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Getulio Vargas

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. Getúlio Dornelles Vargas (b. 1882–d. 1954) was perhaps the single most dominant figure in 20th-century Brazilian politics. Vargas was a product of the machine politics of the Republican Party of his home state, Rio Grande do Sul, where he served as governor from 1928 to 1930. He had previously served in the state legislature and federal chamber of deputies. He also served as the federal minister of finance, 1926–1928, during the presidency of Washington Luís (1926–1930), who had been the governor of São Paulo before becoming president. Vargas ran for the presidency of Brazil in 1930 against Washington Luís’s political protégé, the governor of the state of São Paulo, Júlio Prestes. Although Prestes won the vote, leaders from other states were dissatisfied with the domination of São Paulo in national politics and backed Vargas in the Revolution of 1930. Vargas gained power on 24 October 1930 and served as the provisional president of Brazil. He promised to hold national elections and proceeded to rule while Brazil wrote a new constitution in 1934 that granted women the right to vote, provided for a national minimum wage, and guaranteed certain protections for working people, as well as other social and political changes. Vargas created a new Ministry of Labor, Industry, and Commerce to regulate industrial relations and promote industrial development. Rather than hold elections, however, Vargas declared himself the nation’s dictator and established the New State (Estado Novo) regime on 10 November 1937. The Estado Novo had certain fascist features. Vargas developed a close alliance with the United States at this time and even committed troops to fight under Allied command in Europe. Although the military had long supported him, the most-senior generals in the army removed Vargas from power on 29 October 1945, in a bloodless coup. In the congressional elections of 1946, Vargas was elected a senator from both the state of Rio de Janeiro and from Rio Grande do Sul. He served from his home state and again ran for president in 1950. He easily won but faced a number of intractable challenges and committed suicide in his bedroom in the presidential palace on 24 August 1954. Vargas’s political heirs dominated politics until the 1964 military coup.
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  5. Biographies
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  7. Given his central place in 20th-century Brazilian history, it is surprising that there are not more biographies of Vargas. Dulles 1967 is an encyclopedic work that provides a great deal of detail, but little advanced analysis. Mathias and Cony 1983 is more hagiography than academic biography, but it provides a great deal of important detail for understanding Vargas’s appeal. Peixoto 1960 is a memoir by a daughter and so is highly biased, but it is well drawn and conscious of its own limits. Bourne 1974, Fausto 2006, and Silva and Carneiro 1983 provide more political, economic, and social context and are first-rate political biographies. Araújo 1985 and Jorge 1994 focus as much on the personal as the political and complement the standard texts well. There is a perceptible shift in evaluations of Vargas from the 1960s to the early 2000s. Throughout the 1964–1985 military dictatorship, Vargas was read as an authoritarian, but during the post-1985 era of democratic rule, Vargas has been reconsidered as a leader whose policies reflected contemporary politics, rather than shaping those politics. Silva 2004, although fictionalized, reflects that move.
  8.  
  9. Araújo, Rubens Vidal. Os Vargas. Porto Alegre, Brazil: Editora Globo, 1985.
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  11. This journalistic account of the Vargas years is based on interviews with family and friends and rounds out the more-academic studies of the man and his era.
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  13. Bourne, Richard. Getulio Vargas of Brazil, 1883–1954: Sphinx of the Pampas. London: C. Knight, 1974.
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  15. A classic political biography that pays close attention to the shifting political, economic, and social contexts of the various periods of Vargas’s life.
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  17. Dulles, John W. F. Vargas of Brazil: A Political Biography. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1967.
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  19. A closely researched narrative account of Vargas’s life and politics. Although it does not include a strong argument, it remains a valuable resource on the man and his era.
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  21. Fausto, Boris. Getúlio Vargas. Perfis Brasileiros. São Paulo, Brazil: Companhia das Letras, 2006.
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  23. An extended essay that flirts with psychohistory to understand the charisma of Vargas and to place him in the context of his times. The book sees Vargas’s policies not only as a reflection of the man, but also as his responses to the needs of various periods in Brazilian history.
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  25. Jorge, Fernando. Getúlio Vargas e o seu tempo: Um retrato com luz e sombra. 2 vols. Coleção Coroa Vermelha. São Paulo, Brazil: T. A. Queiroz, 1994.
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  27. An extremely detailed biography of Vargas’s life, with an emphasis on the personal. It is particularly strong on his youth.
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  29. Mathias, Herculano Gomes, and Carlos Heitor Cony. Getúlio Vargas: Os grandes personagens e a história. Grandes Personagens e a História. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Grupo Coquetel, 1983.
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  31. A classic hagiography that helps readers understand Vargas’s appeal.
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  33. Peixoto, Alzira Vargas do Amaral. Getúlio Vargas, meu pai. Coleção Catavento 25. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Editóra Globo, 1960.
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  35. Written by Vargas’s daughter, this account concentrates on the period from the 1920s to the establishment of the Estado Novo in 1937. It is highly sympathetic to Vargas, but valuable nonetheless.
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  37. Silva, Hélio, and Maria Cecília Ribas Carneiro. Getúlio Vargas, 15o. presidente do Brasil. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Grupo de Comunicação Três, 1983.
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  39. A textbook account of the Vargas years that is worthwhile for its presentation of the standard view of Vargas as a strong, centralizing figure.
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  41. Silva, Juremir Machado da. Getúlio: Romance. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Record, 2004.
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  43. A semifictional account filled with many factual anecdotes, this work is one of the fullest traditional biographies of Vargas available.
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  45. General Political Histories of the Vargas Era
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  47. Although many of the works listed under Biographies include important details on the political history of the Vargas era, these works deal explicitly with politics and policy making. The publication of the Vargas diaries in 1995 is a fine example of this overlap. Vargas 1995 provides an intimate look at the Brazilian leader, with entries on political and personal issues. Vergara 1960 provides additional personal and political information from an insider who witnessed most of Vargas’s long career. Rocha Lima 1986 and Silva, et al. 2004 offer political biographies of many of the key actors from the Vargas era. Araújo 2004 is a lively account of the political landscape that shaped and was shaped by Vargas. Vargas 1988 complements much of the historiography with a highly sympathetic but worthwhile account of the era. Levine 1970 is a detailed narrative of the political machinations of Vargas’s early rule. There are also a number of works that closely analyze Vargas’s impact on Brazilian society and history. Levine 1998 focuses on the limited impact of the regime’s social policies in the 1930s and early 1940s, and the essays in Hentschke 2006 reveal a variety of different ways Vargas transformed and, in some cases, failed to alter Brazil’s polity.
  48.  
  49. Araújo, Maria Celina Soares d’. A era Vargas. 2d ed. Coleção Polêmica. São Paulo, Brazil: Editora Moderna, 2004.
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  51. A helpful primer on the 1930–1945 period, which provides a broad range of information on the politics of the era.
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  53. Hentschke, Jens R., ed. Vargas and Brazil: New Perspectives. Studies of the Americas. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.
  54. DOI: 10.1057/9780230601758Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  55. An outstanding collection of essays on a broad range of topics related to the entire Vargas era.
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  57. Levine, Robert M. The Vargas Regime: The Critical Years, 1934–1938. New York: Columbia University Press, 1970.
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  59. A well-researched and detailed narrative of a key period in Vargas’s rule. The book is particularly strong on the events of 1935 and those leading up to the establishment of the Estado Novo.
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  61. Levine, Robert M. Father of the Poor?: Vargas and His Era. New Approaches to the Americas. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
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  63. A synthetic treatment of the Vargas years that concentrates on the gap between Vargas’s promises of improved conditions for the poor and the reality of the continuing impoverished conditions.
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  65. Rocha Lima, Valentina da. Getúlio: Uma história oral. 2d ed. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Record, 1986.
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  67. This work provides helpful biographical and political details on the Vargas era.
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  69. Silva, Raul Mendes, Paulo Brandi, Sergio Lamarão, and Celina Vargas do Amaral Peixoto. Getúlio Vargas e seu Tempo. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: BNDES, 2004.
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  71. Biographical sketches and anecdotes that provide a great deal of useful information on Vargas and his times.
