelphia continued to finance industrialization, making the Delaware Valley a robust industrial center.
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  305. Space, Environment, and Disease
  306.  
  307. The physical layout and environment of Philadelphia shaped the social, economic, political, and epidemiological possibilities of the city. A long tradition has attended to William Penn’s vision for the city to be a “greene Country Towne,” but recent scholarship has filled in the disconnect between that ideal and the reality, and the unintended ramifications for political relationships, public health, and the spread of disease. Finger 2012 shows how the densely settled city affected public health, while Smith 2013 provides a gripping tale of how Philadelphia’s status as a hub of Atlantic commerce made it vulnerable to the transmission of epidemic disease, in this case yellow fever from western Africa. Rilling 2001 makes a different contribution, focusing not on the layout but rather on the built environment and its connections to burgeoning capital market and the building trades.
  308.  
  309. Finger, Simon. The Contagious City: The Politics of Health in Early Philadelphia. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2012.
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  311. Finger studies public health in Philadelphia from William Penn’s first plans for the city through the yellow fever epidemic at the end of the 18th century. He analyzes the connections between politics and medicine in this expansive study, emphasizing how contemporary thinkers themselves linked physical health (constitutions) with political health (a different variety of constitutions). This work includes extensive consideration of city layout and space.
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  313. Kornwolf, James D. Architecture and Town Planning in Colonial North America. 2 vols. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins, 2002.
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  315. This comprehensive project examines English, Spanish, French, Dutch, Swedish, Russian, German, and African settlement in North America. A segment devoted to Philadelphia in the second volume gives a fine and well-illustrated survey of the layout and buildings of the 18th-century city.
  316. Find this resource:
  317. Rilling, Donna J. Making Houses: Crafting Capitalism. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001.
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  319. Rilling studies the construction trades in Philadelphia through the careers of three builders who lived between 1790 and 1850. She argues that Philadelphia’s land ownership system facilitated low capital investment and allowed a broad spectrum of builders to enter the housing market. As a result, Philadelphia became a city of modest row houses rather than expensive-to-build tenements.
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  321. Smith, Billy G. Ship of Death: A Voyage That Changed the Atlantic World. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2013.
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  323. In this gripping tale, Smith shows how tightly bound late-18th-century Philadelphia was to the movement of people, goods, and pathogens throughout the Atlantic world. Details how the deadly yellow fever virus came to Philadelphia and the epidemic that claimed the lives of one in nine of the city’s inhabitants in 1793.
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  325. The “Lower Sorts”
  326.  
  327. Considerable scholarly attention has been devoted in the history of early Philadelphia to labor, class, and the lives of what contemporaries called the “lower sorts.” Philadelphia has a strong record base, especially after the 1760s when public and private poor relief became both more necessary and more organized, which has made the city a focal point for scholars interested in urban working people. In contrast to other scholarly strains, substantial consensus reigns in this subfield. Authors rely heavily on demographic data and institutional records—from the Pennsylvania Hospital, Dispensary, Overseers/Guardians of the Poor, Bettering House, and Walnut Street Jail—to argue that beginning with economic depression after the Seven Years War and accelerating with industrial transformation by the late 18th century, the lives of working people became considerably more difficult, as seen in Klepp 1989, Smith 1990, and Schultz 1993. These works argue that as structural changes made it more difficult for the poor to provide for themselves, a rhetoric of personal responsibility blamed the poor for their own poverty, attributing their woes to insufficient work ethic, lack of sobriety, and a host of other moral failings. To correct poverty, then, elites used institutional poor relief (Alexander 1980), the hospital (Newman 2003), and prison (Meranze 1996) to try to “reform” working people, attempting to discipline and control them. The scholarship is constrained by its reliance on the records of these institutions themselves, but still uniformly finds that the lower sorts resisted attempts at control and embraced working class identity and culture. Schultz 1993 and Nash 1979 depart from the rest of the field in an explicit insistence on the formation of, at the very least, a protoclass identity that might be mobilized in politics and the revolution against urban elite and middle-class interests. Meanwhile, Cahif 2012 turns the perspective away from the intentions of elites to argue that impoverished women shaped to their own ends the almshouse as a means toward healthcare.
