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Land Surveyors (Classics)

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. Land-surveyors (also referred to by the Latin terms agrimensores or gromatici, and less commonly as mensores) were responsible in antiquity for laying out, measuring, and setting boundaries on tracts of land, and largely oversaw the allotment of land to individuals, families, or colonies, as well as helping to adjudicate disputes over the land’s distribution or use. Surveyors were also in many cases responsible for the design and layout of large Roman infrastructure projects like roads and aqueducts. Most of the surviving evidence from the ancient Mediterranean is Roman, but there is evidence for surveying operations in Greece, Egypt, and Mesopotamia as well. This evidence consists of texts (above all the illustrated compendium of agrimensorial works in Latin known as the Corpus Agrimensorum Romanorum); a few remnants of the cadastral maps in marble and bronze that the surveyors were responsible for creating and filing with the imperial record office; and of course the territories themselves, both urban and rural, where the marks of ancient surveying activity still survive. The work of the land-surveyor brought together legal, religious, mathematical, and practical considerations; they used texts, diagrams, and instruments; they marked out the territory for agricultural land, cities, roads, and aqueducts, and left their stamp on the land in many different ways. Each of these facets of land-surveying is covered in a section of this article.
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  5. Introductory Works
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  7. The most accessible works are collected in this section, while more detailed multifaceted works are collected under General Overviews. Dilke 1971 is the most accessible introduction in English to the Roman surveyors, and Toneatto 2002 provides a quick overview. Hinrichs 1974 is more detailed, but still suitable as an introductory work focused on the legal and historical context of surveying. The utility and versatility of Chouquer and Favory 2001 cannot be overstated: this is the most complete reference work on the subject, covering nearly every aspect of surveying concisely yet thoroughly, with copious explanatory material and illustrations. Campbell 2000 includes accessible explanatory material alongside texts and translations (listed under Texts, Translations, and Commentaries).
  8.  
  9. Campbell, J. B. 2000. The writings of the Roman land surveyors: Introduction, text, translation and commentary. London: Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies.
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  11. An accessible introduction to the texts, including biographical notes on the authors, plates of manuscript illustrations, reconstructions of the diagrams, and concise appendices on inscriptions (cadastral stones, boundaries, and territorial disputes), categories of land, and legal matters, among others. See also under Collected Editions.
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  13. Chouquer, Gérard, and François Favory. 2001. L’arpentage romain: Histoire des textes, droit, techniques. Paris: Errance.
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  15. This single volume contains biographical and bibliographical introductions to the Roman surveyors, descriptions of the surviving texts and material evidence, the instruments and practices of surveying, its legal and administrative aspects, and the relationship between surveying and geometry (both the mathematical sources which informed the development of Roman surveying, and its own influence on later “fiscal geometry”). Extensive appendices include annotated reproductions of manuscript illustrations, diagrams and photographs of surveying instruments, and diagrams of surveying procedures.
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  17. Dilke, Oswald Ashton Wentworth. 1971. The Roman land surveyors: An introduction to the Agrimensores. Newton Abbot, UK: David and Charles.
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  19. The most accessible introduction in English to the Roman surveyors, this book is an ideal starting-point for the study of surveying in the Roman world. Dilke provides an excellent introduction to the education and responsibilities of the surveyors, their practices, and the Corpus Agrimensorum Romanorum, along with case studies of the archaeological evidence from Orange and Roman Britain. Roman maps and the illustrations in the manuscripts of the Corpus Agrimensorum Romanorum are treated with particular care and detail here.
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  21. Hinrichs, Focke Tannen. 1974. Die Geschichte der gromatischen Institutionen: Untersuchungen zu Landverteilung, Landvermessung, Bodenverwaltung und Bodenrecht im römischen Reich. Wiesbaden, West Germany: F. Steiner.
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  23. (More readily available in French translation as Histoire des institutions gromatiques. Paris: P. Geuthner, 1989.) A clear and careful guide to the historical and legal background of surveying practices from Republic to Empire. Particular attention is given to the legal and administrative roles played by surveyors, considered from a broad range of perspectives, from their relationship to Greek geometrical practices to a well-chosen sample of archaeological evidence.
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  25. Toneatto, Lucio. 2002. Agrimensura. In Letteratura scientifica e tecnica di Grecia e Roma. Edited by Ida Mastrorosa, Antonino Zumbo, and Carlo Santini, 1–28. Rome: Carocci.
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  27. An excellent short introduction to the place of surveying within a broader context of ancient technical literature. A brief introduction to the history of the discipline and the Corpus Agrimensorum Romanorum is followed by more detailed explorations of the practices and social status of the surveyors, the degree to which they might have relied on textual sources for training, and short summaries of the most prominent agrimensorial texts. Bibliographic suggestions throughout the chapter are complemented by a sizable bibliography at the end.
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  29. General Overviews
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  31. Chouquer 2010 takes a discursive, analytical approach focused on the social and anthropological aspects of surveying, designed to be used alongside the reference material provided in Chouquer and Favory 2001 (cited under Introductory Works). Behrends and Capogrossi Colognesi 1992 is widely used but includes chapters that range from the comparatively accessible to the highly technical; individual chapters which best lend themselves to introductory study are listed under the appropriate headings below. Gabba 2003 (originally 1983) represents a general introduction to centuriation in the Roman world, with detailed information on specific regions contained in the following volumes of its series (listed under Regional Studies). Conso, et al. 2006 effectively bridges technical detail with the wider cultural and historical background of surveying as practiced in military, religious, and other Roman contexts. Del Lungo 2004 is a good overview of the often overlooked late ancient and medieval practices of surveying. The chapters in Centre Jean Palerne 2000 focus loosely on Hero’s Dioptra and the dioptra itself, but as a collection provide a very broad view of both technical and cultural aspects of surveying in the Greek world.
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  33. Behrends, Okko, and Luigi Capogrossi Colognesi. 1992. Die Römische Feldmesskunst: Interdisziplinäre Beiträge zu ihrer Bedeutung für die Zivilisationsgeschichte Roms. Papers presented at a symposium, 5–9 June 1988, at Wolfenbüttel and Göttingen. Göttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.
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  35. The chapters collected in this book offer very clear, detailed, self-contained discussions of the textual and archaeological evidence for the practices of surveying in the Roman world, and their intersections with law, religion, and the history of colonization. Primarily suitable for a more advanced audience. Individual chapters which best lend themselves to introductory study are listed under the appropriate headings below.
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  37. Centre Jean Palerne. 2000. Autour de La Dioptre d’Héron d’Alexandrie: Actes du colloque international de Saint-Etienne, 17, 18, 19 juin 1999. Mémoires/Centre Jean-Palern 21. Saint-Étienne, France: Publications de l’Université de Saint-Étienne.
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  39. The chapters collected here offer a broad range of approaches to Hero’s text on surveying and its eponymous instrument, ranging from the textual tradition (Micheline Decorps-Foulquier, “Remarques liminaires sur le texte de la Dioptre de Héron d’Alexandrie et ses sources,” pp. 37–43) to the instrument’s practical applications (Gilbert Argoud, “Utilisation de la dioptre en hydraulique,” pp. 233–256). One of the few works to put surveying into a context of Greek technical knowledge, though it includes some information on Roman practices as well.
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  41. Chouquer, Gérard. 2010. La terre dans le monde romain: Anthropologie, droit, géographie. Paris: Errance.
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  43. Particularly notable for placing Roman surveying into a robust anthropological framework. Exemplary chapters consider analogy and geometry in the agrimensorial texts, the social structure of the fundus, the history of the discipline as it was perceived in antiquity, and the role played by surveyors in the Roman legal system. Inset boxes throughout the text highlight chronological developments, modern case studies for comparison, scholarly debates on specific topics, and so on, with bibliography provided on the spot.
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  45. Conso, Danièle, Antonio Gonzalès, and Jean-Yves Guillaumin. 2006. Les vocabulaires techniques des arpenteurs romains: Actes du colloque international, Besançon, 19–21 septembre 2002. Besançon, France: Presses universitaires de Franche-Comté.
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  47. The articles collected here all involve analysis of the technical terminology associated with surveying to some degree, but the work will be useful to a very broad audience: terminological issues serve as a jumping-off point for discussions of the religious, legal, military, and other aspects of surveying, rather than an end in themselves.
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  49. Del Lungo, Stefano. 2004. La pratica agrimensoria nella tarda antichità e nell’alto Medioevo. Spoleto, Italy: Fondazione Centro italiano di studi sull’alto Medioevo.
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  51. Places the Corpus Agrimensorum Romanorum in a broader historical context, examining the practices and practitioners of surveying from late antiquity to the early Middle Ages. In the analytical parts of the book, particular consideration is given to the changing professional role of the surveyor and the expansion and transmission of the corpus of agrimensorial texts. Also includes a large collection of lesser-known texts from late antiquity (see under Collected Editions).
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  53. Gabba, Emilio. 2003. Misurare la terra: Centuriazione e coloni nel mondo romano. Modena, Italy: F. C. Panini.
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  55. Originally published in 1983. First volume of a series intended to present information about centuriation in the Roman world clearly and accessibly. This volume consists of short, focused papers on a variety of topics, ranging from the historical context of centuriation, colonization of territory, the methods used by the surveyors, and the survival of the traces of centuriation in the modern landscape.
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  57. Bibliographies
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  59. While all the works mentioned here of course have their own bibliography, Chouquer 1996 and Toneatto 1994 are unusually rich collections of thousands of works on a broad range of topics related to surveying.
  60.  
  61. Chouquer, Gérard. 1996. Les formes des paysages. 3 vols. Paris: Editions Errance.
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  63. Each of this work’s three volumes contains part of an extensive bibliography of three thousand total items (Vol. 1, pp. 201–222; Vol. 2, pp. 237–259; Vol. 3, pp. 169–196), which is particularly rich in sources specific to particular geographical regions. See also under Regional Studies.
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  65. Toneatto, Lucio. 1994. Codices artis mensoriae: I manoscritti degli antichi opuscoli latini d’agrimensura (V–XIX sec.). Spoleto, Italy: Centro italiano di studi sull’alto Medioevo.
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  67. A very extensive list of primary sources, including manuscripts and their contents, editions that use each manuscript, catalogs that report the manuscript, some remarks on the hands present in each manuscript, and a list of 16th–18th-century editions. All this is complemented by an extensive introduction to the textual tradition.
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  69. Texts, Translations, and Commentaries
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  71. The major Latin texts on surveying are collected in the Corpus Agrimensorum Romanorum. These works survive in nine manuscripts, which fall into three main groups. The primary group is the so-called Arcerianus type, named for the Codex Arcerianus (Herzog August Bibliothek, Wolfenbüttel Codex Aug. 2 36.23), the oldest surviving manuscript of the Corpus Agrimensorum Romanorum. Butzmann 1970 (cited under Individual Texts, Translations, and Commentaries) is a facsimile of the richly illustrated part A of the Codex Arcerianus; the other part, designated B, is not illustrated. Toneatto 1994 (cited under Bibliographies) is by far the most complete guide to the manuscript tradition, while Campbell 2000 (cited under Collected Editions) and Hyginus and Frontinus 2005 (cited under Individual Texts, Translations, and Commentaries) offer more readable summaries.
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  73. Collected Editions
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  75. The edition most commonly cited is Lachmann, et al. 1848, released in two volumes with Lachmann’s text and Rudorff’s illustrations in the first, and commentary by Lachmann, Blume, Mommsen, and Rudorff in the second. Thulin 1971 (originally 1913) is based on more manuscripts than Lachmann’s edition, but includes fewer authors (Frontinus, the Commentum, Agennius Urbicus, Hyginus, Siculus Flaccus, and Hyginus Gromaticus). Campbell 2000 provides the same texts as Lachmann (though occasionally using Thulin’s edition rather than Lachmann’s) with facing English translation and explanatory notes. Del Lungo 2004 and Peyras 2008 make available texts from later authors, reaching from late antiquity to the early medieval period, along with annotations and illustrations where possible.
  76.  
  77. Campbell, J. B. 2000. The writings of the Roman land surveyors: Introduction, text, translation and commentary. London: Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies.
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  79. Along with extensive introductory material (see Introductory Works), provides the Latin texts of the Corpus Agrimensorum Romanorum with facing English translation, followed by reproductions of the illustrations based largely on those included in Lachmann’s text, and commentary on the texts and illustrations.