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  73. Vargas, Getúlio. Diário. 2 vols. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Siciliano Fundação Getúlio Vargas, 1995.
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  75. These volumes are one of the most valuable sources available for understanding Vargas as a man and leader. The capable researchers at the CPDOC, which contains the archives of Vargas and many of his ministers, aides, and other political contemporaries, did an outstanding job of choosing materials for publication.
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  77. Vargas, Luthero. Getúlio Vargas: A revolução inacabada. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: L. S. Vargas, 1988.
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  79. Highly sympathetic but worthwhile account of the Vargas years, with some previously unpublished materials from Vargas himself.
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  81. Vergara, Luiz. Fui secretário de Getúlio Vargas: Memórias dos anos 1926–1954. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Editora Globo, 1960.
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  83. A memoir by Vargas’s personal secretary, who served from Vargas’s years in Porto Alegre through the period of national politics in Rio. It is filled with fascinating anecdotes that complement well the standard political bibliographies.
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  85. Early Politics and the Revolution of 1930
  86.  
  87. Although Vargas is known primarily as a national figure and one who sought to unify Brazil with a highly nationalistic program, he was a product of specific state politics that shaped the Revolution of 1930 and his initial period of rule. Abreu 1997 closely studies Vargas’s brief tenure as the governor of Rio Grande do Sul to explain how and why he sought the presidency in 1930. Abreu 2007 returns to this focus to place the Estado Novo dictatorship in the context of Vargas’s home-state politics. A brief but insightful essay, Axt 2006 analyzes Vargas in Rio Grande do Sul to understand his national rule in the 1930s and 1940s. Alexander 1956 and Forjaz 1989 are outstanding studies of the young, reform-minded military officers (the “tenentes”) and how they supported the 1930 revolution and then pushed Vargas in the direction of reform early in his rule. Gomes 1999 complements studies of the tenentes, who burst on the scene in the 1920s, with an outstanding analysis of the rise of modernist, nationalist intellectuals in Rio in the 1920s. The tenentes and modernist intellectuals broke new ground by emphasizing nationalism and a centralizing government during the heyday of federalism in Brazil. Fausto 1970 is the classic text on the revolution as a modernizing move by a rising middle class. Fundação Getúlio Vargas 1983 rounds out that analysis with a careful interpretation of a broad variety of actors in the revolution.
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  89. Abreu, Luciano Aronne de. Getúlio Vargas: A construção de um mito, 1928–30. Coleção História 14. Porto Alegre, Brazil: EDIPUCRS, 1997.
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  91. Careful study of Vargas’s time as the governor of Rio Grande do Sul. Shows how his experiences then shaped his era of national rule.
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  93. Abreu, Luciano Aronne de. Um olhar regional sobre o estado novo. Coleção Nova et Vetera 12. Porto Alegre, Brazil: EDIPUCRS, 2007.
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  95. Well-researched political history showing the important connections between Vargas’s experiences in Rio Grande do Sul and the Estado Novo.
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  97. Alexander, Robert. “Brazilian Tenentismo.” Hispanic American Historical Review 36.2 (May 1956): 229–242.
  98. DOI: 10.2307/2508666Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  99. An important analysis of the role of young military officers in politics in the 1920s and how their experiences and ideology shaped not only the early democratic phase of Vargas’s rule, but also the dictatorial Estado Novo. Available online to subscribers.
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  101. Axt, Gunter. “The Origins of an ‘Enigma’: Getúlio Vargas, Rio Grande do Sul’s Decaying Coronelismo, and the Genesis of the Interventionist State before the 1930 Revolution.” In Vargas and Brazil: New Perspectives. Edited by Jens R. Hentschke, 31–53. Studies of the Americas. New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2006.
  102. DOI: 10.1057/9780230601758Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  103. A careful study of political experiences in state government that provides key background for understanding Vargas’s statist orientation in the 1930s.
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  105. Fausto, Boris. A Revolução de 1930: Historiografia e História. São Paulo, Brazil: Editora Brasiliense, 1970.
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  107. This classic work sees Vargas’s initial rise to power in 1930 as a middle-class victory over the coffee-based oligarchy. The analysis is rooted in the classic scheme developed by Barrington Moore. Although dated, it remains an important text within the historiography.
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  109. Forjaz, Maria Cecília Spina. Tenentismo e forças armadas na Revolução de 30. 1a. ed. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Forense Universitária, 1989.
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  111. Perhaps the most complete study of the role of young military officers (tenentes) in the development of Vargas’s initial policies in the aftermath of taking power in 1930.
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  113. Fundação Getúlio Vargas, Centro de Pesquisa e Documentação. A Revolução de 30: Seminário internacional. Colecao Temas Brasileiras 54. Brasília, Brazil: Editora Universidade de Brasília, 1983.
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  115. Essays by leading scholars from around the world on the origins and meaning of the Revolution of 1930.
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  117. Gomes, Ángela Maria de Castro. Essa gente do Rio: Modernismo e nacionalismo. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Fundação Getúlio Vargas Editora, 1999.
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  119. A thoughtful essay on the connections between modernist intellectuals in Rio de Janeiro in the 1920s and the evolving modernist and centralizing ideology of the Vargas regime.
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  121. The Estado Novo Dictatorship
  122.  
  123. The Estado Novo (1937–1945) confused contemporary commentators, given its protofascist ideals but much more fluid political practice. Carone 1976 provides a wealth of information via primary documents from the period, and Araújo 2000 is an outstanding introductory text on the dictatorship. Ianni 1971 is a classic study of the rise of the central state itself during this dictatorship. Werneck da Silva 1991 includes a series of essays that show the broader impact of that new state structure on the nation. Guimarães 1990 details the ways the Estado Novo promoted itself through a completely new state propaganda machine. Medeiros 1978 details the dictatorship’s Far Right ideologues, while Gomes 1999 provides a fascinating and entertaining look at the role of historians and other intellectuals in propagating the ideas behind the Estado Novo. Dulles 1986 provides a unique look at the legalistic opposition to dictatorship.
  124.  
  125. Araújo, Maria Celina Soares d’. O Estado Novo. Descobrindo o Brasil. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Jorge Zahar Editor, 2000.
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  127. By a leading historian of the epoch, an extended essay on the basic political orientation and operation of the Estado Novo.
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  129. Carone, Edgard, ed. A terceira república, 1937–1945. Corpo e Alma do Brasil 44. São Paulo, Brazil: Difusão Européia do Livro (Difel), 1976.
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  131. A comprehensive collection of annotated documents covering the Estado Novo years. It is an essential source for understanding the period.
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  133. Dulles, John W. F. The São Paulo Law School and the Anti-Vargas Resistance (1938–1945). Austin: University of Texas Press, 1986.
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  135. A fascinating and well-researched study of the role of the São Paulo Law School in crafting a unique form of opposition to Vargas’s rule, especially during the Estado Novo. This work provides a unique perspective on elite and middle-class opposition to the regime.
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  137. Gomes, Ángela Maria de Castro. História e historiadores: A política cultural do Estado Novo. 2d ed. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Fundação Getúlio Vargas Editora, 1999.
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  139. A fascinating analysis of the role of historians and other scholars in fashioning many of the ideas underlying the Estado Novo.
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  141. Guimarães, Silvana Goulart. Sob a verdade oficial: Ideologia, propaganda e censura no Estado Novo. Coleção Onde Está a República. São Paulo, Brazil: Marco Zero, 1990.
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  143. An analysis of the Vargas regime’s creation and dissemination of propaganda.
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  145. Ianni, Octavio. “Ideologia e prática do planejamento durante o Estado Nôvo.” Revista de Administração de Empresas 11.1 (January–March 1971): 7–15.
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  147. An important statement on the role of the Estado Novo in creating the technocratic tradition that shaped Brazilian politics and policy planning in the 1950s and throughout the years of the military dictatorship.
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  149. Medeiros, Jarbas. Ideologia autoritária no Brasil, 1930–1945. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Instituto de Documentação Editora da Fundação Getúlio Vargas, 1978.