  328.  
  329. Alexander, John K. Render Them Submissive: Responses to Poverty in Philadelphia, 1760–1800. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1980.
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  331. Alexander examines the lives of Philadelphia’s poor in the era of the American Revolution through an assessment of the institutions intended to combat poverty. He argues that elites feared the power the poor might exert on politics because under the state constitution of 1776, they could vote. The “nonpoor” responded with laws and charitable and educational institutions designed to control the poor and convert them into docile and “industrious poor.”
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  333. Cahif, Jacqueline. “Those Insolent Hardened Husseys Go On Dispensing All Rule & Order Here.” In Buried Lives: Incarcerated Early America. Edited by Michele Lise Tarter and Richard Bell, 85–105. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 2012.
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  335. Cahif argues that impoverished women negotiated the conditions of their admission and captivity in the Philadelphia almshouse and jail. Often, women chose the almshouse infirmary to treat their diseases as the best option in the medical marketplace.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. Klepp, Susan E. Philadelphia in Transition: A Demographic History of the City and Its Occupational Groups, 1720–1830. New York: Garland, 1989.
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  339. In this detailed quantitative study of Philadelphia’s population, Klepp systematically uses demographic records to study the effects of occupation (as a way of getting at socioeconomic class) on population patterns from 1720 to 1830.
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  341. Meranze, Michael. Laboratories of Virtue: Punishment, Revoluton, and Authority in Philadelphia, 1760–1835. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996.
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  343. Meranze describes the evolution of penal systems in early Philadelphia, beginning with colonial-era emphasis on public corporal discipline and moving, after the revolution, successively through three punishment regimes that emphasized first convicts laboring in public, then long-term imprisonment behind prison walls, and finally to solitary confinement in the newly built Eastern State Penitentiary. Throughout, Meranze situates concepts and practices of punishment in an uneasy tension with contemporary discourses on liberalism and the public sphere.
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  345. Nash, Gary B. The Urban Crucible: Social Change, Political Consciousness, and the Origins of the American Revolution. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1979.
  346. DOI: 10.4159/harvard.9780674182899Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  347. Nash examines northern seaboard cities between 1690 and the American Revolution. In each city, rising poverty and narrowing of opportunities led to challenges against the hierarchical social orientation and the formation of protoclass consciousness. Philadelphia, without British troops and a long tradition of overcoming religious differences, was better able to create a distinct and radical lower-class movement than either New York or Boston where lower-class elements were subsumed into the larger political movement.
  348. Find this resource:
  349. Newman, Simon P. Embodied History: The Lives of the Poor in Early Philadelphia. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003.
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  351. Newman examines the lives of the poor in early national Philadelphia through a close consideration of how their bodies were clothed, marked, contained, and disciplined through institutions like the Walnut Street jail, the Pennsylvania Hospital, and the almshouse. By looking as well at how the “lower sort” asserted their own authority over their bodies, Newman establishes the body as an unprecedented site for understanding social relations between elites and the marginalized poor they tried to control.
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  353. Schultz, Ronald. The Republic of Labor: Philadelphia Artisans and the Politics of Class, 1720–1830. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993.
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  355. Schultz traces Philadelphia working-class radicalism back to the religious and political upheaval of the English Civil War. He argues that 18th-century Philadelphia artisans had a clearly articulated moral vision emphasizing community, equality, and the dignity of labor. After the American Revolution, workingmen offered a communitarian countervision to that of political leaders, but found their unity fractured by the rise of industrial capitalism and the division of masters away from journeymen.
  356. Find this resource:
  357. Smith, Billy G. The “Lower Sort”: Philadelphia’s Laboring People, 1750–1800. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1990.
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  359. Smith reconstructs the lives of laboring people in Philadelphia from 1750 to 1800, relying almost entirely on quantitative evidence, but with vivid vignettes of ordinary peoples’ lives sprinkled throughout the work. He argues that though there was economic growth in Philadelphia at this time, the laborers on the bottom saw little of this. Instead, disparity of income and decreased social mobility marked the progression of the century.
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  361. Gender
  362.  