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  81. Del Lungo, Stefano. 2004. La pratica agrimensoria nella tarda antichità e nell’alto Medioevo. Spoleto, Italy: Fondazione Centro italiano di studi sull’alto Medioevo.
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  83. Though it also includes background information on the surveyor in late antiquity (see General Overviews), the greater part of the work is occupied with a series of late ancient and early medieval texts with apparatus criticus and facing Italian translation, followed by extensive explanatory notes. Appendices include a collection of illustrations mentioned in the notes, as well as a concordance of technical terms.
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  85. Lachmann, Karl, Friedrich Blume, Adolf August Friedrich Rudorff, and E. Bursian. 1848. Die Schriften der römischen Feldmesser. Vol. 1. Berlin: G. Reimer.
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  87. The most commonly cited edition of the Corpus Agrimensorum Romanorum. Includes a guide to the manuscripts consulted and the authors represented in each, apparatus criticus for each text, and accurate line-drawing representations of the illustrations.
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  89. Peyras, Jean. 2008. Arpentage et administration publique à la fin de l’antiquité: Les écrits des hauts fonctionnaires équestres. Besançon, France: Presses universitaires de Franche-Comté.
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  91. Collects texts from late ancient authors who are often overlooked: Vitalis, Faustus and Valerius, Gaius, Latinus, and Innocentius. The texts are largely concerned with boundary markers: their symbology, construction, and history. The Latin texts, with facing French translation, are followed by explanatory notes, and illustrations are included inline with the text.
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  93. Thulin, Carl. 1971. Corpus agrimensorum Romanorum. Stuttgart: G. B. Teubneri.
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  95. Originally published in 1913; the version reissued in 1971 includes as addenda Schaub’s lists of editions and commentaries, along with a very select bibliography of secondary sources. Includes fewer authors than Lachmann’s edition (Frontinus, the Commentum, Agennius Urbicus, Hyginus, Siculus Flaccus, and Hyginus Gromaticus). Includes thorough apparatus criticus, and text is followed by an extensive set of illustrations photographed from the manuscripts, with references where appropriate to the line-drawing equivalents found in Lachmann 1848.
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  97. Individual Texts, Translations, and Commentaries
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  99. Many of the most important texts are available individually with French translation and more extensive commentary in two main series (Balbus and Epaphroditus 1996 and Hyginus 1996 exemplify the Diáphora series; Hyginus and Frontinus 2005 and Hyginus and Siculus Flaccus 2010 represent the Les Belles Lettres series). Additional texts and translations of individual Latin works include those by von Domaszewski (Hyginus 1887) and by Lenoir (Hyginus 1977) (both cited under Military Surveying); Hyginus and Siculus Flaccus 1998; and Peyras 2008 (cited under Collected Editions). The main surviving Greek text on surveying is Hero of Alexandria’s Dioptra, and the Metrica also includes problems relevant to surveying; the texts are available, with German translation, in Schöne’s edition (Hero 1976, originally published in 1903), and excerpts of the Dioptra are translated into English in Lewis 2001 (cited under Instruments). The most thorough secondary discussion of Hero’s text is in the articles collected in Centre Jean-Palerne 2000 (cited under General Overviews). The Libri Coloniarum are edited, with French translation and very extensive explanatory materials, in Brunet 2008 (cited under Administrative Responsibilities).
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  101. Balbus, Vitruvius Rufus, and Epaphroditus. 1996. Présentation systematique de toutes les figures. Podismus et textes connexes: Extraits d’Epaphrodite et de Vitruvius Rufus, La mesure des Jugères. Translated by Jean-Yves Guillaumin. Naples, Italy: Jovene.
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  103. This edition includes introductions to what is known about each of these authors and texts, manuscripts consulted and previous editions, facing French translation, and notes throughout, as well as reproductions of the figures in the text (Balbus’s inline with the text, the others at the end as Guillaumin argues that their connection with the nearby text is often misleading). Notes on mathematical aspects of these texts are particularly thorough.
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  105. Butzmann, Hans. 1970. Corpus agrimensorum Romanorum. Codex Arcerianus A der Herzog-August-Bibliothek zu Wolfenbüttel (Cod. Guelf. 36.23A). Leiden, The Netherlands: A. W. Sijthoff.
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  107. Facsimile edition of the Codex Arcerianus A, the manuscript whose illustrations are most often reproduced. Contains facsimile of the entire manuscript in sepia, with an appendix of full-color reproductions of selected illustrations.
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  109. Clavel-Lévêque, Monique, and Jean Peyras. 2005. Textes et pratiques gromatiques. Ecrits d’arpentage de l’Antiquté tardive. Les casae litterarum du codex Arcerianus A. Dialogues d’histoire ancienne 31.1: 150–171.
  110. DOI: 10.3406/dha.2005.2505Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  111. Includes a French translation of the Casae litterarum, a text in which a series of settlements labeled with Latin and Greek letters are described with respect to their topographical surroundings. Improves on previous editions of the text because of the greater number of manuscripts consulted, and includes extensive notes on the variations between manuscripts, which are considerable in the case of this text.
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  113. Frontinus, Sextus Julius. 1998. Frontin: L’oeuvre gromatique. Translated by O. Behrends. Luxembourg: Commission des Communautés européennes.
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  115. Includes Latin text revised from Thulin’s on the basis of information from some additional manuscripts, with apparatus criticus and facing French translation. Includes some explanatory notes at the end. Particularly useful here is the inclusion of several full-color reproductions of illustrations from the manuscripts, included inline with the text.
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  117. Hero. 1976. Rationes dimetiendi et commentatio dioptrica. Edited by Hermann Schöne. Vol. 3. Heronis Alexandrini opera quae supersunt omnia. Stuttgart: Teubner.
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  119. Includes Greek text and German translation of Hero’s Dioptra and the three books of the Metrica. Includes many diagrams; the geometrical diagrams are drawn after those in the manuscripts, while the diagrams of the mechanical devices described in the Dioptra are done in a modern style. The introduction (in Latin) is principally devoted to the manuscript tradition.
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  121. Hyginus. 1996. L’établissement des limites. Translated by Monique Clavel-Lévêque. Diáphora. Naples, Italy: Jovene.
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  123. A revised version of Thulin’s text with apparatus criticus and facing French translation, extensive explanatory notes, reproductions of the figures (mostly included inline with the text), and a concordance of technical terminology for surveying.
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  125. Hyginus, and Siculus Flaccus. 1998. Opuscula agrimensorum veterum. Translated by María José Castillo Pascual. Logroño, Spain: Universidad de La Rioja, Servicio de Publicaciones.
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  127. Provides brief introductions to the works and (where possible) lives of Hyginus (the author of De limitibus, De condicionibus agrorum, and De generibus controversiarum) and Siculus Flaccus (who also wrote a De condicionibus agrorum), followed by a list of editions of the Corpus Agrimensorum Romanorum. Latin text with facing Spanish translation is followed by concise commentary to each text. Also includes a glossary of technical terminology.
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  129. Hyginus, and Sextus Julius Frontinus. 2005. Les arpenteurs romains. T. 1, Hygin le Gromatique; Frontin. Translated by Jean-Yves Guillaumin. Paris: Les Belles Lettres.
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  131. Includes an up-to-date general introduction to the surveyors, their instruments, and the history of their discipline, the manuscripts of the Corpus Agrimensorum Romanorum and their illustrations, and a concise general bibliography. Each text is prefaced with an introduction giving further details about that author and text, manuscripts consulted, and the structure of the work. Latin text with apparatus criticus and facing French translation throughout, notes and figures at the end.
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  133. Hyginus, and Siculus Flaccus. 2010. Les arpenteurs romains. T. 2, Hygin; Siculus Flaccus. Translated by Jean-Yves Guillaumin. Paris: Les Belles Lettres.
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  135. Includes an updated addendum to the general bibliography in Hyginus and Frontinus 2005. Each text is prefaced with thorough bibliographical and (where possible) biographical notes on the author and manuscripts consulted. Introduction to the text of Hyginus includes a summary of the types of dispute over land; introduction to Siculus Flaccus includes an analysis of the resemblances between the two texts, where Siculus Flaccus seems to have drawn on Hyginus. Latin text with apparatus criticus and facing French translation throughout, notes at the end.
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  137. Legal and Administrative Aspects
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  139. Much of the surveyor’s work revolved around administrative tasks: on the local level there were disputes about property divisions and boundaries to be settled, while the empire as a whole demanded a vast amount of administrative and record-keeping work. Roman land was divided into several primary types (ager publicus, imperial land, city land, temple land, ager assignatus, and private land), and each designation indicated a complex system of rights and responsibilities that applied to the land’s owners and occupants.
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  141. Legal Disputes
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  143. Settling disputes over boundaries was an important part of the surveyor’s work, particularly when a boundary corresponded to a river and was therefore subject to natural change, or when boundary markers were alleged to have been moved by unscrupulous neighbors (Brugi 1968, Campbell 1995 (cited under Administrative Responsibilities), Castillo Pascual 1996). Other types of disputes were common as well; the agrimensorial authors differentiate several types of such controversiae and detail how they should be adjudicated. Maganzani 1997 (cited under Practitioners) provides a wealth of information on the involvement of surveyors in legal affairs. Palma 1982 introduces the complex legal provisions surrounding Roman roads, with particular attention to the problems of determining the diachronic changes in the classifications of roads and the rights associated with them. Johannsen 1971 and Castillo Pascual 1998 each analyze the legal issues connected with surveying from the more focused perspective of a single text, respectively the lex agraria of 111 BCE (CIL I2 585; Roman Statutes 2), which consists of a lengthy inscription on the reverse of the Tabula Bembina that survives only in fragmentary form) and Agennius Urbicus’s On Disputes over Land (De controversiis agrorum).
  144.  
  145. Brugi, Biagio. 1968. Le dottrine giuridiche degli agrimensori romani comparate a quelle del Digesto. Rome: “L’Erma” di Bretschneider.
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  147. A thorough, methodical guide to the legal problems described by the surveyors, with special attention given to the restrictions placed on public and private land, and the difficulties of surveying and allocating land bounded by river boundaries, flooding, and river islands. Clear and detailed discussion of land laws and disputes of all kinds, with thorough cross-referencing between the agrimensorial texts and legal texts.
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  149. Castillo Pascual, María Josefa. 1996. Espacio en orden: El modelo gromático-romano de ordenación del territorio. Logroño, Spain: Universidad de La Rioja, Servicio de Publicaciones.
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  151. A detailed study of the legal aspects of Roman land administration, thoroughly grounded in the texts of the Corpus. Particular attention is given to the interface between urban and rural territory. Provides a detailed analysis of the different types of territory described in the Corpus Agrimensorum Romanorum, as well as the various kinds of legal controversies, the legal proceedings associated with them, and the way those were resolved.
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  153. Castillo Pascual, María Josefa. 1998. “Agennius Urbicus”: ¿Agrimensor o Jurista? Iberia: Revista de La Antigüedad 1:95–108.
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  155. Places On Disputes over Land (De controversiis agrorum) of Agennius Urbicus into historical context. Argues that the work was produced at some point under the Flavian emperors, that this was a time of increased legal codification of surveying work, and that the minute care taken in this text over the types of legal controversies over land reflects the author’s rhetorical and legal education.
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  157. Johannsen, Kirsten. 1971. Die Lex Agraria des Jahres 111 v. Chr.; Text und Kommentar.
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  159. Text and commentary. A thorough analysis of the post-Gracchan lex agraria of 111 BCE. This work provides a revised text with detailed apparatus criticus and facing German translation, followed by extensive commentary on the text and its legal implications. Some of Johannsen’s conclusions about the law’s history and its legal ramifications have proved controversial, but this work is a very useful guide to this important legal text.
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  161. Palma, Antonio. 1982. Le strade romane nelle dottrine giuridiche e gromatiche dell’ età del principato. In Aufstieg und Niedergang der Römischen Welt: Geschichte und Kultur Roms im Spiegel der neueren Forschung. II, Bd. 14. Edited by Hildegard Temporini, 850–880. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
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  163. Analyzes the laws connected with Roman roads and loca publica from a broad perspective, before proceeding to an explanation of the many different classes of roads defined by the agrimensorial authors, as well as the legal status of the space where they intersected with the property of individual villas and coloniae. Includes extensive explanatory notes and bibliography.
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  165. Administrative Responsibilities
  166.  