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  151. An excellent collection of essays on the leading conservative ideologues of the 1930s, whose writings helped shape politics during the Estado Novo and beyond.
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  153. Werneck da Silva, José Luiz, ed. O feixe e o prisma: Uma revisão do Estado Novo. Coleção Jubileu. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: J. Zahar Editor, 1991.
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  155. Outstanding collection of essays on the Estado Novo that combine sociology, political science, history, and economics.
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  157. Policy Making and Regional Politics
  158.  
  159. There has been a proliferation of works on the actual implementation of policy during the Vargas years and its impact regionally. Pereira 2003 analyzes policy making within the context of mid- to late-20th-century Brazilian politics. Two of the b studies of policy making concentrate on education as state making. Hentschke 2007, a careful analysis of education’s focus on nationalist themes and centralizing, complements well Dávila 2003, a pathbreaking work on race and education. Both of these studies show how the promises of policy far outstripped the practice. Neves 2001 analyzes policies that Rio managed to implement far from the national capital, by studying drought relief and flood control. The intersection of national and local politics has most often been studied for the national capital, Rio de Janeiro, and Brazil’s largest and richest city, São Paulo. Conniff 1981 remains an outstanding work on the populist mayor of Rio and his conflicts with Vargas in the 1930s. Sarmento 2001 provides additional detail on this complex relationship. São Paulo separatism and anger at Vargas, who overthrew São Paulo’s governor (Washington Luís) and prevented another (Júlio Prestes) from taking the presidency, is a key theme for the 1930s. Leite 1962 is a classic work on the 1932 civil war launched by São Paulo, while Woodard 2006 updates that analysis with a rich study of regional identity.
  160.  
  161. Conniff, Michael L. Urban Politics in Brazil: The Rise of Populism, 1925–1945. Pitt Latin American series. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1981.
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  163. A careful study of Rio city politics that follows the rise of protopopulist mayor Pedro Ernesto to understand the tensions latent in the Vargas era.
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  165. Dávila, Jerry. Diploma of Whiteness: Race and Social Policy in Brazil, 1917–1945. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003.
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  167. A well-researched study of education policy and reform that concentrates on the Vargas era. The book details the problem of policy changes often having little impact on education for the majority of Brazilians.
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  169. Hentschke, Jens R. Reconstructing the Brazilian Nation: Public Schooling in the Vargas Era. Baden-Baden, Germany: Nomos, 2007.
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  171. A detailed study of attempts to promote nationalism and a centralizing politics through the public school system. The book describes the plans that were more effective in the capital than throughout the nation.
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  173. Leite, Aureliano. “Causas e objetivos da Revolução de 1932.” Revista de História 25.51 (1962): 139–144.
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  175. A classic account of the 1932 civil war that transcends standard accounts of Paulista rivalry and opposition to Rio.
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  177. Neves, Frederico de Castro. “Getúlio e a seca: Políticas emergenciais na era Vargas.” Revista Brasileira de História 21.40 (2001): 107–131.
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  179. A closely researched account of government policy in northeastern Brazil in reaction to drought. This work is helpful in that it details the actual workings of the Vargas government in response to a crisis.
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  181. Pereira, Luiz Carlos Bresser. Desenvolvimento e crise no Brasil: História, economia e política de Getúlio Vargas a Lula. 5th ed. São Paulo, Brazil: Editora 34, 2003.
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  183. One of the most important textbooks on Brazilian politics and political history. The chapters on Vargas are essential reading for students of the era.
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  185. Sarmento, Carlos Eduardo. O Rio de Janeiro na era Pedro Ernesto. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Fundação Getúlio Vargas (FGV) Editora, 2001.
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  187. A well-researched analysis of Rio’s populist mayor and his ties to and conflicts with the Vargas administration.
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  189. Woodard, James. “‘All for São Paulo, All for Brazil’: Vargas, the Paulistas, and the Historiography of Twentieth-Century Brazil.” In Vargas and Brazil: New Perspectives. Edited by Jens R. Hentschke, 83–107. Studies of the Americas. New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2006.
  190. DOI: 10.1057/9780230601758Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  191. A comprehensive analysis of the complex competition between São Paulo’s political elites and the Vargas regime before, during, and after the 1932 civil war.
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  193. Opposition from the Right and Left
  194.  
  195. Vargas’s shifting politics from his 1930 seizure of power to his 1954 suicide confused his contemporaries as well as later commentators. He therefore faced opponents on the left and right, who were often organized in political parties, including the Brazilian Communist Party (PCB) on the left and the fascistic Brazilian Integralist Action (AIB) on the right. Although a bit encyclopedic, Dulles 1983 remains a highly useful source for understanding the Communists at this time. Hilton 1986 is an outstanding study of the abortive 1935 Communist uprising (the Intentona). Borges 1994 provides an excellent account of the shifting intellectual landscape of the 1930s. Dulles 2002 studies the Catholic-based thought deployed by a leading Vargas opponent. Some of the best work on Vargas’s opposition concentrates on the right-wing Integralists. Trindade 1974 remains an indispensable source on the movement. Klein 2004 updates Trindade and so is a useful companion text. Hilton 1972 is strong in detailing the ways the Integralists differed from Vargas, and McCann 1969 delves deep into government archives to detail how Vargas derailed the movement. Caldeira 1999 is a particularly valuable study because it focuses on the Integralists in Maranhão, far from the strongholds in Brazil’s center-south and south.
  196.  
  197. Borges, Dain. “Brazilian Social Thought of the 1930s.” Luso-Brazilian Review 31.2 (Winter 1994): 141–154.
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  199. An outstanding review essay on several of the most significant works on the intellectual history of the 1930s. A key work for understanding the ideological debates and underpinnings of the era.
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  201. Caldeira, João Ricardo de Castro. Integralismo e política regional: A ação integralista no Maranhão, 1933–1937. São Paulo, Brazil: Annablume, 1999.
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  203. A careful, regionally based study of the fascist Integralist movement. This is particularly helpful because, unlike most analyses of this movement that concentrate on the southern state of Rio Grande do Sul or the national capital, Rio de Janeiro, Caldeira focuses on the Amazonian north.
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  205. Dulles, John W. F. Brazilian Communism, 1935–1945: Repression during World Upheaval. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1983.
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  207. A closely researched study of the Brazilian Communist Party during the Estado Novo and Brazil’s participation in World War II, when it was technically an ally of the Soviet Union. A key text for understanding the formal Left in Brazil.
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  209. Dulles, John W. F. Sobral Pinto, “the Conscience of Brazil”: Leading the Attack against Vargas (1930–1945). Austin: University of Texas Press, 2002.
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  211. A closely researched study of a Catholic-based intellectual opposition to Vargas’s suspension of civil liberties. This work closely follows the often-unpopular opposition to Vargas, based on a coherent, ethical worldview.
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  213. Hilton, Stanley. “Ação Integralista Brasileira: Fascism in Brazil, 1932–1938.” Luso-Brazilian Review 9.2 (Winter 1972): 3–29.
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  215. A valuable analysis of the Integralists’ actual policy positions and how they challenged Vargas during the 1930s.
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  217. Hilton, Stanley. A Rebelião Vermelha. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Record, 1986.
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  219. A narrative history of the 1935 Communist coup attempt (the Intentona), based on a careful reading of Brazilian, American, and British sources.
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  221. Klein, Marcu. Our Brazil Will Awake!: The Acção Integralista Brasileira and the Failed Quest for a Fascist Order in the 1930s. Amsterdam: Centre for Latin American Research and Documentation (CEDLA), 2004.
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  223. A very broadly and well-researched study of the Integralists and how they related to other political movements in Brazil and the rest of Latin America in the 1930s.
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  225. McCann, Frank D., Jr. “Vargas and the Destruction of the Brazilian Integralist and Nazi Parties.” The Americas 26.1 (July 1969): 15–34.
  226. DOI: 10.2307/979963Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  227. A detailed account of Vargas’s moves against the established political Right as he set up his own dictatorship in the late 1930s.
  228. Find this resource:
  229. Trindade, Hélgio Henrique. Integralismo o fascismo Brasileiro na década de 30. Corpo e Alma do Brasil 40. São Paulo, Brazil: Difel, 1974.