  363. Because of the record base, much of the scholarship on gender in Philadelphia looks at the lives of elites and, using a gendered lens, focuses on the overlapping kin, friendship, and economic networks that densely connected upper-class people. Ditz 1994, a pathbreaking study on masculinity, highlights merchant men’s concern with reputation and how they mobilized gendered language to cope with and overcome business reversals. Fatherly 2008, Branson 2001, and Stabile 2004 demonstrate the power elite women exerted in consolidating networks, furthering family aims, and asserting their own ways of knowing and remembering, as well as in political partisanship. By contrast Wulf 2000 and Lyons 2006 look at actors across the class spectrum. Wulf 2000 focuses on single women in colonial Philadelphia, and while much of her evidence comes from elite women, she studies the lives of poor women as well, finding that single women with dependents (then as in the 21st century) were disproportionately likely to find themselves on the poor rolls. Lyons 2006 looks at the participation of men and women across a broad class spectrum in Philadelphia’s “pleasure culture,” finding a sexually promiscuous underworld that to which both men and women turned for enjoyment and fulfillment. In tandem with many of the works that study working people (see the Lower Sorts), Lyons 2006 and Cahif 2012 find a self-defined and assertive plebeian culture that resisted the efforts of middling and elite people at control or reform. Meanwhile, Dunbar 2008 illustrates the range of experiences and strategies particular to African American women in Philadelphia.
  364.  
  365. Branson, Susan. These Fiery Frenchified Dames: Women and Political Culture in Early National Philadelphia. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001.
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  367. Branson sets Philadelphia women and their political participation in an Atlantic framework. She examines elite women’s reactions to the French Revolution, arguing that through their fashion choices, participation in street culture, engagement with theater, and navigation of social salons, elite women successfully asserted a place for themselves to comment upon and influence the politics of the day.
  368. Find this resource:
  369. Cahif, Jacqueline. “Those Insolent Hardened Husseys Go On Dispensing All Rule & Order Here.” In Buried Lives: Incarcerated Early America. Edited by Michele Lise Tarter and Richard Bell, 85–105. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 2012.
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  371. Cahif focuses on the ways that impoverished women shaped their own lives, even under the most dire of circumstances, by using the Philadelphia almshouse and jail to their own ends when they needed medical care.
  372. Find this resource:
  373. Ditz, Toby L. “Shipwrecked; or, Masculinity Imperiled: Mercantile Representations of Failure and the Gendered Self in Eighteenth-Century Philadelphia.” Journal of American History 81.1 (June 1994): 51–80.
  374. DOI: 10.2307/2080993Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  375. In this pathbreaking article, Ditz uses 18th-century business correspondence to shed light on the production and performance of masculinity among Philadelphia merchants. She argues that men used feminine imagery to characterize economic misfortune. Facing business reversals, letter writers positioned themselves as victims, associating themselves momentarily with femininity. Through the act of writing, however, they stepped back from the crisis and placed themselves as impartial judges over the actions that occurred, thus recouping their masculinity.
  376. Find this resource:
  377. Dunbar, Erica A. A Fragile Freedom: African American Women and Emancipation in the Antebellum City. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2008.
  378. DOI: 10.12987/yale/9780300125917.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  379. Dunbar uses a rich range of sources including friendship albums, church records, labor contracts, court documents, city directories, and letters to explore the lives of African American women in early national Philadelphia. She moves beyond elites to discuss a range of experiences for African American women in their homes, work lives, churches, and in the relationships they forged within their own community and with white women.
  380. Find this resource:
  381. Fatherly, Sarah. Gentlewomen and Learned Ladies: Women and Elite Formation in Eighteenth-Century Philadelphia. Bethlehem, PA: Lehigh University Press, 2008.
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  383. Fatherly demonstrates the role that elite Philadelphia women played in consolidating power for themselves and their families through advanced education, marital alliances, and the conspicuous consumption of luxury goods. Elite women achieved a degree of power for themselves, but it was predicated upon social inequality.
  384. Find this resource:
  385. Lyons, Clare A. Sex among the Rabble: An Intimate History of Gender & Power in the Age of Revolution, Philadelphia, 1730–1830. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006.