  167. Burdese 1952 and Duncan-Jones 1976 are excellent, accessible guides to the complex system of Roman land designations. Roselaar 2010 updates Burdese’s treatment of the ager publicus, examining the legal and economic developments from the unstable privatization of ager publicus in Italy in the 4th and 3rd centuries with particular focus on the relatively rich evidence from the 2nd century. Campbell 1995 and Gonzalès and Guillaumin 2006 address the particular problems associated with distributing and administering colonial territory, emphasizing respectively two texts from the Corpus Agrimensorum Romanorum and the Libri coloniarum. Brunet 2008 focuses on the Libri coloniarum as well, collecting the texts alongside notes and appendices on agrarian laws. Nicolet 1991 and Moatti 1993 detail the surveyors’ role in creating administrative documents detailing land categorization and ownership.
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  169. Brunet, Claude, ed. and trans. 2008. Libri coloniarum (Livres des colonies). Besançon, France: Presses Universitaires de Franche-Comté.
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  171. Includes an introduction to this collection of texts and their significance to surveying, Latin text with facing French translation, and explanatory notes. Appendices include a list of agrarian laws, their presumed date of passage, and textual sources that mention them; a table of the legal status of various cities; and an essay on the style of the text itself, which is written in an abbreviated fashion and displays certain grammatical peculiarities.
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  173. Burdese, Alberto. 1952. Studi sull’ager publicus. Turin, Italy: G. Giappichelli.
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  175. Describes the developing role of the ager publicus from the early centuries of Rome, through the Gracchan reforms, to the beginning of the Principate. The argument is based on textual evidence of various kinds, from testimonia in later authors (as is necessarily the case for the early chapters), to legal texts, to the texts of the Corpus Agrimensorum Romanorum. Includes clear and careful definitions at every stage of the different types of land, and quite detailed discussion of the laws that governed their administration.
  176. Find this resource:
  177. Campbell, J. B. 1995. Sharing out land: Two passages in the Corpus Agrimensorum Romanorum. Classical Quarterly 45.2: 540–546.
  178. DOI: 10.1017/S0009838800043603Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  179. An accessible introduction to how land was allocated in a Roman colony in the imperial period. Campbell puts the activities of the surveyors into religious, cultural, and historical context, describing the drawing of lots as portrayed by Virgil and Horace before moving on to a more technical discussion of how the two Hygini describe the process.
  180. Find this resource:
  181. Duncan-Jones, R. P. 1976. Some configurations of landholding in the Roman Empire. In Studies in Roman property. Edited by M. I. Finley, 7–24. Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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  183. While this volume as a whole focuses on the economics of Roman investment in property, Duncan-Jones’s contribution takes a somewhat broader approach and is an excellent introduction to the legal definitions of Roman land. Duncan-Jones reviews the available evidence for how each major type of land (ager publicus, imperial land, city land, temple land, ager assignatus, and private land) was distributed. The last of these receives the bulk of the attention here, including extensive information about property sizes and values in different areas.
  184. Find this resource:
  185. Gonzalès, Antonio, and Jean-Yves Guillaumin. 2006. Autour des Libri coloniarum: Colonisation et colonies dans le monde romain: Actes du colloque international (Besançon, 16–18 octobre 2003). Besançon, France: Presses universitaires de Franche-Comté.
  186. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  187. The first group of papers collected here is specifically focused on the Libri coloniarum, though they cover a broad range of topics within this vein, from the manuscript to the political ramifications of its references to the lasting effects of the Gracchan land reforms. The remaining papers offer a comparably broad range of perspectives on colonization and colonial territory based on additional sources, from the cadastral plans from Orange to the diagrammatic conventions of the maps in the Corpus Agrimensorum Romanorum.
  188. Find this resource:
  189. Moatti, Claude. 1993. Archives et partage de la terre dans le monde romain (IIe siècle avant-Ier siècle après J.-C.). Rome: École française de Rome.
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  191. A detailed treatment of the visual and written records kept on surveying activities, including the formae, commentarii, libri, and leges, as well as the archival practices according to which these records were made, stored, and accessed. Emphasizes the political and administrative aspects of surveying between the second century BCE and the first century CE. Appendices include inscriptional and epistolary evidence as well as excerpts from texts relevant to the administration of surveyed territory.
  192. Find this resource:
  193. Nicolet, Claude. 1991. Control of the fiscal sphere: The cadastres. In Space, geography, and politics in the early Roman Empire. By Claude Nicolet, 149–169. Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press.
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  195. Places the work of surveyors in the broader context of the administrative work of the Roman Empire. Considers the connections between the agrimensores and the administrative authorities of the empire. Particular attention is given to the creation and control of the documents involved in surveying, including maps, commentaries on maps, and registers of lots, as well as a discussion of how such documents could be used in adjudicating disputes over land.
  196. Find this resource:
  197. Roselaar, Saskia T. 2010. Public land in the Roman Republic: A social and economic history of Ager Publicus in Italy, 396–89 BC. Oxford and New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
  198. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199577231.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  199. Examines the shifting ownership of ager publicus during and after the Gracchan land reforms. Argues against the view that after the Roman elites gradually turned the ager publicus into large slave-worked estates that decreased the Roman citizen population, calling attention to evidence that in fact a growing population of small farmers competed for this agricultural land. Includes useful maps and illustrations, as well as an appendix on territory identified as ager publicus.
  200. Find this resource:
  201. Religious Aspects
  202.  
  203. The surveyor’s work was bound by religious strictures as well as legal ones; indeed, the two are difficult to separate. Gargola 1995 and Gonzalès 2004 thoroughly explore the complex connections between the political, legal, and religious aspects of surveying. Gladigow 1992 and Hübner 1992 explain the use of religious ritual to sanctify the boundaries (termini) of tracts of land, and the religious as well as legal consequences for shifting them illicitly. Dilke 1988 analyzes assertions by Roman authors that these religious rituals stem from an ancient connection between surveying and Etruscan augury. Gonzalès 2004 argues that while this relationship is very difficult to trace in the surviving literature, archaizing elements of later agrimensorial literature may look back to an older religious tradition.
  204.  
  205. Dilke, O. A. W. 1988. Religious mystique and the training of agrimensores. In Hommages à Henri Le Bonniec: Res sacrae, 158–162. Brussels: Latomus.
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  207. Addresses the connections between Roman surveying and religious observances largely rooted in Etruscan practice. Dilke begins with Hyginus Gromaticus’s reference to a claim by Varro for a connection between haruspicy and surveying, and the well-known connection between haruspicy and surveying apparently represented by the Piacenza bronze liver. From here he proceeds to a more detailed examination of the evidence for religious practices, particularly observations connected to the sanctity of boundary stones, in the Corpus Agrimensorum Romanorum.
  208. Find this resource:
  209. Gargola, Daniel J. 1995. Lands, laws and gods: Magistrates and ceremony in the regulation of public lands in Republican Rome. Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press.
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  211. Combines detailed information about the Roman officials involved in land divisions, the religious and practical aspects of setting out boundaries, considerations particular to setting out colonies, and laws about how land might correctly be disposed of. The effects of the Gracchan reforms receive particular attention and are contextualized as part of a process of reform which continued through the end of the Republic rather than as an isolated incident.
  212. Find this resource:
  213. Gladigow, Burkhard. 1992. Audi Juppiter, Audite Fines: Religionsgeschichtliche Einordnung von Grenzen, Grenzziehungen und Grenzbestätigungen. In Die Römische Feldmesskunst: Interdisziplinäre Beiträge zu ihrer Bedeutung für die Zivilisationsgeschichte Roms. Edited by Okko Behrends and Luigi Capogrossi Colognesi, 172–191. Göttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.
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  215. A thoroughly contextualized discussion of the religious aspects of surveying, including a detailed description of the cult of Terminus and its associated practices, the rituals connected with defining the limits of space both urban and rural, and the cultural significance of boundaries for Roman religion.
  216. Find this resource:
  217. Gonzalès, Antonio. 2004. Borner et limiter: Pré-droit et sacralisation de la propriété aux origines de Rome. In Espaces intégrés et ressources naturelles dans l’empire romain: Actes du colloque de l’Université de Laval-Québec, 5–8 mars 2003. Edited by Monique Clavel-Lévêque and Ella Hermon. Presses universitaires de Franche-Comté.
  218. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  219. Considers the relationship between legal, religious, and agrimensorial aspects of controlling land in the Roman world. While much of the textual evidence necessarily comes from a later period, Gonzalès is careful to trace archaizing elements of both technical and non-technical literature that appear to look back to earlier traditions of bounding and distributing land, particularly religious practices.
  220. Find this resource:
  221. Hübner, Wolfgang. 1992. Himmel und Erdvermessung. In Die Römische Feldmesskunst: Interdisziplinäre Beiträge zu ihrer Bedeutung für die Zivilisationsgeschichte Roms. Edited by Okko Behrends and Luigi Capogrossi Colognesi, 140–171. Göttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.
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  223. Sets the textual references to the cosmic and celestial projections of the land-surveyor’s work, along with material evidence like inscribed boundary stones and the bronze liver from Piacenza, in the context of a detailed discussion of Greek and Roman cosmological thought. Uses a wide range of textual evidence to address the practices of orientation and the relationship between the cardinal directions and left/right.
  224. Find this resource:
  225. Mathematical Aspects
  226.  
  227. The strict administrative control surveyors were expected to exert over the measurement and allotment of land would not have been possible without mathematical methods of considerable precision. Folkerts 1992 and Lelgemann 2010 are the best, most detailed guides to these methods; Folkerts is completely focused on the surveyors, while Lelgemann puts the surveyors’ work into a broader disciplinary context. Alexandratos 2009 likewise introduces interdisciplinary connections between the mathematical approaches used by the surveyors and those used in other technical fields in Rome, in this case astronomy. Surveying’s mathematical aspects are where Greek contributions to the discipline are most apparent; Hero of Alexandria (see Hero 1976, cited under Individual Texts, Translations, and Commentaries) represents the major surviving primary evidence. The contributions of his Dioptra are discussed in considerable detail in Centre Jean-Palerne 2000, cited under General Overviews; while Tybjerg 2004 focuses on the connections between his geometrical work and the surveying practices he describes. Cantor 1968 and Guillaumin 1994 analyze allusions to Greek geometry in Roman agrimensorial texts, while Guillaumin 2009 examines geometrical elements in the diagrams of the text Agrorum quae sit inspectio. Clavel-Lévêque 1992 and Peterson 1992 argue that the surviving material traces of the surveyors’ work may also indicate their debt to geometrical methods.
  228.  
  229. Alexandratos, Libera. 2009. Gli agrimensori romani e l’astronomia. Maia 61.2: 285–305.
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  231. Discusses the relationship between the practices of surveying and astronomical knowledge. Reviews the methods of orientation and provides background on the layout of Roman settlements, and includes a concise discussion of the extent to which the Romans adopted Greek astronomical knowledge. This background material is followed by detailed commentary on each passage of the Corpus Agrimensorum Romanorum that contains information relating to astronomy (mostly from Hyginus Gromaticus).
  232. Find this resource:
  233. Cantor, Moritz. 1968. Die römischen Agrimensoren und ihre Stellung in der Geschichte der Feldmesskunst: Eine historisch-mathematische Untersuchung. Wiesbaden, West Germany: M. Sändig.
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  235. Divided into three sections (“Heron von Alexandrien,” “Römische Feldmessung,” and “Die Schüler der Römer”), for each one Cantor provides an overview of the historical background, instruments, and practices of each figure, and a detailed examination of the practical and mathematical problems they solved (with strong emphasis on the latter; Cantor is strongly committed to the view that the Roman surveyors derived their methods from Hero of Alexandria). Particularly valuable for the strong connection it draws between medieval agrimensorial texts to their ancient counterparts.
  236. Find this resource:
  237. Clavel-Lévêque, Monique. 1992. Centuriation, géométrie et harmonie: Le cas du Biterrois. In Mathématiques dans l’Antiquité. Edited by Jean-Yves Guillaumin, 161–184. Saint-Etienne, France: Université de Saint-Etienne.
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  239. Biterrois is the central case study here for an argument that Roman surveyors adjusted the positions of features like roads, walls, and ditches to achieve arithmetical and geometrical harmony based on the ideas of Plato, Euclid, and others. Clavel-Lévêque argues that the mathematical theories they followed might have been partially derived from Pythagoras, but that this was just one component of a pluralistic mathematical background which also included Hellenistic mathematics and developments from Magna Graecia.