  230. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  231. The single-best study of the fascist Integralist movement. In addition to providing a wealth of material on the movement’s leaders, rank-and-file members, and activities, the book places the Integralists into their proper political and ideological context, which is as much Brazilian as fascist.
  232. Find this resource:
  233. The Military under Vargas
  234.  
  235. The military played a key role in bringing Vargas to power in 1930. It later removed him in 1945. McCann 2006 is perhaps the best overview of the relationship between Vargas and Brazil’s most powerful generals. McCann 1983 focuses on the army’s role in influencing actual policies, while Moreira Bento 1983 details the Vargas’s impact on the military itself. Oliveira 1996 provides a careful analysis of Vargas’s decision to side with the Allies against the Axis powers and reveals the divisions and tensions among the army leadership in the 1930s and early 1940s. Vale 1978 provides a careful analysis of the workings of Brazil’s top generals in the run-up to Vargas’s 1945 ouster.
  236.  
  237. McCann, Frank D., Jr. “The Brazilian General Staff and Brazil’s Military Situation: 1900–1945.” Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 25.3 (August 1983): 299–324.
  238. DOI: 10.2307/165781Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  239. A closely researched account of the Brazilian military’s ideology and how concerns over perceived Argentine aggression shaped the domestic components of the national security doctrine.
  240. Find this resource:
  241. McCann, Frank D., Jr. “The Military and the Dictatorship: Getúlio, Góes, and Dutra.” In Vargas and Brazil: New Perspectives. Edited by Jens R. Hentschke, 109–141. Studies of the Americas. New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2006.
  242. DOI: 10.1057/9780230601758Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  243. An excellent analysis of the complex relationship between Vargas and his generals during the Estado Novo and leading up to his 1945 ouster at their hands.
  244. Find this resource:
  245. Moreira Bento, Cláudio. “Getúlio Vargas e a evolução da doutrina do exército, 1930–1945.” Revista do Instituto Histórico e Geográfico Brasileiro 339 (April–June 1983): 63–71.
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  247. A helpful study of how the Vargas years helped to shape the modernization of the military, which played a steadily increasing role in national politics.
  248. Find this resource:
  249. Oliveira, Sérgio. Getúlio Vargas Depõe: O Brasil na Segunda Guerra Mundial. Porto Alegre, Brazil: Revisão Editora, 1996.
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  251. This work concentrates on Vargas’s personal role in juggling German and American interests and his ultimate decision to side with the Allies during World War II.
  252. Find this resource:
  253. Vale, Osvaldo Trigueiro do. O General Dutra e a redemocratização de 45. Retratos do Brasil 120. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Civilização Brasileira, 1978.
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  255. A detailed study of the relationship between Vargas and one of his most trusted military allies, who went on to remove him from office and then win the 1945 presidential election.
  256. Find this resource:
  257. The Second Vargas Era
  258.  
  259. Vargas returned to lead Brazil in 1951 as the nation’s democratically elected president. Araújo 1982 remains one of the best studies of Vargas’s brief stint as an elected leader. Gomes 1994 focuses on the economic and political crises that proved to be too much for him after so many years of dominating Brazilian politics. Araújo 1988 is a nuanced study of the operation of Vargas’s Labor Party (the PTB) in São Paulo. It details how Vargas had lost control of his populism by the 1950 presidential election. Lacerda Paiva 1994 focuses on the political crises of Vargas’s last year of life, while Vieira 1983 places Vargas’s achievements and failures in the broader context of late-twentieth-century politics. Rogers 2006 is an outstanding analysis of the politics of Vargas’s suicide. Williams and Weinstein 2004 studies the suicide as a political event that had long-term implications for the nation.
  260.  
  261. Araújo, Maria Celina Soares d’. O segundo governo Vargas, 1951–1954: Democracia, partidos e crise política. Política e sociedade. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Zahar Editores, 1982.
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  263. A carefully researched study of Vargas’s time as the elected president of Brazil, which concentrates on the complexity of politics in the early 1950s and intractability of the problems Vargas faced. E-book.
  264. Find this resource:
  265. Araújo, Maria Celina Soares d’. O PTB de São Paulo: De Vargas a Ivete. Textos CPDOC. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: FGV, 1988.
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  267. A classic political study of Vargas’s Labor Party in São Paulo state, which focuses on local party leaders and the challenges of operating in the electoral milieu.
  268. Find this resource:
  269. Gomes, Ángela Maria de Castro, ed. Vargas e a crise dos Anos 50. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Relume Dumará, 1994.
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  271. An excellent collection of essays by Brazilian and foreign scholars who bring a wide range of perspectives to the era. This work is an excellent starting point for more-advanced analyses of the Vargas years.
  272. Find this resource:
  273. Lacerda Paiva, Cláudio. Uma crise de Agosto: O atentado da rua toneleros. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Nova Fronteira, 1994.
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  275. A very helpful study of the political crisis that marked the beginning of the end of the Vargas years that culminated with his August 1954 suicide.
  276. Find this resource:
  277. Rogers, Thomas. “‘I Choose This Means to Be with You Always’: Getúlio Vargas’s Carta Testamento.” In Vargas and Brazil: New Perspectives. Edited by Jens R. Hentschke, 227–255. Studies of the Americas. New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2006.
  278. DOI: 10.1057/9780230601758Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  279. A thoughtful and innovative analysis of Vargas’s suicide that shows the leader’s attempts to manipulate politics after he had left the scene.
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Vieira, Evaldo Amaro. Estado e Miséria Social no Brasil: De Getúlio a Geisel, 1951 a 1978. São Paulo, Brazil: Cortez Editora, 1983.
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  283. A careful analysis of social and educational policies during the second Vargas period (1951–1954), which details the real limits to populist policy making in practice.
  284. Find this resource:
  285. Williams, Daryle, and Barbara Weinstein. “Vargas Morto: The Death and Life of a Brazilian Statesman.” In Death, Dismemberment, and Memory: Body Politics in Latin America. Edited by Lyman L. Johnson, 273–315. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2004.
  286. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  287. A fascinating study of the meaning of Vargas’s suicide for Brazilian politics in the 1950s and beyond.
  288. Find this resource:
  289. Vargas’s Political Legacy
  290.  
  291. As a leader who dominated Brazilian politics for so many years, Vargas has left a complex legacy. Although his political heirs played prominent roles after his death and even during the 1964–1985 military dictatorship, Vargas did not leave a popular political movement as his legacy. Amaral 1984 decries this fact and argues that Brazil would have been better off had more Brazilians embraced Vargas after his death. Lauerhass 1986 is a detailed and impressive analysis of the nationalist and centralizing politics that Vargas bequeathed to Brazil. Lauerhass 1999 traces the ways that impact can be detected long after Vargas and his allies had left the scene. Dávila 2006 makes a provocative case for the idea that Vargas’s impact is still consciously felt in Brazil long after 1954. And Skidmore 2007 remains the preeminent work on Brazilian politics and the legacy of Vargas and how that delayed the development of democracy and democratic institutions.
  292.  
  293. Amaral, Anselmo F. Getúlio Vargas, Continuador de uma idéia: Vítima da espoliação. Porto Alegre, Brazil: Martins Livreiro Editor, 1984.
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  295. A comprehensive political biography that is sympathetic to Vargas but sees his nationalizing project as ultimately a failure.
  296. Find this resource:
  297. Dávila, Jerry. “Myth and Memory: Getúlio Vargas’s Long Shadow over Brazilian History.” In Vargas and Brazil: New Perspectives. Edited by Jens R. Hentschke, 257–282. Studies of the Americas. New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2006.
  298. DOI: 10.1057/9780230601758Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  299. A provocative essay that argues that Vargas’s legacy is broader and deeper than is generally assumed by historians.
  300. Find this resource:
  301. Lauerhass, Ludwig, Jr. Getúlio Vargas e o Triunfo do nacionalismo brasileiro. Coleção Reconquista do Brasil 2.99. Belo Horizonte, Brazil: Itatiaia, 1986.