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  387. Lyons studies the vibrant urban pleasure culture in Philadelphia between 1760 and 1820 as a site of power relations across gender, class, and racial lines. She argues that a permissive and socially diverse sexual culture flourished until the early 19th century when changing notions of sexuality and gender redefined nonmarital sex as deviant and associated with the lower-class “rabble.” Her work examines proscriptive print culture, erotica, “self-divorce,” urban poor relief, bastardy, and sex commerce.
  388. Find this resource:
  389. Stabile, Susan. Memory’s Daughters: The Material Culture of Remembrance in Eighteenth-Century America. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2004.
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  391. Stabile reconstructs “a poetics of female memory,” focusing on a coterie of elite women in the late-18th and early-19th-centuries. Stabile argues that these women used objects and rituals as mnemonic devices to preserve memory, transforming their gendered emotionalism into a means of strength through which to order their worlds, find fulfillment, and have access to learning and systems.
  392. Find this resource:
  393. Wulf, Karin. Not All Wives: Women of Colonial Philadelphia. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2000.
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  395. Wulf challenges the conflation of women and wives in early America, uncovering the lives of single women—whether yet-to-be married, single their entire lives, or widowed—in colonial Philadelphia in the 18th century. Single women were not restricted by coverture, so they had certain avenues of independence unavailable to their married counterparts, but they had more limited economic opportunities than men and faced a greater risk of poverty, particularly when they were heads of households with young dependents.
  396. Find this resource:
  397. Slavery and Freedom
  398.  
  399. Recent scholarship has stressed the importance of slavery to the economy and labor force of Philadelphia, arguing that bound and unfree labor was central to the success and prosperity of individuals and of the region. Though never the dominant form of labor, slavery nonetheless permeated the economy and the culture of the city. Nash 1988 finds that at mid-century, at about the peak of enslaved labor in the city, one in fifteen Philadelphia households owned one or more slaves. Certain trades had high percentages of enslaved labor—15 percent of dockworkers and 20 percent of female domestic workers. O’Malley 2014 demonstrates how the transshipping of enslaved people from the Caribbean to Mid-Atlantic ports helped stimulate commerce and open markets to eager entrepreneurs—a finding likewise emphasized, in this case, in the context of the French Caribbean in Furstenberg 2014. Uncovering the lives of free and enslaved African Americans with the existing records is difficult, but the standard starting point remains Nash 1988, which looks at the growth of the African American community and the importance of religious institutions as centers of that community. Newman 2008 ably picks up from that starting point through the device of a biography of Richard Allen, founder of the African Methodist Church. Dunbar 2008 adds to this picture with a close examination of the experiences of African American women. Much ink has been spilled on the advent of abolitionism in Philadelphia, and rightly so: Quakers were in the vanguard of antislavery activism. Soderlund 1985 and Jackson 2009 illuminate the struggles within the Quaker community over the complicated issue of abolitionism, which provoked internal splits. Waldstreicher 2004, however, emphasizes the centrality of slavery to revolutionary America and to entrepreneurs and leaders like Benjamin Franklin who only late in life, and only rather lightly, embraced antislavery.
  400.  
  401. Branson, Susan, and Leslie Patrick. “Étrangers dans un Pays Étrange: Saint Domingan Refugees of Color in Philadelphia.” In The Impact of the Haitian Revolution in the Atlantic World. Edited by David P. Geggus, 193–208. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 2001.
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  403. Branson and Patrick examine the influx of free and enslaved Africa-descended who arrived in Philadelphia after the Haitian Revolution. This group added about 500 people to a total population of 2,100 African Americans in the city. Those who came as slaves often continued in bondage. Free or enslaved and often poor, they received little support from any population, including the native Philadelphia black population, divided apart by their Catholicism.
  404. Find this resource:
  405. Dunbar, Erica A. A Fragile Freedom: African American Women and Emancipation in the Antebellum City. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2008.
  406. DOI: 10.12987/yale/9780300125917.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  407. Dunbar explores the lives of Philadelphia African American women in the early republic, examining their everyday lives at home, at work, in church, and as they created community amongst themselves and with white women.