  240. Find this resource:
  241. Folkerts, Menso. 1992. Mathematische Probleme im Corpus Agrimensorum. In Die Römische Feldmesskunst: Interdisziplinäre Beiträge zu ihrer Bedeutung für die Zivilisationsgeschichte Roms. Edited by Okko Behrends and Luigi Capogrossi Colognesi, 311–336. Göttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.
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  243. Reviews prior studies of the mathematical practices of the surveyors, before introducing a series of mathematical problems pertaining to surveying, drawn from a wide range of Roman authors including some outside the Corpus Agrimensorum Romanorum. Existing scholarship on each problem is introduced and the problem’s significance for surveying discussed, before moving on to a more detailed discussion of the problem itself in modern notation. Connections to problems from theoretical geometry are catalogued where possible.
  244. Find this resource:
  245. Guillaumin, Jean-Yves. 1994. Géométrie grecque et agrimensorique romaine. La science comme justification d’une idéologie. Dialogues d’histoire ancienne 20.2: 279–295.
  246. DOI: 10.3406/dha.1994.2189Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  247. Connects the practices of surveyors with mathematical and philosophical discourse, arguing that they drew on the mathematical tradition not only for the practical demands of calculation and spatial organization, but also to use geometrical principles as ideological justification for their divisions of land.
  248. Find this resource:
  249. Guillaumin, Jean-Yves. 2009. La classification des figures géométriques dans le traité gromatique d’Hygin. Euphrosyne. Revista de filologia clássica 37:177–191.
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  251. Analyzes the geometrical figures described in the short treatise Agrorum quae sit inspectio, which forms part of the codex Arcerianus B and is attributed to Hyginus. A close reading of the text yields insights into words, like qualitas, used here in unusual ways to describe the geometrical features of the figures, as well as their likely application to agrimensorial tasks.
  252. Find this resource:
  253. Lelgemann, Dieter. 2010. Die Erfindung der Messkunst: Angewandte Mathematik im antiken Griechenland. Darmstadt, Germany: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft.
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  255. A thorough, clearly organized treatment of the mathematical methods applied in antiquity to a variety of measuring tasks (including trigonometry for angle-measurement and distance reckoning, spherical trigonometry for geodesy and astronomy, kinematics for astronomy, and so forth), the sources that describe them, and the instruments used in their practice.
  256. Find this resource:
  257. Peterson, John. 1992. Trigonometry in Roman cadastres. In Mathématiques dans l’Antiquité. Edited by Jean-Yves Guillaumin, 185–203. Saint-Etienne, France: Université de Saint-Etienne.
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  259. Argues that man-made elements of centuriated land, such as roads, which are laid out oblique to the prevailing orthogonal grid are in many cases laid out neither arbitrarily nor in a rough-and-ready fashion, but rather using trigonometric principles. Peterson offers as evidence examples from Roman Britain, Orange, and Cremona, among others, and provides an account of the trigonometric methodology according to which these were likely laid out.
  260. Find this resource:
  261. Tybjerg, Karin. 2004. Hero of Alexandria’s mechanical geometry. Apeiron 37:29–56.
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  263. A concise, accessible, and deeply insightful piece, providing excellent analysis of the relationship between Hero’s surveying and his mathematics, as well as thoughtful consideration of the differences between solutions and proofs for purely geometrical problems and those dealing with objects in the real world.
  264. Find this resource:
  265. Illustrations
  266.  
  267. The manuscripts of the Corpus Agrimensorum Romanorum include a large number of illustrations, ranging from diagrams illustrating the methods of surveying to pictures of the different types of boundary markers. Dilke 1967 is a good general introduction to the subject, while Carder 1978 provides the most complete study of the illustrations of the Codex Arcerianus. Favory, et al. 1994 offers particularly detailed analysis of the forms depicted on boundary markers. Dilke 1961 and Peterson 2006 give particular attention to the diagrams that resemble maps, though it is debatable whether they were actually intended to represent specific territories. Gonzalès 1994 uses the illustrations of methods for finding the heights of mountains and hills in the Corpus Agrimensorum Romanorum to obviate some of the difficulties caused by mismatches between the text and the surviving illustrations. The diagrams of Hero’s Dioptra are less well studied, but see Burns 1971 (cited under Tunnels) for an argument about surveying practices based on the manuscript diagrams, and Guillaumin, “La première partie du chapitre 25 de La dioptre: Avatars d‘une figure et d‘un texte” (pp. 305–322) in Centre Jean-Palerne 2000 (cited under General Overviews), suggests amending the text on the basis of the diagrams transmitted in the manuscripts. Stückelberger 1994 is not specifically focused on surveying, but mentions the illustrations in the Corpus Agrimensorum Romanorum among the surviving manuscript illustrations from several other technical disciplines.
  268.  
  269. Carder, James Nelson. 1978. Art historical problems of a Roman land surveying manuscript, the Codex Arcerianus A, Wolfenbüttel. New York: Garland
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  271. The most thorough analysis of the illustrations of the Codex Arcerianus, unparalleled by any work on the other manuscripts of the surveying tradition. Includes not only detailed descriptions and monochrome reproductions of the manuscript’s illustrations, but also insightful analysis of their relationship to their associated text, the resemblances and fine distinctions between illustrations, as well as further photographs of mosaics, reliefs, and other visual materials which parallel the forms found in the Arcerianus illustrations.
  272. Find this resource:
  273. Dilke, O. A. W. 1961. Maps in the treatises of Roman land surveyors. Geographical Journal 127.4: 417–426.
  274. DOI: 10.2307/1792795Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  275. Examines the maplike illustrations in manuscripts A and P of the Corpus Agrimensorum Romanorum. Whether these were originally derived from actual surveyors’ maps is dubious, and Dilke provides a summary of the controversy. Regardless of their provenance, Dilke here provides useful annotated reproductions of the maps; the illustrations are monochrome, but the colors are indicated in his descriptions, along with useful interpretations of the features indicated on the map, and their correspondence to known geographical features.
  276. Find this resource:
  277. Dilke, O. A. W. 1967. Illustrations from Roman surveyors’ manuals. Imago Mundi 21:9–29.
  278. DOI: 10.1080/03085696708592297Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  279. Reproduces and analyzes the miniature illustrations from manuscripts A and P of the Corpus Agrimensorum Romanorum, some in color. Each is accompanied by a translation of the nearby Latin text and Dilke’s comments on the features represented in the illustration and, where applicable, historical commentary on them and on the text. The catalog of illustrations is prefaced by a brief general introduction to the practices of surveying.
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Favory, François, Antonio Gonzalès, and Philippe Robin. 1994. Témoignages antiques sur le bornage dans le monde romain, textes traduits et présentés par François Favory, Antoine Gonzales et Philippe Robin. Revue archéologique du Centre de la France 33:214–238.
  282. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  283. Latin text and French translation of passages particularly relevant to disputes over territory and borders; while the text is available from Lachmann, here it is accompanied by useful explanatory notes. Extensive analysis by Gonzalès of the illustrations of the different types of boundary markers follows, including both the schematic (e.g., polygons and points) and iconic (e.g., trees and animals) forms represented on them.
  284. Find this resource:
  285. Gonzalès, Antonio. 1994. Par monts et par images. Les paysages d’altitude dans le Corpus Agrimensorum Romanorum. Dialogues d’histoire ancienne 20.1: 309–338.
  286. DOI: 10.3406/dha.1994.2157Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  287. Argues that compared to other landscape features described in the agrimensorial texts, illustrations of mountains contain uniquely concrete and reliable information about their identity and location. Includes a thorough review of the terminology that indicates a feature of this class, an analysis of the types of territory mountains were classified as by the surveyors, and extensive discussion of the illustrations in which they are depicted.
  288. Find this resource:
  289. Peterson, J. 2006. Map conventions in some diagrams of the Agrimensores. In Autour des Libri coloniarum: Colonisation et colonies dans le monde romain: Actes du colloque international (Besançon, 16–18 octobre 2003). Edited by Antonio Gonzalès and Jean-Yves Guillaumin, 151–161. Besançon, France: Presses universitaires de Franche-Comté.
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  291. A brief but unusually detailed analysis of the significance of territorial boundaries and grid lines in diagrams from several manuscripts of the Corpus Agrimensorum Romanorum. Argues controversially that the grid lines reflect equally spaced units of land, and may not correspond to any physical land division, and that land of any legal status contains territorial boundaries (limites) at least in an administrative sense, even if they do not correspond to physical features.
  292. Find this resource:
  293. Stückelberger, Alfred. 1994. Bild und Wort: Das Illustrierte Fachbuch in der Antiken Naturwissenschaft, Medizin und Technik. Mainz am Rhein, Germany: P. von Zabern.
  294. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  295. Puts the illustrations of the Corpus Agrimensorum Romanorum into the broader context of illustrations from a variety of technical disciplines, including medicine, zoology, and mechanics. Includes several color reproductions.
  296. Find this resource:
  297. Instruments
  298.  
  299. Surveyors used a wide variety of instruments to sight and measure land, ranging from the simple groma (essentially a vertical rod upon which rested two crossed horizontal rods on which were suspended weighted cords for sighting; see Adam 1982 and Lewis 2001) and chorobates (a device designed to facilitate sighting and leveling) to the complex dioptra (which included more elaborate sighting equipment as well as fine gearing to allow for subtle adjustments of horizontal and vertical angle). Lewis 2001 is the single best resource on the subject; he provides by far the most extensive study of the instruments used by Greek and Roman surveyors, along with translations of the texts that describe their use, many of which are not translated elsewhere. Some updates to this material are found in Lewis 2012. Stone 1928 provides a quick and very accessible introduction to the most important instruments. Schmidt 1935 thoroughly describes the design, use, and history of several classes of instrument used in surveying, though the focus of the work as a whole is not strictly on surveying. Lyons 1927 and Eisler 1949 describe surveying instruments used outside the Greek and Roman context; these are sketched out as well in Lewis 2001.
  300.  
  301. Adam, Jean-Pierre. 1982. Groma et Chorobate. Mélanges de l’École française de Rome. Antiquité 94.2: 1003–1029.
  302. DOI: 10.3406/mefr.1982.1351Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  303. Adam offers an extremely detailed account of the structure and use of the groma, based largely on material evidence including engraved illustrations of the instrument and an example of a groma preserved at Pompeii. The discussion of the chorobates is considerably sparser, as the available evidence is limited to Vitruvius’s description of the instrument. Discussions of both instruments are accompanied by practical reports on the performance of reconstructions and explanations of how each was used for surveying tasks.
  304. Find this resource:
  305. Eisler, Robert. 1949. The polar sighting-tube. Archives Internationales d’histoire des Sciences 312–332.
  306. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  307. Considers the evidence for the use of this device, useful for orientation as well as navigation, over the long term, from the ancient Near East to early modern Europe. Much of the evidence dates to later periods, but Eisler includes an appendix of textual references to the presumable use of this instrument which include a number of ancient sources.
  308. Find this resource:
  309. Lewis, Michael Jonathan Taunton. 2001. Surveying instruments of Greece and Rome. Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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  311. Essential reading on surveying instruments and the practices in which they were used. Includes detailed references to the texts describing the instruments and their use as well as the author’s reports on his own experiments with them. The second part of the book is equally useful, focused on specific applications such as aqueducts and tunnels. The third part provides translations of Greek, Roman, and Arabic texts on surveying instruments, many of them otherwise unavailable in English.
  312. Find this resource:
  313. Lewis, Michael Jonathan Taunton. 2012. Greek and Roman surveying and surveying instruments. In Ancient perspectives: Maps and their place in Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, and Rome. Edited by Richard J. A Talbert, 129–162. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
  314. DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226789408.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  315. Reviews some of the information contained in Lewis 2001 in a concise form, while updating it with additional information, particularly on the techniques and results of surveying and grading roads, aqueducts, and tunnels.
  316. Find this resource:
  317. Lyons, Henry. 1927. Ancient surveying instruments. Geographical Journal 69.2: 132–139.
  318. DOI: 10.2307/1782725Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  319. Particularly useful for the information it provides on Egyptian surveying instruments, based on inscriptions recording the processes of land measurement and administration of divided land, visual portrayals of surveyors at work, and surviving instruments. This evidence is accompanied by an estimate of the scale of surveying tasks that could have been carried out with these instruments, as well as a comparison with the Roman groma.
  320. Find this resource:
  321. Schmidt, Fritz. 1935. Geschichte der geodätischen Instrumente und Verfahren im Altertum und Mittelalter. Neustadt an der Haardt, Germany: Pfälzische Gesellschaft zur Förderung der Wissenschaften.