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  303. A closely researched study of the development of nationalist discourses in Brazil from the beginning of the 20th century to the 1930s, which provides important context for understanding the Vargas years.
  304. Find this resource:
  305. Lauerhass, Ludwig, Jr. “Quem foi Getúlio?: Temas e variações nas representações políticas brasileiras.” Revista do Instituto Histórico e Geográfico Brasileiro 160.403 (1999): 325–335.
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  307. A well-researched and helpful analysis of the key representations of Vargas in politics.
  308. Find this resource:
  309. Skidmore, Thomas E. Politics in Brazil, 1930–1964: An Experiment in Democracy. Updated ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007.
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  311. This work is still the single most useful text for understanding Brazilian politics from the beginnings of the Vargas era to the 1964 military coup. It is particularly strong in its analyses of weak political institutions and the evolving political economy of the period.
  312. Find this resource:
  313. The Economy and Economic Policy Making
  314.  
  315. As with standard biographies, there is surprisingly little work on economic policy and its impact during the long era of Vargas’s rule. Diniz 1978, Fonseca 1989, and Wirth 1970 highlight centralized planning for heavy industry and the relationship between the regime and industrialists. Szmrecsányi and Granziera 2004 supplements these studies with careful economic analyses of Vargas’s developmentalism. Wolfe 2010 places this developmentalism into a broader historical context and then moves forward to show the legacy of Vargas’s policies by focusing on the automobile industry and its forward and backward linkages. São Paulo’s powerful manufacturing elite have been studied not only because of their economic importance while Vargas concentrated on industrial development, but also because of the oppositional role São Paulo state played politically throughout these years, particularly during and after the 1932 civil war. Suzigan 1971 and Weinstein 1996 examine the Paulistas from different perspectives. Neves 2001 provides a different regional focus by studying policy in the northeast. Crocitti 2006 is an outstanding and detailed study of the nationwide failure of economic policy under Vargas in the 1930s to substantively improve the lives of the majority of Brazilians.
  316.  
  317. Crocitti, John J. “Vargas Era Social Policies: An Inquiry into Brazilian Malnutrition during the Estado Novo (1937–45).” In Vargas and Brazil: New Perspectives. Edited by Jens R. Hentschke, 143–171. Studies of the Americas. New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2006.
  318. DOI: 10.1057/9780230601758Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  319. A highly original and valuable contribution to the literature that shows the real impact of Vargas’s social policies, which actually led to increased hunger and misery.
  320. Find this resource:
  321. Diniz, Eli. Empresário, estado e capitalismo no Brasil: 1930–1945. Estudos Brasileiros 27. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Paz e Terra, 1978.
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  323. An excellent example of a structural analysis of this period that sees Vargas as representing the triumph of industrial capital over the agricultural oligarchy. Although not necessarily supported by the historical record, this work is an important study to consider.
  324. Find this resource:
  325. Fonseca, Pedro Cezar Dutra. Vargas: O capitalismo em construção, 1906–1954. São Paulo, Brazil: Editora Brasiliense, 1989.
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  327. A fascinating and detailed study of Vargas’s ideas about the establishment of advanced, particularly industrial capitalism in Brazil. The work is marred by the absence of economic analysis of the period.
  328. Find this resource:
  329. Neves, Frederico de Castro. “Getúlio e a seca: Políticas emergenciais no era Vargas.” Revista Brasileira de História 21.40 (2001): 107–131.
  330. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  331. A detailed study of the regime’s work in northeastern Brazil to counter the devastating droughts of the era.
  332. Find this resource:
  333. Suzigan, Wilson. “A industrialização de São Paulo: 1930–1945.” Revista Brasileira de Economia 25.2 (1971): 89–111.
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  335. An interesting economic analysis of the impact of the Great Depression on industrial development in São Paulo. Suzigan shows that industry grew dramatically in the 1930s and less so during World War II.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. Szmrecsányi, Tamás, and Rui Guilherme Granziera, eds. Getúlio Vargas e a economia contemporânea. 2d ed. São Paulo, Brazil: Editora Hucitec, 2004.
  338. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  339. A series of essays on the complex role of the Vargas governments in state-sponsored and state-supported industrialization. Papers originally presented at an October 1985 conference at the Universidade Estadual de Campinas, São Paulo.
  340. Find this resource:
  341. Weinstein, Barbara. For Social Peace in Brazil: Industrialists and the Remaking of the Working Class in São Paulo, 1920–1964. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996.
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  343. A closely researched study of the ways in which São Paulo’s industrialists used education and training programs to remake the working class. The chapters on the Vargas years are particularly useful for understanding the impact of private-sector and mixed public/private initiatives in implementing key aspects of Vargas’s social policies. E-book.
  344. Find this resource:
  345. Wirth, John D. The Politics of Brazilian Development 1930–1954. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1970.
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  347. The classic study of the regime’s development policies, which focuses on the establishment of the national steel industry in Volta Redonda and the creation of Petrobras.
  348. Find this resource:
  349. Wolfe, Joel. Autos and Progress: The Brazilian Search for Modernity. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010.
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  351. The sections on the Vargas era detail the ways in which the centralizing and modernizing tendencies of the regime fostered national unification through increased automobility. The book also demonstrates the key role of Vargas-era laws and the establishment of Volta Redonda and Petrobras during the development of the national automobile industry in the 1950s. E-book.
  352. Find this resource:
  353. Foreign Policy
  354.  
  355. The international context of the 1930–1954 period allowed Vargas to demonstrate his great strengths as a foreign policy tactician. He skillfully manipulated the United States’s fears of the growing German influence in South America in the mid- to late 1930s. Corsi 2000, Gambini 1977, and Seitenfus 1985 detail the ways German and American influences played out during the Estado Novo, which began in 1937. Hilton 1975 and Hilton 1991 contextualize Vargas’s moves within the ideological competition among Nazism, Communism, and the US-UK bloc. McCann 1968 highlights a seldom-studied aspect of US-Brazilian relations by focusing on the role that Pan American Airlines played in promoting American interests. Lesser 1995 closely analyzes the diplomatic and political side of refugee policy with a focus on European Jews and their attempts to flee the Nazis. Hilton 1987 provides a fascinating study of the complex role played by the US embassy in the Brazilian army’s decision to remove Vargas from power in 1945.
  356.  
  357. Corsi, Francisco Luiz. Estado Novo: Política externa e projeto nacional. Coleção Prismas. São Paulo, Brazil: Editora UNESP, 2000.
  358. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  359. An analysis of how Vargas’s foreign and domestic policies complemented each other during the Estado Novo.
  360. Find this resource:
  361. Gambini, Roberto. O duplo jogo de Getúlio Vargas: Influência americana e alemã no Estado Novo. Coleção Ensaio e Memória 4. São Paulo, Brazil: Edições Símbolo, 1977.
  362. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  363. A careful study of Brazil’s aggressive foreign policy during the Great Depression and how Vargas played US and German interests off each other.
  364. Find this resource:
  365. Hilton, Stanley E. Brazil and the Great Powers, 1930–1939: The Politics of Trade Rivalry. Latin American Monographs 38. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1975.
  366. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  367. An extremely well-researched study of the role of the military and other actors in shaping foreign policy to support the broader goals in nationalist development.
  368. Find this resource:
  369. Hilton, Stanley E. “The Overthrow of Getúlio Vargas in 1945: Diplomatic Intervention, Defense of Democracy, or Political Retribution?” Hispanic American Historical Review 67.1 (1987): 1–37.
  370. DOI: 10.2307/2515201Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  371. Based on a close reading of diplomatic sources, this article shows the limited role of the US government in the military’s removal of Vargas from power in 1945.
  372. Find this resource:
  373. Hilton, Stanley E. Brazil and the Soviet Challenge, 1917–1947. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1991.
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  375. Well-researched study of the actual role of the Soviet Union in shaping the Brazilian Communist Party, particularly from the late 1920s through the advent of the Cold War.
  376. Find this resource:
  377. Lesser, Jeff. Welcoming the Undesirables: Brazil and the Jewish Question. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995.