  408. Find this resource:
  409. Furstenberg, Francois. When the United States Spoke French: Five Refugees Who Shaped a Nation. New York: Penguin, 2014.
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  411. Furstenberg discusses the impact of the French and Haitian Revolutions on Philadelphia through the refugee populations that settled there in the 1790s. A significant population of free gens de couleur arrived from Saint Domingue, affecting racial dynamics in the local Catholic church, in daily life as both local white and African American responded to the new group.
  412. Find this resource:
  413. Jackson, Maurice. Let This Voice Be Heard: Anthony Benezet, Father of Atlantic Abolitionism. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009.
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  415. Jackson positions the antislavery activism of Quaker Anthony Benezet in a transatlantic community of abolitionism. One of the few 18th-century abolitionists to engage in a sustained way with the African American community, Benezet linked local African Americans, regional Quakers opposed to slavery, and an ever-more densely connected international network ranging throughout North America and to Great Britain and France.
  416. Find this resource:
  417. Nash, Gary B. Forging Freedom: The Formation of Philadelphia’s Black Community, 1720–1840. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988.
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  419. Nash explores slavery, emancipation, and the growth of a free black community in Philadelphia from the colonial period to 1840. Three different strands interweave through this chronological account: white reactions to and treatment of black people, the building of a black community (and the gradual transition from bondsperson to freedperson), and the central role of religion and churches in the African American community.
  420. Find this resource:
  421. Newman, Richard S. Freedom’s Prophet: Bishop Richard Allen, the AME Church, and the Black Founding Fathers. New York: New York University Press, 2008.
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  423. Newman’s biography of Richard Allen, founder of the African Methodist Episcopal Church, illuminates African American community, religion, and antislavery in late-18th- and early-19th-century Philadelphia.
  424. Find this resource:
  425. O’Malley, Gregory E. Final Passages: The Intercolonial Slave Trade of British America, 1619–1807. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2014.
  426. DOI: 10.5149/northcarolina/9781469615349.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  427. This book is not explicitly about Philadelphia, but it elucidates the route by which most enslaved people came to the city. O’Malley’s work explains the way the intercolonial trade configured the demographics of enslaved populations in cities like Philadelphia and shaped their communities. At the same he demonstrates how transshipping facilitated British-American Atlantic (including Philadelphia) trade by entangling the commerce in other goods with commerce in enslaved people.
  428. Find this resource:
  429. Soderlund, Jean. Quakers and Slavery: A Divided Spirit. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985.
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  431. This work asks why Quakers came to oppose slavery. Through comparison of the social and economic status of Quaker leaders and slaveholders in four geographical areas—Shrewsbury and Chesterfield in New Jersey, Chester and Philadelphia in Pennsylvania—Soderlund provides a wealth of detail on the lives of enslaved people and masters, and the complicated divisions among Quakers regarding abolition.
  432. Find this resource:
  433. Waldstreicher, David. Runaway America: Benjamin Franklin, Slavery, and the American Revolution. New York: Hill and Wang, 2004.
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  435. Waldstreicher explores shades of freedom and unfreedom in early America through a study of Benjamin Franklin who in his life was an apprentice, a runaway, a wage earner, a master, a slave owner, a printer who earned revenue from runaway advertisements, and president of an abolition society. Waldstreicher presents the “self-made” man of early America as a fiction. In fact, men like Franklin could only maintain their independence and success through the unfreedom and bound labor of others.
  436. Find this resource:
  437. Philadelphia and the West
  438.  