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  323. Describes the leveling instruments, instruments for determining horizontal and vertical angles, and instruments for determining distances used in ancient surveying. These are placed in a broader historical and technical context by their juxtaposition with medieval instruments and instruments used for other purposes such as navigation. A lengthy series of diagrams showing the structure of the instruments and how they were used follows the text.
  324. Find this resource:
  325. Stone, Edward Noble. 1928. Roman surveying instruments. Seattle: Univ. of Washington Press.
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  327. This slim volume provides a clear, thoroughly illustrated introduction to the most important surveying instruments and their use. Far less detailed than Lewis 2001, this work nevertheless provides a quick introduction to the topic.
  328. Find this resource:
  329. The Dioptra
  330.  
  331. Hero’s dioptra represents a remarkable achievement of mechanical precision and surveying accuracy, allowing precise determination of both horizontal and vertical angles. Lewis 2001 (cited under Instruments) and Coulton 2002 provide particularly thorough discussion, while much further discussion is found in the chapters collected in Centre Jean-Palerne 2000 (cited under General Overviews), notably Cocco, “Un dossier: La dioptre à travers les traités grecs de l‘astrolabe plan” (pp. 45–64,) Feyel, “Comment restituer la dioptre d‘Héron d‘Alexandrie?” (pp. 191–225), and Hairie, “Aspects pratiques de la dioptre d‘Héron d‘Alexandrie, étude théorique et expérimentale de la précision des mesures réalisables” (pp. 257–271). Drachmann 1968 argues that an illustration in the Mynas Codex manuscript of Hero’s Dioptra does not depict any of the main instruments of surveying, but rather a siphon using novel materials.
  332.  
  333. Coulton, J. J. 2002. The dioptra of Hero of Alexandria. In Science and mathematics in ancient Greek culture. Edited by Christopher Tuplin and Tracey E. Rihll. Oxford and New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
  334. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198152484.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  335. While much of the information on the dioptra provided here may also be found in Lewis 2001, Coulton provides additional clarity and detail about how the dioptra could have been used for tunneling.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. Drachmann, Aage Gerhardt. 1968. A physical experiment in Heron’s Dioptra? Centaurus 13:220–224.
  338. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  339. Argues that an illustration found in Hero’s Dioptra does not depict the dioptra, the theodolite, or the water level, but is rather a defective illustration of a container of water in which siphons are submerged. The diagram of the instrument appears to represent a glass tube used for observation, in which case it would be the first of its kind.
  340. Find this resource:
  341. The Odometer
  342.  
  343. Book 10.9 of Vitruvius’s De architectura describes a geared odometer designed to be run by the turning of a cart’s axle, as well as a much less plausible water-wheel model suggested for measuring distances traveled by ship. Sleeswyk 1979 and Sleeswyk 1981 offer detailed study of Vitruvius’s odometer; they devote special attention to the problem of the number of gear teeth, set by Vitruvius at four hundred, a figure repeatedly rejected by later authors on the grounds that such gears could not be manufactured and would not engage properly even if they could. In chapter 34 of his Dioptra Hero proposes a more mechanically complex and flexible design for an odometer, discussed in Drachmann 1963. Hero’s odometer and its relationship to the use of the dioptra is discussed at greater length in Fleury, “L‘odomètre d‘Héron d‘Alexandrie: Complément de la dioptre,” in Centre Jean-Palerne 2000 (cited under General Overviews).
  344.  
  345. Drachmann, A. G. 1963. The mechanical technology of Greek and Roman antiquity: A study of the literary sources. Copenhagen and Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Press.
  346. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  347. This work is a thorough and carefully considered guide to the literary evidence for the mechanical technology used in Greece and Rome. Relevant to the study of surveying are the odometers of Vitruvius and Hero, which Drachmann covers consecutively. Includes diagrams drawn from manuscripts (a particular strength of Drachmann’s), in addition to the usual modern-style diagrams. Concludes that Hero’s odometer is more mechanically plausible than that of Vitruvius. Drachmann discusses the dioptra as well, but not at great length.
  348. Find this resource:
  349. Sleeswyk, André Wegener. 1979. Vitruvius’ Waywiser. Archives Internationales d’histoire des Sciences 29.4: 11–22.
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  351. Argues for a practical configuration of gears even with the four hundred teeth Vitruvius prescribes. On the grounds of the similarity between a mile-marking mechanism on the odometer and one attributed to Archimedes in a 12th-century Arabic text on mechanical clocks, Sleeswyk makes the radical suggestion that Archimedes might have been the originator of the odometer, which could then plausibly (at least from a chronological perspective) have been used to lay out the milestones of Roman roads when they were first being built.
  352. Find this resource:
  353. Sleeswyk, André Wegener. 1981. Vitruvius’ odometer. Scientific American 245.4: 188–200.
  354. DOI: 10.1038/scientificamerican1081-188Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  355. A more accessible and thoroughly illustrated version of the analysis of Vitruvius’s odometer presented in Sleeswyk 1979. The author reconstructs Vitruvius’s odometer at one-quarter scale to demonstrate that such a device is in fact quite practical. Here the claims for the afterlife of the ball-dropping mechanism in later automata from the Islamic world, and the odometer’s possible original development by Archimedes, are discussed at greater length.
  356. Find this resource:
  357. Practices
  358.  
  359. The everyday practical, mathematical, and administrative activities of the surveyors are known from both textual and material evidence. Heimberg 1977 and Dilke 1992 are good general overviews that particularly emphasize the material evidence. Cajori 1929 and Chouquer 2008 detail the specific methods required to find the heights of mountains and perform centuriation, while Campbell 1996 describes a wider range of practices but in each case gives particularly detailed information on administrative tasks like allotment and record-keeping. Lyons 1907 is a useful source for Egyptian practices.
  360.  
  361. Cajori, Florian. 1929. History of determinations of the heights of mountains. Isis 12.3: 482–514.
  362. DOI: 10.1086/346425Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  363. Reviews solutions to the problem of finding the heights of mountains ranging from the work of Dicaearchus in the late 4th century BCE to the 19th century CE. Approximately half the article is dedicated to Greek and Roman sources, and the instruments and methods Greek and Roman surveyors might have used for this task. The remaining half puts their findings and the accuracy of the available instruments into a broader historical context.
  364. Find this resource:
  365. Campbell, Brian. 1996. Shaping the rural environment: Surveyors in ancient Rome. Journal of Roman Studies 86:74–99.
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  367. An accessible, practical introduction to the processes of siting, measuring, and allotting land in a Roman colony, as well as the material records of land allocations. Uses case studies to include analysis of land allocation on a smaller scale, that of the family or individual, which other sources often omit.
  368. Find this resource:
  369. Chouquer, Gérard. 2008. Les transformations récentes de la centuriation. Annales 63.4: 847–874.
  370. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  371. Critically reconsiders the present understanding of the significance of centuriation. Chouquer identifies some missteps in the interpretation of both textual and archaeological and material evidence. In the former case, he seeks to replace broad assumptions about how widespread was the use of centuriation with evidence grounded as much as possible in its legal and practical context. In the latter case particular attention is given to the difficulties of differentiating the genuine traces of Roman surveying activities from more recent features.
  372. Find this resource:
  373. Dilke, O. A. W. 1992. Insights in the Corpus Agrimensorum into surveying methods and mapping. In Die Römische Feldmesskunst: Interdisziplinäre Beiträge zu ihrer Bedeutung für die Zivilisationsgeschichte Roms. Edited by Okko Behrends and Luigi Capogrossi Colognesi, 337–347. Göttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.
  374. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  375. Addresses the practices and instruments utilized by land-surveyors, including a report on the author’s own experiments, with particular emphasis on the deviations that seem to have occurred in practice compared to the procedures recommended in the agrimensorial texts. Discusses the material and textual evidence for the use of maps by surveyors, as well as the miniatures of maps in the Corpus, concluding that the latter are not intended to be accurate portrayals of the territory they represent.
  376. Find this resource:
  377. Heimberg, Ursula. 1977. Römische Landvermessung: Limitatio. Stuttgart: Gesellschaft für Vor- und Frühgeschichte in Württemberg und Hohenzollern.
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  379. Brief but packed with useful information, this work provides an excellent introduction to several topics relating to the practices of Roman surveying. These include the design and use of the groma, orthogonal planning, the cadastral records from Orange, and the special problems of surveying of urban and rural areas and military camps. The work’s unusual focus on the archaeological remains of surveying work from the northern Roman provinces is of special value.
  380. Find this resource:
  381. Lyons, H. G. 1907. The history of surveying and land-measurement in Egypt. Cairo: National Printing Dept.
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  383. A brief text intended for a nonspecialist audience, describing the land-surveying methods used in Egypt from the 4th millennium BCE to the 19th century. Discusses archaeological, epigraphic, and textual evidence for the methods used and their effectiveness. Much of the material comes from the Roman period and later, but what evidence exists from earlier periods is dealt with in as much detail as possible here.
  384. Find this resource:
  385. Special Applications
  386.  
  387. Roads, tunnels, and aqueducts present special challenges to the surveyor, while urban and rural surveying require different surveying activities and leave different kinds of evidence behind. Studies of surveying in rural areas often reveal information about patterns of land use and distribution. While the traces of rural surveying are often still visible, particularly from the air, urban settlements often have several layers of accreted building, so the Roman features may be hard to distinguish. The highly standardized and predictable patterns of orienting settlements carried out by Roman surveyors can help to distinguish Roman features from other layers. Roads, tunnels, and aqueducts are particularly challenging because of the need for careful sighting and grading over long distances.
  388.  
  389. Rural Surveying
  390.  
  391. These works examine the broader context of rural surveying, including the methods used for centuriation of rural territory and the surviving material evidence for agrimensorial practices. Chouquer, et al. 1982 gives particular attention to Béziers, Orange, and the rural areas around Rome. Clavel-Lévéque 1983 uses case studies from around the Roman empire to balance detail with breadth. Chouquer, et al. 1991 represents an unusually detailed application of information about local flora and fauna to analyze patterns of land use. Clavel-Lévêque 1992 uses case studies to analyze the legal restrictions on various types of territory. Chouquer 2000 is an especially good synthesis of the various methodologies used to study the material evidence of Roman rural land surveying.
  392.  
  393. Chouquer, Gérard. 2000. L’étude des paysages: Essais sur leurs formes et leur histoire. Paris: Editions Errance.
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  395. A thoughtful, detailed analysis of the optimal methods for studying the surviving evidence of Roman rural land distribution, including critical perspectives on some approaches Chouquer finds flawed. Careful consideration is given to the advantages of disciplinary interactions between morphological, historical, and paleozoological and botanical study of land use, along with cautions about the limitations which should be placed on the use of evidence from disciplines other than one’s own. Includes a topical bibliography of judiciously chosen sources.
  396. Find this resource:
  397. Chouquer, Gérard, Monique Clavel-Lévêque, and François Favory. 1982. Cadastres, occupation du sol et paysages agraires antiques. Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales 37.5–6: 847–882.
  398. DOI: 10.3406/ahess.1982.282908Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  399. A careful consideration of the place of material evidence of various kinds, ranging from aerial views of the remains of settlements to the surviving cartographic and cadastral documents, illustrates how Roman social structures were embodied by the division of surveyed land, particularly when boundaries changed over time in response to natural events like the shifting of rivers as well as social changes. Includes many illustrations of plans, maps, and cadastral documents.
  400. Find this resource:
  401. Chouquer, Gérard, François Favory, and Pierre Poupet. 1991. Les paysages de l’antiquité: Terres et cadastres de l’Occident romain: IVe s. avant J.-C./IIIe s. après J.-C. Paris: Errance.
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  403. Places rural surveying in a robust historical and social context, examining archaeological evidence of settlement layouts alongside consideration of the local floral and faunal evidence. Reviews the history and methods of orthogonal land-surveying in colonial Greece, Gaul, and Rome. Illustrated with extensive aerial photographs and plans, comparisons to the manuscript illustrations, instruments, and other material evidence such as the cadastral maps from Orange. Useful alone or as a precursor to further study of the authors’ other work.
  404. Find this resource:
  405. Clavel-Lévêque, Monique. 1992.Les gromatici veteres et les réalités paysagères: Présentation de quelques cas. In Die Römische Feldmesskunst: Interdisziplinäre Beiträge zu ihrer Bedeutung für die Zivilisationsgeschichte Roms. Edited by Okko Behrends and Luigi Capogrossi Colognesi, 88–139. Göttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.