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  379. Although primarily a study of the struggle of the Brazilian Jewish community to be Brazilian, this work provides an excellent analysis of Vargas’s complex diplomatic relations with the United States and various European governments over the issue of Jewish refugees.
  380. Find this resource:
  381. McCann, Frank D., Jr. “Aviation Diplomacy: The United States and Brazil, 1939–1941.” Inter-American Economic Affairs 21.4 (1968): 35–50.
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  383. A well-researched study of how the US government and Pan American Airlines worked in concert to limit German influence in Brazil on the eve of US entry into World War II.
  384. Find this resource:
  385. Seitenfus, Ricardo Antônio Silva. O Brasil de Getúlio Vargas e a formação dos blocos, 1930–1942: O processo do envolvimento brasileiro na II Guerra Mundial. Brasiliana 22. São Paulo, Brazil: Companhia Editora Nacional, 1985.
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  387. Researched in European and Brazilian archives, this is one of the few books that analyzes Brazilian-Italian as well as Brazilian-German relations during the Estado Novo and the run-up to the war.
  388. Find this resource:
  389. Brazil in World War II
  390.  
  391. McCann 1974 remains the preeminent study of Brazilian-US relations and the growing American influence in Brazil during the Estado Novo and World War II. McCann’s study is also the single best source on Brazil’s participation in the war, including the decision to send troops to fight under US command in Europe. Oliveira 1996 updates aspects of McCann’s study by focusing on Vargas’s ultimate decision to go to war against the Axis powers. Tota 2009 and Moura 1985 provide useful additional information on the growing US influence in Brazil. Cytrynowicz 1998 is a highly detailed account of life in Brazil during the war.
  392.  
  393. Cytrynowicz, Roney. “Guerra sem Guerra: A Mobilização do ‘Front Interno’ em São Paulo durante a Segunda Guerra Mundial, 1939–1945.” PhD diss., Universidade de São Paulo, 1998.
  394. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  395. An extremely detailed and closely argued study of the homefront during World War II.
  396. Find this resource:
  397. McCann, Frank D., Jr. The Brazilian-American Alliance, 1937–1945. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1974.
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  399. This work remains the preeminent study of US-Brazilian relations during the Estado Novo and World War II. Although primarily a diplomatic history, the study also details the increasing US influence on Brazilian culture at this time.
  400. Find this resource:
  401. Moura, Gerson. Tio sam chega ao Brasil: A penetração cultural americana. 2d ed. Tudo É História 91. São Paulo, Brazil: Editora Brasiliense, 1985.
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  403. A brief and entertaining study of the cultural impact of the increased US presence during World War II.
  404. Find this resource:
  405. Oliveira, Sérgio. Getúlio Vargas depõe: O Brasil na Segunda Guerra Mundial. Porto Alegre, Brazil: Revisão Editora, 1996.
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  407. A well-drawn study of Vargas’s machinations around the issue of neutrality and then the eventual decision to embrace the Allies’ cause during the war.
  408. Find this resource:
  409. Tota, Antonio Pedro. The Seduction of Brazil: The Americanization of Brazil during World War II. Translated by Lorena B. Ellis. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2009.
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  411. An entertaining study of the cultural exchanges between the United States and Brazil during World War II. This book concentrates on the role of Nelson Rockefeller’s Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs. E-book.
  412. Find this resource:
  413. Workers and Labor Policies
  414.  
  415. The standard view of Vargas is that he helped organize and then mobilized workers into organized labor. The research on this topic is divided between studies that embrace that point of view, such as French 1992 and Ramalho 1989, and studies that see much more worker disaffection from Vargas and the state, such as Wolfe 1993, which studies working-class life and actual union participation in São Paulo, with a special emphasis on gender and class analysis. Daniel 1994 provides a literary complement to much of this. Dinius 2006 emphasizes the heavy state role of industrial relations, in part because the city he studies was built by the national government to house the national steel industry. Although a bit heavy handed, Rose 2000 focuses on the more-violent forms of social control used by the Vargas regime. Very little work has been done on rural work and organizing in this period. Welch 1999 is one exception.
  416.  
  417. Daniel, Mary Lou. “Life in the Textile Factory: Two 1933 Perspectives.” In Special Issue: Getúlio Vargas and His Legacy. Edited by Joel Wolfe. Luso-Brazilian Review 31.1–2 (Winter 1994): 97–114.
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  419. Fascinating study of literary representations of women’s factory work during the early Vargas period. Available online to subscribers.
  420. Find this resource:
  421. Dinius, Oliver. “Defending Ordem against Progresso: The Brazilian Political Police and Industrial Labor Control.” In Vargas and Brazil: New Perspectives. Edited by Jens R. Hentschke, 173–205. Studies of the Americas. New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2006.
  422. DOI: 10.1057/9780230601758Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  423. A carefully researched study of the role of the political police (the DOPS) in limiting labor militancy in the newly created steel complex at Volta Redonda.
  424. Find this resource:
  425. French, John D. The Brazilian Workers’ ABC: Class Conflict and Alliances in Modern São Paulo. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992.
  426. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  427. A political study of labor in São Paulo’s industrial suburbs that concentrates on alliances and deal making between Communist labor leaders and populist politicians.
  428. Find this resource:
  429. Ramalho, José Ricardo. Estado-patrão e luta operária: O caso FNM. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Paz e Terra, 1989.
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  431. A detailed study of the National Motors Factory and industrial relations within this state-owned enterprise. It shows the operation of the corporatist labor structure in the national capital at that time, Rio de Janeiro.
  432. Find this resource:
  433. Rose, R. S. One of the Forgotten Things: Getúlio Vargas and Brazilian Social Control, 1930–1954. Contributions in Latin American Studies 15. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2000.
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  435. A somewhat heavy-handed analysis of the repressive side of Vargas’s labor policies. It is a useful counter to those works that see Vargas as co-opting workers and workers in alliances with the dictator.
  436. Find this resource:
  437. Welch, Cliff. The Seed Was Planted: The São Paulo Roots of Brazil’s Rural Labor Movement, 1924–1964. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1999.
  438. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  439. A useful study of rural labor organizing that concentrates on the role of Communist Party members in São Paulo.
  440. Find this resource:
  441. Wolfe, Joel. Working Women, Working Men: São Paulo and the Rise of Brazil’s Industrial Working Class, 1900–1955. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1993.
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  443. A study of female textile workers and male metalworkers that shows how industrial workers cautiously approached the Vargas labor bureaucracy. This book details the very low union density of the period and workers’ tendency to organize into factory commissions rather than formal unions. The book also provides cost-of-living and wage data for the period.
  444. Find this resource:
  445. Corporatism and the Industrial Relations System
  446.  
  447. Study of Vargas’s relationship to workers and organized labor is probably a close second to that of slavery as the most studied topic of Brazilian history. Vargas’s creation of the Ministry of Labor in 1931 and the establishment of the corporatist labor system are the focus of a significant number of studies. Among the best in this vein are Bernardo 1982, Gomes 1988, and Vianna 1976. Wolfe 1994 surveys the limited impact of Vargas’s labor policies on most of the country beyond Rio de Janeiro. Mericle 1974 remains the single-best source on how the corporatist labor system was structured and operated.
  448.  
  449. Bernardo, Antônio Carlos. Tutela e autonomia sindical: Brasil, 1930–1945. Biblioteca Básica de Ciências Sociais 1a.5. São Paulo, Brazil: T. A. Queiroz, 1982.
  450. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  451. Structural analysis of how increasing industrialization and the establishment of the corporatist labor structure created new sources of political power for workers.
  452. Find this resource:
  453. Gomes, Ángela Maria de Castro. A invenção do trabalhismo. Formação do Brasil 5. São Paulo, Brazil: Vértice Instituto Universitário de Pesquisas do Rio de Janeiro, 1988.
  454. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  455. Probably the best intellectual history of the origins and operation of Vargas-era labor policies. Gomes details the roots of Vargas’s policies from early reactions to labor organizing in the early 1900s to the upheaval of the 1930s.
  456. Find this resource:
  457. Mericle, Kenneth S. “Conflict Regulation in the Brazilian Industrial Relations System.” PhD diss., Madison: University of Wisconsin, 1974.