  439. Some of the most important and exciting more recent Philadelphia scholarship pivots away from the Atlantic and faces west toward the interior, which the city helped connect back to the Atlantic world. The relationship was always fraught, and much of the more recent scholarship challenges older self-satisfied narratives about enlightened progress in Philadelphia, pointing out the price paid by Native Americans, and the relative exclusion of Scotch Irish and German frontiers people from government and forms of economic opportunity. Anderson and Cayton 2005 argues that from its inception, Pennsylvania displaced the costs of defense onto Native allies, a policy that came to disastrous conclusions when leaders enforced the infamous Walking Purchase in 1737, destroying relations with the Delaware and setting in motion a chain of events that culminated in the Seven Years War. Indeed, from the beginning of contact, Merrell 1999 argues for a relatively grim picture for the possibilities of cross-cultural contact and understanding between Europeans and Native Americans, whereas Merritt 2003 portrays a more optimistic vision of a hybrid intercultural frontier that, however, was destroyed by the Seven Years War. Eustace 2008 argues that Philadelphia-based elites defined themselves in contrast to hot-blooded frontiersmen who they positioned as ungoverned and less worthy of power. Silver 2008 focuses on rhetoric as well, finding anti-Indian hatred critical to a newly emerging identity that bridged across European ethnic groups to create a new racial white identity. In both accounts, however, frontiers people rejected Philadelphia’s dominance, forging their own political and social bonds independently of the elites of the capital city, frequently cast as the enemy. Bouton 2007 tells a similar tale, but is set after the revolution as Philadelphia elites attempted to use new financial institutions to their own ends, harming the interests of rural smallholders who pushed back, most famously in the Whiskey Rebellion and Fries’s Rebellion.
  440.  
  441. Anderson, Fred, and Andrew Cayton. The Dominion of War: Empire and Liberty in North America, 1500–2000. New York: Viking Penguin, 2005.
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  443. This work employs the narrative device of individual biographies to explore war, empire, and liberty in North America between 1500 and 1800. The second chapter, focusing on William Penn and his colony, argues that through successful diplomacy, Penn displaced the costs of defense onto Indian allies—they, rather than white colonists, would be armed and serve as a buffer protecting the pacifist colony from war.
  444. Find this resource:
  445. Bouton, Terry. Taming Democracy: “The People,” the Founders, and the Troubled Ending of the American Revolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.
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  447. In this neoprogressive history of the decades immediately after the American Revolution, Bouton sets the financial interests of local and national leaders based in Philadelphia against rural smallholders who advocated transparent government, a land bank, and progressive taxation. Elites like Robert Morris feared excessive democracy and engineered a new constitution and economic policies anathema to Pennsylvania farmers, provoking ultimately the Whiskey Rebellion of 1794 and Fries’s Rebellion in 1799.
  448. Find this resource:
  449. Eustace, Nicole. Passion Is the Gale: Emotion, Power, and the Coming of the American Revolution. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2008.
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  451. Eustace’s innovative book focuses on how actors in 18th-century Pennsylvania mobilized the language and expression of emotion toward political ends. In contests from the Seven Years War to the American Revolution, Philadelphia-based elites championed emotional restraint while frontiersmen, the lower sorts, and political radicals increasingly framed passion as tied to manliness and civic spiritedness, using emotional language as a way to assert and ultimately win political power and authority.
  452. Find this resource:
  453. Merrell, James H. Into the American Woods: Negotiators on the Pennsylvania Frontier. New York: W. W. Norton, 1999.
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  455. Merrell examines the lives and work of Indian and European negotiators in 18th-century Pennsylvania. He outlines four chronological periods in the relationship between Europeans and Native Americans, moving from a relatively open and receptive relationship with the Delawares in the earliest years to the period of the French and Indian War, by which time no amount of negotiation, however skilled, could satisfy the myriad of competing interests that converged on western Pennsylvania.
  456. Find this resource:
  457. Merritt, Jane T. At the Crossroads: Indians and Empires on a Mid-Atlantic Frontier, 1700–1763. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003.
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  459. Merritt argues that western Pennsylvania was home to settlers from many nations—both Indian and European—and that for a time these disparate groups formed communities of interest to protect themselves during imperial contests among the English, French, and Iroquois. The Seven Years War destroyed the hybrid frontier culture and led instead to intensely intimate violence as communities that had known one another well used that knowledge toward mutual destruction.
  460. Find this resource:
  461. Silver, Peter. Our Savage Neighbors: How Indian War Transformed Early America. New York: W. W. Norton, 2008.
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  463. Silver shifts focus to the Pennsylvania frontier where a fearful and soon enough embittered population of settlers began to see themselves for the first time as “white people” who were under constant attack from enemies without (Indians) and within (Philadelphia Quakers, the British, Loyalists).
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