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  407. Examines the relationship between the theory and practice of surveying, focusing particularly on the problems of scamnation and of the shifts in systems of boundaries as territories were “renormalized.” Compares the solutions to problems of interpretation, localization, and construction of boundaries described by the agrimensorial authors with the material evidence for how those problems appear actually to have been solved.
  408. Find this resource:
  409. Clavel-Lévêque, Monique, ed. 1983. Cadastres et espace rural: Approches et réalités antiques: Table ronde de Besançon, mai 1980. Editions du Centre national de la recherche scientifique.
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  411. This collection of papers provides a broad perspective on rural land surveying and distribution, carried out largely through a series of case studies of the surviving archaeological evidence from a variety of locales within the Roman Empire. Well-illustrated throughout with aerial photographs and settlement plans, as well as detailed maps. Contains several bibliographies: a general list, and four lists keyed to specific regions.
  412. Find this resource:
  413. City Planning
  414.  
  415. Chevallier 1974 connects the problems of rural surveying to those of city planning, focusing on Roman territory while reaching beyond it where appropriate. Castagnoli 1956 traces the development of the orthogonal city plan from the 6th century BCE through the Hellenistic period. Segal 1978 describes several methods for orthogonal urban planning, and attempts to connect these with different political models. Heimberg 1983 compares Roman practices specifically to Greek urban planning. Rochberg 2012 describes urban planning outside the Roman world
  416.  
  417. Castagnoli, Ferdinando. 1956. Ippodamo di Mileto e l’urbanistica a pianta ortogonale. Rome: De Luca.
  418. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  419. Beginning from Olbia and Veii, describes Roman orthogonal city plans of different types: axial layouts centered on a cardo and decumanus, axial layouts in which the major intersection is shifted off-center (as in military encampments), axial plans with scamnation, and so on. The discussion throughout draws on textual as well as archaeological evidence, and is well illustrated with maps, plans, and aerial photographs.
  420. Find this resource:
  421. Chevallier, Raymond. 1974. Cité et territoire: Solutions romaines aux problèmes de l’organisations de l’espace: Problématique 1948–1973. In Aufstieg und Niedergang der Römischen Welt: Geschichte und Kultur Roms im Spiegel der neueren Forschung. II, Bd. 1. Edited by Hildegard Temporini, 649–788. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
  422. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  423. A detailed study of urban layouts and their relationship to rural spaces in the ancient world, particularly in Rome, using a wide variety of textual and material evidence. Extensive bibliography is integrated into each section. Includes plans and photographs of aerial views of settlement layouts, photographs taken at ground level, plots of centuriation, and local maps at a variety of scales.
  424. Find this resource:
  425. Heimberg, Ursula. 1983. Griechische und römische Landvermessung. In Bauplanung und Bautheorie der Antike. Edited by Architektur-Referat Deutsches Archäologisches Institut, 277–296. Berlin: Deutsches Archäologisches Institut: Vertrieb., Buchhandlung Wasmuth.
  426. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  427. Compares the work of orthogonal city planning, surveying, and distributing land in Greece to that of Rome. Briefly reviews references to laying out cities and allotting territory before examining the archaeological evidence from Megara Hyblaea, Metapontum, and other Greek cities with orthogonal or partially orthogonal layouts. Connects Roman centuriation to Greek orthogonal land division, rather than representing it as a self-contained development.
  428. Find this resource:
  429. Rochberg, Francesca. 2012. The expression of terrestrial and celestial order in ancient Mesopotamia. In Ancient perspectives: Maps and their place in Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, and Rome. Edited by Richard J. A Talbert, 9–46. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
  430. DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226789408.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  431. Examines plans of houses, city maps, regional maps, and maps of the cosmos from Mesopotamia. Includes information about the place of cadastral surveys in Mesopotamian society, speculating about the social identities and practices of the surveyors on the basis of the minimal evidence available. The more plentiful surviving evidence from inscriptions, plans of buildings and settlements, and texts recounting the dimensions of surveys is discussed at greater length.
  432. Find this resource:
  433. Segal, Arthur. 1978. The Hippodamic and the planned city. Beer-Sheva, Israel: Urban Studies Program of the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.
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  435. Compares the literary sources in which Hippodamus himself is mentioned with archaeological evidence from cities built before and after the time of Hippodamus over a very broad geographical range. While Segal’s argument that Greek orthogonal city planning was inherently democratic in contrast to other civilizations’ orthogonal plans is difficult to subscribe to wholeheartedly, this book nevertheless contains a wealth of examples of city plans, and is an accessible introduction to the subject.
  436. Find this resource:
  437. Military Surveying
  438.  
  439. While no clear distinction between civil and military surveying and their practitioners is visible in the evidence from the Roman world, some of the particular practices of military surveying are addressed in the work De munitionibus castrorum attributed to a certain Hyginus in the Corpus Agrimensorum Romanorum. Domaszewski’s (1887) edition (Hyginus 1887) includes extensive notes on the text itself, along with a second section of the work discussing the surveying and allocation of land within Roman military camps in considerable detail. Lenoir’s (1977) edition (Hyginus 1977) with French translation includes more up-to-date information about the author’s identity and possible status as a practitioner, along with detailed commentary on the text.
  440.  
  441. Hyginus. 1887. Liber de munitionibus castrorum. Edited by Alfred von Domaszewski. Leipzig: S. Hirzel.
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  443. Includes Latin text of the work De munitionibus castrorum (here attributed to Hyginus Gromaticus, though this text is now usually attributed to a “pseudo-Hyginus” dated to the second or third century CE), with extensive explanatory notes. The second half of the work provides a detailed discussion of how Roman military camps were surveyed and laid out, and the territory within them distributed to the various personnel.
  444. Find this resource:
  445. Hyginus. 1977. Des fortifications du camp. Translated by Maurice Lenoir. Paris: Les Belles Lettres.
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  447. Begins with an introduction to the problems of identifying the author, the originality and language of the text, the likelihood that it was written by a practitioner, and other editions of the work. Latin text with facing French translation is followed by detailed commentary which engages extensively with prior work on De munitionibus castrorum as well as the text itself.
  448. Find this resource:
  449. Roads
  450.  
  451. Wiseman 1970 and Herzig 1974 provide particularly helpful background information on the challenges of designing and building roads in the Roman world. Ulrix 1963 analyzes the methods used by surveyors to plan, design, and lay out their routes, and to put the roads in a broader context of Roman urban and rural surveying. Radke 1967 and Wiseman 1970 debate the importance of surveying to the design of Roman roads; Davies 1998 argues that land surveying and mapping were crucial to Roman road planning, contra those who assert that neither maps nor orientation technology were available for this task.
  452.  
  453. Davies, Hugh, E. H. 1998. Designing Roman roads. Britannia: Journal of Romano-British and Kindred Studies 29:1–16.
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  455. Uses modern and early modern analogues to suggest the likely practical processes used in tasks like sighting, laying out straight sections of roads, and so forth. Includes detailed discussion of how maps (albeit of a kind that does not survive) might have been used in laying out roads. Davies argues that the long straight sections of Roman roads were not so much an end in and of themselves as an artifact of the layout process he describes.
  456. Find this resource:
  457. Herzig, Heinz E. 1974. Probleme des römischen Strassenwesens: Untersuchungen zu Geschichte und Recht. In Aufstieg und Niedergang der Römischen Welt: Geschichte und Kultur Roms im Spiegel der neueren Forschung. II, Bd. 1. Edited by Hildegard Temporini, 593–648. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
  458. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  459. Combines a practical history of how Roman roads were built and financed with a nuanced analysis of the social significance of the different types of Roman roads. Includes small-scale maps of localities of roads, a fold-out map of the major Roman roads in Italy, photographs of milestones, and a reproduction of a milestone of Vespasian.
  460. Find this resource:
  461. Radke, Gerhard. 1967. Namen und Daten: Beobachtungen zur Geschichte des römischen Strassenbaus. Museum Helveticum 24.1: 221–235.
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  463. Argues for a reconsideration on the dating and location of the roads built in the Roman Republic based on claims that fora were invariably built at the exact halfway point of major roads as measured from Rome; that Roman roads could end at the boundary lines established by surveyors rather than always at towns or crossroads; and that roads built by consuls or praetors could extend into Latin or allied territory, but roads built by censors could not.
  464. Find this resource:
  465. Ulrix, F. 1963. Recherches sur la méthode de traçage des routes romaines. Latomus 22.2: 157–180.
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  467. This detailed study seeks to supplement archaeological analysis of the structure and materials used to build Roman roads with a study of the methodology of their layout. Includes several maps and photographs based on aerial surveys, which complement analysis of the orientation angles of the roads (primarily multiples of 30 degrees) to create a detailed picture of Roman roads as a carefully laid-out network.
  468. Find this resource:
  469. Wiseman, T. P. 1970. Roman Republican road-building. Papers of the British School at Rome 38:122–152.
  470. DOI: 10.1017/S0068246200011223Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  471. Reviews the existing resources on the development of the Roman system of roads in the Republican era, critiquing some of the analysis found in Radke 1967 on the grounds that determining precise mileage is difficult, as is determining the exact location of a forum. Wiseman employs archaeological, juridical, and literary evidence to present a very detailed analysis of the history and features of each of the major Republican roads.
  472. Find this resource:
  473. Tunnels
  474.  
  475. Tunnels offered special challenges for precise grading and orientation, particularly when the tunnel was used to carry water. Grewe 1998 is a detailed guide to Roman tunnels in general, and the best place to begin. The most prominent discussions of surveying in tunnel design relate to the famous aqueduct tunnel designed by Eupalinos at Samos. Kienast 1995 is by far the most detailed treatment of this tunnel, including extensive information about the city of Samos, its topography, and its hydrological environment, which introduces and contextualizes the tunnel project. Opinions vary on the degree to which mathematical methods could have been used to lay out this tunnel. Goodfield and Toulmin 1965 argue for the likelihood that sighting posts rather than mathematical methods were used. Van der Waerden 1968 suggests that Hero might well have had access to information about the Samos tunnel even if that project did not make use of mathematical methods such as Hero himself invokes; Burns 1971 concurs.
  476.  
  477. Burns, Alfred. 1971. The tunnel of Eupalinus and the tunnel problem of Hero of Alexandria. Isis 62:172–185.
  478. DOI: 10.1086/350729Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  479. Supports the hypothesis of Van der Waerden 1968 that Hero could have used the tunnel at Samos as the model for his own “tunnel problem” (Dioptra 15), arguing that the corresponding diagram in the Mynas Codex quite nearly matches the terrain and layout of the tunnel on Samos.
  480. Find this resource:
  481. Goodfield, June, and Stephen Toulmin. 1965. How was the tunnel of Eupalinus aligned? Isis 56.1: 46–55.
  482. DOI: 10.1086/349924Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  483. Critiques an argument (made prominent in B. L. Van der Waerden, Science Awakening, Groningen, The Netherlands: P. Noordhoff, 1954) that the tunnel of Eupalinus at Samos was an application of Pythagorean geometry. The claim is rejected on the grounds that it is practically implausible given the local terrain and rests on anachronistic evidence from Hero’s Dioptra. Instead, they argue, the tunnel was probably laid out by sighting posts.
  484. Find this resource:
  485. Grewe, Klaus. 1998. Licht am Ende des Tunnels: Planung und Trassierung im antiken Tunnelbau. Mainz am Rhein, Germany: Verlag von Zabern.
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  487. This very accessible work covers many aspects of tunnel-building in the ancient Mediterranean world (including a chapter on aqueduct tunnels from Israel dating back to perhaps the 10th century BCE), and the surveying practices involved with their design and construction. Largely approaches the subject through case studies, which allow detailed information on a few exemplary sites to serve as guidance to the subject as a whole.
  488. Find this resource:
  489. Kienast, Hermann J. 1995. Die Wasserleitung des Eupalinos auf Samos. Bonn, Germany: In Kommission bei R. Habelt.
  490. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  491. Provides a very detailed account of the design and building of the tunnel, including measurements, markers, and signs of leveling-lines, as well as the geometrical considerations behind the tunnel’s design. Concludes with more detailed historical context on Eupalinus and the tunnel project. Appendices include information on the letters inscribed in the tunnel at various times, surveying instruments, and the geology of the area. Includes many photographs of the tunnel.