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  459. This well-written thesis remains the best source in any language on the origins and operation of Vargas’s labor legislation.
  460. Find this resource:
  461. Vianna, Luíz Werneck. Liberalismo e sindicato no Brasil. Coleção Estudos Brasileiros 12. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Paz e Terra, 1976.
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  463. An outstanding sociological study of the origins of Vargas’s corporatist labor system. The book details the trajectory of increasingly restrictive labor legislation that culminates with the military coup of 1964.
  464. Find this resource:
  465. Wolfe, Joel. “The Faustian Bargain Not Made: Getúlio Vargas and Brazil’s Industrial Workers, 1930–1945.” In Special Issue: Getúlio Vargas and His Legacy. Edited by Joel Wolfe. Luso-Brazilian Review 31.1–2 (Winter 1994): 77–96.
  466. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  467. An analysis of the low participation in Vargas’s corporatist industrial-relations system throughout Brazil. This article argues that the labor structure was largely unoccupied by workers during the Vargas years.
  468. Find this resource:
  469. Labor and Politics
  470.  
  471. The role of the Communist Party and Vargas’s Labor Party (the Partido Trabalhista Brasileiro or PTB) in electoral politics has been a focus for a number of works, including Antunes 1982, Araújo 1996, Benevides 1989, French 1988, Gomes 1994, and Gomes and Araújo 1987. All of these works analyze the complications of worker alliances with labor leaders and then the alliances between those leaders and politicians. French 1988 highlights the positive role played by labor in helping to elect a governor of São Paulo, while the other studies concentrate on national politics, where labor was ultimately quite weak as an electoral force.
  472.  
  473. Antunes, Ricardo. Classe operária, sindicatos e partido no Brasil: Um estudo da consciência de classe: Da Revolução de 30 até a Aliança Nacional Libertadora. Coleção Teoria e prática sociais. São Paulo, Brazil: Editora Autores Associados: Cortez, 1982.
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  475. An analysis of Brazilian labor through the lens of leftist politics, particularly the Communist Party.
  476. Find this resource:
  477. Araújo, Maria Celina Soares d’. Sindicatos, carisma & poder: O PTB de 1945–65. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Fundação Getúlio Vargas Editora, 1996.
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  479. A political history of unions as represented through Vargas’s Labor Party. This work details the movement away from subservience to Vargas and other politicians and the development of a more assertive union politics.
  480. Find this resource:
  481. Benevides, Maria Victória de Mesquita. O PTB e o trabalhismo: Partido e sindicato em São Paulo, 1945–1964. São Paulo, Brazil: Editora Brasiliense: CEDEC, 1989.
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  483. A study of the conflicts among supporters of various political leaders, including Vargas, Adhemar de Barros, and João Goulart, for control of the Labor Party in Brazil’s most populous state.
  484. Find this resource:
  485. French, John D. “Workers and the Rise of Adhemarista Populism in São Paulo, Brazil, 1945–47.” Hispanic American Historical Review 68.1 (February 1988): 1–44.
  486. DOI: 10.2307/2516219Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  487. A carefully drawn study of São Paulo’s populist governor Adhemar de Barros and the role unions and Communist leaders played in his election.
  488. Find this resource:
  489. Gomes, Ángela Maria de Castro. “Trabalhismo e Democracia: O PTB sem Vargas.” In Special Issue: Getúlio Vargas and His Legacy. Edited by Joel Wolfe. Luso-Brazilian Review 31.1–2 (Winter 1994): 115–136.
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  491. An outstanding analysis of the Labor Party’s attempts to fashion a political identity independent of Vargas. Available online to subscribers.
  492. Find this resource:
  493. Gomes, Ángela Maria de Castro, and Maria Celina Soares d’Araújo. Getulismo e Trabalhismo: Tensões e Dimensõess do Partido Trabalhista Brasileiro. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Fundação Getúlio Vargas, Centro de Pesquisa e Documentação de História Contemporânea do Brasil, 1987.
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  495. A detailed institutional history of the Brazilian Labor Party, particularly in the years after Vargas’s suicide in 1954.
  496. Find this resource:
  497. Ethnicity and Race
  498.  
  499. The Vargas years emphasized Brazilian nationalism, often in ways that circumscribed the role of immigrants (see Lesser 1995, Lesser 1994, and Lesser 1999) and elevated the Afro-Brazilians as more nationalistic citizens (Andrews 1991, Butler 1998). Regionally, ideologies of race both promoted whiteness, as in the case of São Paulo (Weinstein 2003), and empowered a nascent Afro-Brazilian nationalism in the northeast (Butler 1998). The nationalism of the period flirted with far right and sometimes anti-Semitic narratives, as is demonstrated in Carneiro 1988, Lesser 1995, and Levine 1968. Needell 1995 provides a nuanced analysis of many of the ideas behind the ideologies surrounding race and ethnicity that dominated during much of the Vargas era.
  500.  
  501. Andrews, George Reid. Blacks and Whites in São Paulo, Brazil, 1888–1988. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1991.
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  503. A broad-ranging and detailed analysis of the Afro-Brazilian population of São Paulo. The chapters on the Vargas era do an outstanding job of locating the regime’s nationalism in the context of racial politics.
  504. Find this resource:
  505. Butler, Kim D. Freedoms Given, Freedoms Won: Afro-Brazilians in Post-Abolition, São Paulo and Salvador. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1998.
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  507. An excellent comparative analysis of race and racial identity in two distinct communities during the Estado Novo.
  508. Find this resource:
  509. Carneiro, Maria Luiza Tucci. O Anti-Semitismo na era Vargas (1930–1945): Fantasmas de uma geracao. São Paulo, Brazil: Editora Brasiliense, 1988.
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  511. A detailed study of a broad range of anti-Semitic ideas and actions during the first Vargas era, which ties some of the regime’s politics to anti-Jewish ideologies.
  512. Find this resource:
  513. Lesser, Jeff. “Immigration and Shifting Conceptions of National Identity in Brazil during the Vargas Era.” In Special Issue: Getúlio Vargas and His Legacy. Edited by Joel Wolfe. Luso-Brazilian Review 31.2 (Winter 1994): 23–44.
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  515. An outstanding study of how ideas about nationalism challenged existing narratives about the importance of immigration for Brazil during the Vargas years. Available online to subscribers.
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  517. Lesser, Jeff. Welcoming the Undesirables: Brazil and the Jewish Question. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995.
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  519. A first-rate study of the complex nature of Jewish-Brazilian identity, with a particularly useful analysis of the struggle of European Jewish refugees to gain access to Brazil on the eve of World War II.
  520. Find this resource:
  521. Lesser, Jeff. Negotiating National Identity in Brazil: Immigrants, Minorities, and the Struggle for Ethnicity in Brazil. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1999.
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  523. Perhaps the single-best work on the intersection of ethnicity and national identity written about Brazil. This outstanding work details how Brazilianness came to be defined in opposition to certain immigrant identities.
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  525. Levine, Robert M. “Brazil’s Jews during the Vargas Era and After.” Luso-Brazilian Review 5.1 (Summer 1968): 45–58.
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  527. This brief article provides an interesting cataloging of the anti-Semitic features of Vargas’s Estado Novo ideology.
  528. Find this resource:
  529. Needell, Jeffrey D. “History, Race, and the State in the Thought of Oliveira Viana.” Hispanic American Historical Review 75.1 (February 1995): 1–30.
  530. DOI: 10.2307/2516780Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  531. A first-rate study of the ideological underpinnings of key aspects of Vargas’s nationalism during the 1930s. The article shows how racist conceptions of the Brazilian population were used to support authoritarianism and corporatism. Available online to subscribers.
  532. Find this resource:
  533. Weinstein, Barbara. “Racializing Regional Difference: São Paulo versus Brazil, 1932.” In Race and Nation in Modern Latin America. Edited by Anne S. Macpherson, Nancy P. Appelbaum, and Karin Alejandra Rosemblatt, 237–262. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003.
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  535. A fascinating analysis of Paulista nationalism as expressed in the 1932 civil war, which highlights the racial discourses of São Paulo’s sense of national superiority. The article is a model of sophisticated scholarship in its blending of race and region as categories of analysis.
  536. Find this resource:
  537. Gender
  538.  
  539. Vargas’s policies, as well as changes in urban Brazil since the early 1900s, challenged extant gender ideologies as well. Besse 1996 remains the single-best work on the complexities of gender during this period. Wolfe 1994 analyzes the gendered roots of key aspects of Vargas’s 1940s populism by examining letters workers (male and female, young and old) wrote directly to Vargas. Morais 1986, although not explicitly a gender-oriented study, is a fascinating work on a German Jewish woman whose opposition to the Vargas regime led to her deportation to Nazi Germany while pregnant.
  540.  
  541. Besse, Susan K. Restructuring Patriarchy: The Modernization of Gender Inequality in Brazil, 1914–1940. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996.
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  543. Probably the single-best study of the changing framework of gender ideology in the early to mid-20th century. Besse’s analysis of the often-contradictory gender components of Vargas’s program is key for understanding the era.
  544. Find this resource:
  545. Morais, Fernando. Olga: A Vida de Olga Benario Prestes, Judia Comunista Etregue a Hitler pelo Governo Vargas. Biblioteca Alfa-Omega de Cultura Universal 1a.18. São Paulo, Brazil: Alfa-Omega, 1986.
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  547. This Brazilian bestseller traces the life of Olga Benario, a Jewish-German Communist who married the Brazilian Communist leader Luis Carlos Prestest, from her training in the Soviet Union, the aborted Intentona uprising of 1935, and her eventual deportation to the Ravensbruck concentration camp in Nazi Germany, where she was murdered. It is a fascinating study of the regime, leftist politics, foreign policy, and anti-Semitism in Brazil.
  548. Find this resource:
  549. Wolfe, Joel. “‘Father of the Poor’ Or ‘Mother of the Rich’? Getúlio Vargas, Industrial Workers, and Constructions of Class, Gender, and Populism in São Paulo, 1930–1954.” Radical History Review 58 (1994): 80–111.
  550. DOI: 10.1215/01636545-1994-58-80Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  551. A study of worker petitions to Vargas that Vargas read and acted on. It details the ways workers’ appeals to Vargas shaped the development of his populist politics in the early to mid-1940s and beyond. Available online to subscribers.
  552. Find this resource:
  553. Culture
  554.  
  555. Although an incredibly rich area of study, there are comparatively few works on cultural policy and the regime’s impact on literature, music, and film. The extant works are of a particularly high quality. Williams 2001 is the most comprehensive work on this topic. Schwarz and Gledson 1992 and Lenharo 1986 provide excellent frameworks for understanding the shifting cultural landscape of the 1930s and 1940s. Johnson 1994 (on literature) and Villa-Lobôs 1940 (on music) are outstanding works on cultural production during the Vargas era. Popular cultural production is closely studied in Lessa 1973, which analyzes homemade poetry books sold in outdoor markets. McCann 2004 (on radio) and Shaw 2006 (on the cinema) provide needed analyses of the distribution of culture through new media. Gomes and Gullar 1983 is an entertaining musical that examines Vargas’s legacy through cultural expression.
  556.  
  557. Gomes, Dias, and Ferreira Gullar. Vargas, ou, Dr. Getúlio, sua vida e sua glória. 2d ed. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Civilização Brasileira, 1983.
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  559. An innovative play, including music by Chico Buarque, depicting the complex place of Vargas in national memory.
  560. Find this resource:
  561. Johnson, Randal. “The Dynamics of the Brazilian Literary Field, 1930–1945.” In Special Issue: Getúlio Vargas and His Legacy. Edited by Joel Wolfe. Luso-Brazilian Review 31.2 (Winter 1994): 5–22.
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  563. An outstanding analysis of the changed landscape of Brazilian literature and its relationship to the changing political contexts within the 1930–1945 period.
  564. Find this resource:
  565. Lenharo, Alcir. Sacralização da Política. Sao Paulo, Brazil: Papirus, Editora da Unicamp, 1986.
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  567. A beautifully written study of popular culture and radio and how they were used to promote the ideas of the Vargas era.
  568. Find this resource:
  569. Lessa, Orígenes. Getúlio Vargas na literatura de Cordel. Coleção Documenta/Brasil 1. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Editora Documentário, 1973.
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  571. Details the representations of Vargas, often as the “father of the poor,” but just as often critically in the popular poetry of the northeast known as “literatura de cordel,” because the inexpensive books hang from a string in the marketplace.
  572. Find this resource:
  573. McCann, Bryan. Hello, Hello Brazil: Popular Music in the Making of Modern Brazil. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2004.
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  575. A detailed and multilayered study of how radio promoted everything from regime politics to regional art forms to American products. An outstanding study that provides key insights for understanding the Vargas years.
  576. Find this resource:
  577. Schwarz, Roberto, and John Gledson, eds. Misplaced Ideas: Essays on Brazilian Culture. Critical Studies in Latin American Culture. New York: Verso, 1992.
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  579. This far-ranging collection of essays includes work that detailed the conflicts and connections between modernist intellectuals and the regime in Brazil during the 1930s.
  580. Find this resource:
  581. Shaw, Lisa. “Vargas on Film: From the Newsreel to the Chanchada.” In Vargas and Brazil: New Perspectives. Edited by Jens R. Hentschke, 207–225. Studies of the Americas. New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2006.
  582. DOI: 10.1057/9780230601758Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  583. An excellent study of the use of newsreels and movies to promote the ideas of the Estado Novo.
  584. Find this resource:
  585. Villa-Lobôs, Heitor. A música nacionalista no govêrno Getúlio Vargas. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: DIP, 1940.
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  587. Although published by the regime, this brief book by Brazil’s preeminent composer shows the ways in which musical expression and regime politics were combined during the Estado Novo.
  588. Find this resource:
  589. Williams, Daryle. Culture Wars in Brazil: The First Vargas Regime, 1930–1945. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2001.
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  591. A comprehensive and beautifully drawn study of the Vargas regime’s use of historical patrimony and other forms of culture to promote its centralizing ideology. The study of Ouro Preto and the analysis of modernist architecture are highly original. E-book.
  592. Find this resource:
  593. National Patrimony
  594.  
  595. The Vargas government’s state making included attempts to instill nationalism through national patrimony. Williams 1994, Williams 2006, and Fonseca 1997 place the regime’s program of historical patrimony into the broader context of not only Brazilian history, but also the politics of the time. Romo 2010 uses the concept of historical patrimony to examine the legacy of race relations in the northeast.
  596.  
  597. Fonseca, Maria Cecília Londres. O patrimônio em processo: Trajetória da política federal de preservação no Brasil. Risco Original. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Editora UFRJ, 1997.
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  599. A pioneering study of state attempts to preserve the physical history of the nation, beginning in the 1930s. The book details the regime-specific politics of choices of the patrimony to be protected.
  600. Find this resource:
  601. Romo, Anadelia A. Brazil’s Living Museum: Race, Reform, and Tradition in Bahia. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010.
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  603. A carefully drawn study of the ways in which the ideas of Gilberto Freyre and others on the multiracial makeup of the Brazilian population were popularized and how they were important to the ideology of the Estado Novo.
  604. Find this resource:
  605. Williams, Daryle. “Ad Perpetuam Rei Memoriam: The Vargas Regime and Brazil’s National Historical Patrimony, 1930–1945.” In Special Issue: Getúlio Vargas and His Legacy. Edited by Joel Wolfe. Luso-Brazilian Review 31.2 (Winter 1994): 45–76.
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  607. A close historical study of the use of historical patrimony to promote nationalism and centralized politics during the first Vargas era.
  608. Find this resource:
  609. Williams, Daryle. “Civicscape and Memoryscape: The First Vargas Regime and Rio De Janeiro.” In Vargas and Brazil: New Perspectives. Edited by Jens R. Hentschke, 55–82. Studies of the Americas. New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2006.
  610. DOI: 10.1057/9780230601758Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  611. Interesting study of the regime’s use of architecture and monuments to promote its modernist and centralizing visions.
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