  492. Find this resource:
  493. Van der Waerden, B. L. 1968. Eupalinos and his tunnel. Isis 59.1: 82–83.
  494. DOI: 10.1086/350338Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  495. Concedes that Goodfield and Toulmin 1965 are probably right that the tunnel was not constructed by the method Hero recommends in the Dioptra. However, he argues that it is quite possible that Hero was aware of the earlier project, perhaps through its proposal being copied for the Library at Alexandria, and used it as the model for his “tunnel problem” (Dioptra 15).
  496. Find this resource:
  497. Aqueducts
  498.  
  499. Hodge 1992 describes the surveying activities associated with designing, grading, and building aqueducts, while Frankel 2002 provides a detailed analysis of an aqueduct at Akko whose structure seems to indicate a Hellenistic rather than a Roman design, and represents the earliest dated aqueduct in Israel.
  500.  
  501. Frankel, R. 2002. The Hellenistic aqueduct of Akko-Ptolemais. Journal of Roman Archaeology (Supplementary Studies) 46:82–87.
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  503. Argues that a subterranean aqueduct used by the Turks at Acre was probably not based on a Roman aqueduct, as is often assumed, but was rather built not earlier than the 2nd century BCE, using a sloping stepped shaft of a design not used in Roman aqueducts. Such a design is, however, known from a Corinthian aqueduct, so Frankel argues that the aqueduct is most likely of Hellenistic origins.
  504. Find this resource:
  505. Hodge, A. Trevor. 1992. Roman aqueducts and water supply. London: Duckworth.
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  507. Accessibly but very thoroughly addresses the technical details of aqueduct design, construction, maintenance, and water distribution within cities. Contains extensive graphs explaining the grading of aqueducts, as well as numerous plans, diagrams, and photographs.
  508. Find this resource:
  509. Practitioners
  510.  
  511. The authors of the Corpus Agrimensorum Romanorum do not provide a great deal of unambiguous autobiographical detail; however, the surviving textual and material evidence can nevertheless be mined for clues about their chronology, training, and employment. Chouquer and Favory 1992 and Cuomo 2000 examine the evidence for the socioeconomic status of surveyors, both as groups and as individuals in the rare cases where biographical details are known, while Dilke 1988 (cited under Religious Aspects) and Classen 1994 describe the technical and religious aspects of their formative training. Maganzani 1997 is a thorough overview of the different types of practitioners, with special emphasis on their involvement in legal matters. Ratti and Clavel-Lévêque 1996, Chouquer and Favory 1992, Arnaud 1995, Peyras 1995, and Cuomo 2007 situate the surveyors within the broader Roman political, military, and administrative context; Cuomo makes particular use of material evidence.
  512.  
  513. Arnaud, Pascal. 1995. Les mensores des légions: Mensores agrarii ou mensores frumentarii? In La hiérarchie (Rangordnung) de l’armée romaine sous le haut-empire: Actes du congrès de Lyon (15–18 septembre 1994). Edited by Yann Le Bohec, 251–256. Paris: De Boccard.
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  515. Reviews the evidence for the constant presence of surveyors in the Roman army from at least the reign of Tiberius, and argues that the term mensor in inscriptions pertaining to military activities refers to land-surveyors rather than an administrator of standardized quantities of grain. Arnaud further investigates, on the basis of evidence from texts and inscriptions, what roles these military surveyors might have played, and how they were likely distributed legion by legion.
  516. Find this resource:
  517. Chouquer, Gérard, and François Favory. 1992. Les arpenteurs romains: Théorie et pratique. Paris: Éditions Errance.
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  519. An excellent guide to the available information about the practitioners of surveying, their tasks, and the instruments and techniques they used to complete them. The authors make very effective use of information from inscriptions (funerary and dedicatory as well as those used in the practice of surveying itself) to present a very detailed picture of the practitioners. Includes extensive photographs and other illustrations, as well as a judiciously selected bibliography.
  520. Find this resource:
  521. Classen, C. Joachim. 1994. On the training of the Agrimensores in Republican Rome and related problems: Some preliminary observations. Illinois Classical Studies 19:161–170.
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  523. Argues that despite the fact that the earliest surviving texts which purport to offer instruction to practicing surveyors date to the 1st century CE, the demands of the discipline were such that texts of this kind, including some theoretical information, formulae, and diagrams, must have existed previously. Concludes that there must have been a two-tiered system in which “field surveyors” were differentiated from those with special knowledge of the legal aspects.
  524. Find this resource:
  525. Cuomo, Serafina. 2000. Divide and rule: Frontinus and Roman land-surveying. Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science 31A:189–202.
  526. DOI: 10.1016/S0039-3681(00)00011-XSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  527. Focuses on the figure of Frontinus in an argument that the agrimensores are too seldom considered as individuals with different levels of expertise, political views and positions, and so forth, factors which might well have had an important impact on their work. Connects Frontinus’s work on aqueducts with his work on surveying within the context of administrative work, which he experienced as praetor and consul. Particularly useful for the connections it provides to broader questions about the complexities of “practical” knowledge in the Roman world.
  528. Find this resource:
  529. Cuomo, S. 2007. Boundary disputes in the Roman Empire. In Technology and culture in Greek and Roman antiquity. By S. Cuomo, 103–130. Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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  531. An accessible, self-contained treatment of the reflections of disputes over land in both technical and nontechnical literature is followed by a series of case studies of epigraphic evidence from Delphi, Aizanoi, and Daulis. A detailed and concrete analysis of how land disputes were solved takes into account local residents, imperial officers, and the surveying technicians.
  532. Find this resource:
  533. Maganzani, Lauretta. 1997. Gli agrimensori nel processo privato romano. Rome: Pontificia università lateranense.
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  535. The most thorough work available focused on the figure of the surveyor. Maganzani provides a very clear analysis of the evidence for the different spheres of activity of mensores (military, agricultural, adminstrative, legal), the structures within which they were employed, and their relationship to practitioners in related fields like geographers. Very strong emphasis on the roles played by mensores in legal proceedings as advocates, consultants, and arbitrators.
  536. Find this resource:
  537. Peyras, Jean. 1995. Écrits d’arpentage et hauts fonctionnaires géomètres de l’Antiquité tardive. Dialogues d’histoire ancienne 21.2: 149–204.
  538. DOI: 10.3406/dha.1995.2653Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  539. Describes the responsibilities of high-ranking equestrian land surveyors in late antiquity. Focuses on evidence from texts, inscriptions, and papyri relating to provinces in Africa. Includes the texts themselves along with explanatory commentary. Places the work of these surveyors in the context of the political and administrative changes of late antiquity, as well as the types of land and materials available to them.
  540. Find this resource:
  541. Ratti, Stéphane., and Monique Clavel-Lévêque. 1996. Le Substrat Augustéen dans la Constitutio Limitum d’Hygin le Gromatique et la Datation du Traité. Dialogues d’histoire ancienne 22.2: 220–238.
  542. DOI: 10.3406/dha.1996.2717Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  543. Considers the relatively large number of references to Augustus in the Constitutio limitum of Hyginus Gromaticus, situating his references to Augustus in the context of the distribution of land after the end of the civil war. Argues cautiously for the possibility that the Res gestae served as one of Hyginus’s source texts, and that the references to Augustus are meant to recall parallels with Vespasian, which consequently adds evidence to the much-debated question of the dating of Hyginus Gromaticus (on which see Chouquer and Favory 2001 and Campbell 2000, both cited under Introductory Works, and Hyginus and Frontinus 2005, cited under Individual Texts, Translations, and Commentaries).
  544. Find this resource:
  545. Material Evidence
  546.  
  547. The surviving material evidence about the work of the surveyors ranges widely in scale, from the traces of entire settlements to the fragments of cadastral documents. Dilke 1974 is a good overview of the various kinds of material evidence. Chouquer and Favory 1980 links material and textual evidence by comparing aerial photographs of the surviving traces of centuriated territory with the manuscript illustrations of the Corpus Agrimensorum Romanorum. Traces of centuriated rural territory that remain in the landscape are discussed as well in some of the sources listed under Rural Surveying (such as Clavel-Lévéque 1983; Clavel-Lévêque 1992; Chouquer, et al. 1991 all cited under Rural Surveying). Relatively few traces of cadastral documents survive, though they are frequently referred to in the agrimensorial texts. The largest single find is a diverse group of inscriptions from Orange, which includes fragments of pictorial representations of centuriated land and tables indicating ownership; these are discussed at great length in Piganiol 1962. Mayer and Olesti Vila 2001 and Ariño Gil and Gurt 2001 analyze an inscription from Ilici that appears to be unique material evidence for sortition of land in a Roman colony, and suggests a previously unsuspected flexibility in where allotments of land could be counted from. A fragmentary bronze plaque found in Spain appears to depict the boundary of a segment of centuriated land, a river and the non-centuriated territory of the Roman settlement of Lacimurga; its contents and context are analyzed by Gorges 1993 and Sáez Fernández 1990. This plaque is particularly important as it seems to be the sole surviving remnant of the “bronze maps” referred to by Hyginus Gromaticus and other agrimensorial authors. Prior to its identification, much speculation about the contents of these maps rested on the evidence of surviving maps like the Forma Urbis Romae, an enormous marble map of the city of Rome inscribed on a wall in the Forum of Vespasian in the early 3rd century CE. The Forma is discussed and replicated in detail in Carettoni 1960 and Rodríguez Almeida 1981.
  548.  
  549. Ariño Gil, Enrique, and Josep M. Gurt. 2001. La inscripción catastral de Ilici. Ensayo de interpretación. Pyrenae: Revista de Prehistòria i Antiguitat de la Mediterrània Occidental 31–32:223–226.
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  551. The authors address an interpretative challenge presented by the inscription from Ilici described in Mayer and Olesti Vila 2001, and suggest that it should be read as distributing parcels of land counted from a given line of centuriae rather than from the cardo as is usually the case. This represents an important broadening of our understanding of how the distribution of land was organized.
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  553. Carettoni, Gianfilippo. 1960. La pianta marmorea di Roma antica; forma urbis Romae. Rome: Danesi.
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  555. The first of this work’s two volumes includes a short history of the fragments and their discovery, followed by a series of concise discussions of the contents of each fragment. The second volume consists of large fold-out representations of each sector of the map, depicting photographs of the surviving fragments along with representations of the manuscript illustrations for missing fragments and labeling important features.
  556. Find this resource:
  557. Cavalieri-Manasse, Giuliana, and Monique Clavel-Lévêque. 2000. Un document cadastral du complexe capitolin de Vérone. Dialogues d’histoire ancienne 26.1: 198–200.
  558. DOI: 10.3406/dha.2000.2564Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  559. Describes a fragment of a bronze tablet, tentatively dated to the second half of the 1st century BCE, indicating the divisions of a rural territory into roughly square sections. Each of the surviving squares includes an inscription indicating its location relative to the decumanus and cardo, the name of its possessor, and its size. The authors here remark on the circumstances of the plaque’s inscription and situate it within the history of the imposition of Roman administration on this region.
  560. Find this resource:
  561. Chouquer, Gérard, and François Favory. 1980. Contribution à la recherche des cadastres antiques. Paris: Les Belles Lettres.
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  563. Presents aerial photographs of the remains of several centuriated Roman settlements, along with maps that show greater detail. These are accompanied by reproductions of the illustrations from the Codex Arcerianus which offer close parallels to the aerial views, as well as concise explanatory discussion of surveying ancient urban and rural areas.
  564. Find this resource:
  565. Dilke, Oswald Ashton Wentworth. 1974. Archaeological and epigraphic evidence of Roman land surveys. In Aufstieg und Niedergang der Römischen Welt: Geschichte und Kultur Roms im Spiegel der neueren Forschung. II, Bd. 1. Edited by Hildegard Temporini, 564–592. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
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  567. Includes a short history of 19th- and 20th-century archaeological investigations of Roman land surveying, a brief discussion of the form and use of the groma, the remarkable archaeological evidence on centuriation from Orange (on which see Piganiol 1962), and the unusually elongated centuriated layout of Altinum. Appendices include a list of centuriated territories with available bibliography for each, and a more general bibliography on archaeological evidence for Roman surveying.
  568. Find this resource:
  569. Gorges, Jean-Gérard. 1993. Nouvelle lecture du fragment de Forma d’un territoire voisin de Lacimurga. Mélanges de la Casa de Velázquez 29.1: 7–23.
  570. DOI: 10.3406/casa.1993.2636Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  571. Revisits the bronze plaque described in Sáez Fernández 1990, questioning the exact name and location of the city portrayed, as well as whether a consistent scale is observed in depicting the territory. Proposes that the plaque should be oriented upside-down compared to the reading of Sáez Fernández.
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  573. Mayer, Marc, and Oriol Olesti Vila. 2001. La Sortitio de Ilici. Del Documento Epigráfico al Paisaje Histórico. Dialogues d’histoire ancienne 27.1: 109–130.
  574. DOI: 10.3406/dha.2001.2439Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  575. Analyzes an inscription on a bronze plaque from Ilici listing a series of ten names and locations, preceded by sizes and positions of tracts of land. Argues that the plaque was used in sortition to allocate land, as it appears to specify locations that match precisely the surviving traces of centuriation visible on the landscape.
  576. Find this resource:
  577. Piganiol, André. Les documents cadastraux de la colonie romaine d’Orange. Paris: Centre national de la recherche scientifique; renseignements et vente au Comité technique de la recherche archéologique en France, 1962.
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  579. Offers an extremely detailed record of the cadastral records from Orange. This unparalleled find includes inscriptions pertaining to Roman allotment of land, including the well-known inscription in Vespasian’s name dating to 77 CE, fragments of schematic representations of centuriated land, and copies of documents from the imperial tabularium. Extensive drawings, photographs, transcriptions, translations, and secondary discussion make this a unique resource collecting a broad spectrum of inscriptional evidence pertaining to surveying.
  580. Find this resource:
  581. Rodríguez Almeida, Emilio. 1981. Forma urbis marmorea: Aggiornamento generale 1980. Rome: Quasar.
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  583. The first volume of this work contains commentary on the topography and symbology of individual fragments as well as discussion of the map as a whole and its context in the Forum, while the second consists of detailed fold-out representations of the fragments.
  584. Find this resource:
  585. Sáez Fernández, Pedro. 1990. Estudio sobre una inscripción catastral colindante con Lacimurga. Habis 21:205–228.
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  587. Compares a bronze plaque depicting centuriated and non-centuriated land to the descriptions, given by Hyginus Gromaticus and others, of the maps (formae) and bronze tablets (tabulae aeris) used in imperial record-keeping. After a detailed comparison between competing theories about what these might have looked like, the authors conclude that the plaque is a fragment of a forma, in fact the earliest of its kind from the Roman world.
  588. Find this resource:
  589. Regional Studies
  590.  
  591. The ancient practice and modern study of surveying varies considerably from one area to another of what was once Roman territory. Surveying work performed in Italy has been very thoroughly studied, particularly centuriated rural territory; works focused on Italy are listed under a separate subsection. France has been particularly well-surveyed from the air, owing to the presence of a large research group dedicated to this method of study, which reveals a great deal about centuriation in rural territory over large areas. The same approach has been taken in North Africa; this is a particularly suitable method as landholdings in Roman Africa were often immense. Bonora 2000 contains a summary of the differing degrees to which evidence for centuriation survives in various regions which were at some point under Roman administrative control. Chouquer 1996–1997 collects a large number of articles on surveying in what is now France over a long chronological period, making use of many different archaeological approaches; this work’s three volumes also include a vast bibliography on surveying in this region and more generally. Clavel-Lévêque 1995 examines the traces of surveying on the same territory in a very different way, focusing on visual information. Duncan-Jones 1980 and Millett 1982 use studies based on settlements and structures from Roman Britain to discuss which of the two major foot measures were used in the region. Mӑrgineanu-Cârstoiu 1983 provides a useful comparison in the form of analysis of the urban layouts of two Romanian cities, demonstrating how the stability of the preferred Roman orthogonal plan can differentiate Roman settlement patterns from earlier and later settlements in the same area, as well as supplement missing material evidence such as the boundaries of city walls. Ouni 1999a and Ouni 1999b use surviving evidence from Tunisia to demonstrate patterns of centuriation and rural land use in North Africa. Peyras 1983 focuses on the same region and includes quite detailed discussion of the methodologies of discovering patterns of agricultural land-use and shifts in rural ecosystems.
  592.  
  593. Bonora, Giovanna. 2000. La centuriazione. In La topografia antica. Edited by Giovanna Bonora and Pier Luigi Dall’Aglio, 193–206. Bologna, Italy: CLUEB.
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  595. Though brief, this chapter is useful for the overview of the surveyor’s work it provides, along with a glossary of technical terms and, perhaps most useful of all, a region-by-region summary of the degree to which traces of centuriation are visible in various parts of Italy, elsewhere in Europe, North Africa, and Asia Minor.
  596. Find this resource:
  597. Chouquer, Gérard. 1996–1997. Les formes des paysages. 3 vols. Paris: Editions Errance.
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  599. The three volumes of this work combine a great diversity of articles with extensive bibliography (on which see Bibliographies). The articles are focused on archaeologically oriented study of surveying in what is now France; they include material on Roman surveying and land use as well as that of earlier and later peoples. Even readers primarily interested in Roman surveying will find these chapters useful as probably the most complete and varied discussion of archaeological approaches to surveying.
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  601. Clavel-Lévêque, Monique. 1995. Atlas des cadastres de Gaule. Paris: Les Belles Lettres.
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  603. This unusual work consists of individual poster-sized pages collected in a folder. They are grouped by topic, addressing subjects like limitatio and centuriation, scamnation, and land administration. Within these topics, individual pages provide a wealth of visual resources focused on Gaul, including aerial photographs and maps of centuriated territory, ground-level photographs of the composition of roads, maps of settlements, topographical maps, and colored maps of soil types. Includes a certain amount of verbal explanation, but the emphasis here is on the visual.
  604. Find this resource:
  605. Duncan-Jones, R. P. 1980. Length-units in Roman town planning: The Pes Monetalis and the Pes Drusianus. Britannia 11:127–133.
  606. DOI: 10.2307/525675Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  607. Compares the use of the sixteen-digit pes monetalis to the eighteen-digit pes Drusianus. Duncan-Jones discusses the likelihood that Roman surveyors typically worked in multiples of round numbers of these units, which might enable determination of which unit was used in their design, arguing that there is no convincing evidence for this practice. Analyzes case studies from Silchester and Verulamium for closeness of their dimensions to multiples of each type of foot, arguing that the use of the pes Drusianus in Roman Britain is inconclusive.
  608. Find this resource:
  609. Millett, Martin. 1982. Distinguishing between the ‘Pes Monetalis’ and the ‘Pes Drusianus:’ Some problems. Britannia 13:315–320.
  610. DOI: 10.2307/526511Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  611. Describes problems in reconstructing the unit of measurement used by surveyors from archaeological remains, including margins of error and variance in methods for measuring wall distance. Adds considerably to the Silchester data used in Duncan-Jones 1980, but likewise concludes that neither unit can be definitively identified as that used by the surveyors.
  612. Find this resource:
  613. Mărgineanu-Cârstoiu, Monica. 1983. Plans des villes romaines de Moesie Inferieure. In Bauplanung und Bautheorie der Antike. Edited by Architektur-Referat Deutsches Archäologisches Institut, 297–314. Berlin: Deutsches Archäologisches Institut: Vertrieb., Buchhandlung Wasmuth.
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  615. Reviews the layout and orientation of Tropaeum Traiani and Histria. For Tropaeum Traiani the authors use the layout of the streets, beginning from the cardo and decumanus, to supplement the few other surviving features of the city and suggest the position of its boundaries. At Histria they differentiate the Roman components of the city from structures accumulated earlier and later by using the orientation of the Roman components of the city.
  616. Find this resource:
  617. Ouni, Karim. 1999a. Environnement et Cadastres Antiques. In L’Afrique du Nord antique: Cultures et paysages: Colloque de Nantes, mai 1996. Edited by Jean Peyras and Georges Tirologos, 34–45. Paris: Presses universitaires franc-comtoises.
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  619. A methodological case study, based on the region around Rougga, of how the information available from aerial photography can be used to distinguish landscape features including divisions of centuriated land, manmade structures such as dwellings and irrigation infrastructure, and regions of different soil composition.
  620. Find this resource:
  621. Ouni, Karim. 1999b. “Imagerie satellitaire et archéologie: Exemples d’arpentages antiques detectes dans le centre-est tunisien.” In L’Afrique du Nord antique: Cultures et paysages: Colloque de Nantes, mai 1996. Edited by Jean Peyras and Georges Tirologos, 15–33. Presses universitaires franc-comtoises.
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  623. Uses aerial photography to illuminate the traces of Roman centuriation in eastern Tunisia around the latitude of El Djem. Discusses some possible reasons for the unusual find of superimposed centuriated territories oriented at different angles from one another. Considers the relationship between Punic and Roman distribution of territory. Includes several photographs and a wealth of maps showing different layers of centuriation.
  624. Find this resource:
  625. Peyras, Jean. 1983. Paysages agraires et centuriations dans le bassin de l’oued Tine (Tunisie du Nord). Antiquités africaines 19.1: 209–253.
  626. DOI: 10.3406/antaf.1983.1097Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  627. Reviews the evidence of surveying and agricultural activities in the Oued Tine region of Tunisia. Peyras argues that though the area was long inhabited, the highly visible centuriation is a product of the Roman conquest, and was not really developed until at least the 2nd century CE. Includes several maps at various scales indicating the grouping of ruins of settlements around centuriae as well as photographs of structures, soil types, etc.
  628. Find this resource:
  629. Italy
  630.  
  631. Surveying in the various regions of Italy is covered most thoroughly in the Misurare la terra series (the first is Gabba 2003 (originally released under the same title in 1983, cited under General Overviews). These works are intended to present information about surveying in the Roman world clearly and accessibly, with detailed information on specific regions and extensive background information. Bussi 1983, Bussi 1984, Bussi and Vandelli 1985, and Bussi and Vandelli 1989 cover the regions around Modena, Mantua, Venice, and Rome, respectively; each combines chapters strictly relating to surveying in the appropriate area with more varied background on regional land use and material evidence. A different approach is taken in Chouquer, et al. 1987, which emphasizes the use of data from aerial photography to develop a model for land division particular to Campania that could then serve as a test case for further study.
  632.  
  633. Bussi, Rolando, ed. 1983. Misurare la terra: Centuriazione e coloni nel mondo romano: Il caso modenese. Modena, Italy: Panini.
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  635. This was the first of four volumes in the series, each dedicated to a specific region. Includes four essays on land division in this region, including pre- and post-Roman distributions; these are followed by a series of essays on material evidence from individual subregions, which are overall less specifically relevant to surveying.
  636. Find this resource:
  637. Bussi, Rolando, ed. 1984. Misurare la terra: Centuriazione e coloni nel mondo romano: Il caso mantovano. Mantua, Italy: Panini.
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  639. Several of the chapters in this volume describe the Roman-era and later divisions of land in the region at a variety of scales, while others report and describe surviving inscriptions and boundary structures relevant to the work of the surveyors. Others contain a miscellany of information, most often on Virgil, which is relevant to the region but not directly connected to surveying. Includes many maps, plans, and photographs of the modern landscape.
  640. Find this resource:
  641. Bussi, Rolando, and Vittorio Vandelli, eds. 1985. Misurare la terra: Centuriazione e coloni nel mondo romano: Città, agricoltura, commercio: Materiali da Roma e dal suburbio. Modena, Italy: Edizioni Panini.
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  643. Includes three sets of chapters (a total of seven essays) on topics specifically relevant to centuriation around Rome, while the remaining chapters cover topics relevant to land use and trade in the area, which are not necessarily connected to questions of surveying.
  644. Find this resource:
  645. Bussi, Rolando, and Vittorio Vandelli, eds. 1989. Misurare la terra: Centuriazione e coloni nel mondo romano: Il caso veneto. Modena, Italy: Panini.
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  647. Many of the chapters in this volume contain material relevant to surveying, including the surviving material traces of the activities of the surveyors, environmental-historical aspects, and discussion of the relationship between urban and rural settlements in this region. Approximately the second half of the volume proceeds methodically through the localities of the region, describing the centuriation of the local territory in great detail. Includes extensive maps and photographs of artifacts and aerial surveys.
  648. Find this resource:
  649. Chouquer, Gérard, Monique Clavel-Lévêque, François Favory, and Jean-Pierre Vallat. 1987. Structures agraires en Italie centro-méridionale: Cadastres et paysages ruraux. Rome: École française de Rome.
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  651. This work’s most important contribution stems from a collection of eighty tracts of land observed using aerial photography, categorized into thirty-four different morphological patterns. These are analyzed in the context of changes in land use in the region, with a discussion of how surveying shaped urban-rural relationships. Includes text, French translation, and explanatory notes of relevant agrimensorial texts, along with many illustrations and maps of the areas surveyed.
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