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Greek Religion (Classics)

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. Because of the importance of Greek religion and mythology for the study of literature and philosophy, but also for art and theology, interest in this field began earlier than the systematic study of most other fields of Classical studies (e.g., archaeology and ancient history). In the course of two centuries, the study of Greek religion has moved from the study of myths of gods and heroes to a historical, sociological, and anthropological approach that emphasizes the position of religious beliefs and activities in the life of the Greeks and the Hellenized populations of the larger Greek world (colonies and conquered territories), both in the poleis and in other types of communal organization. This bibliography does not reflect the history of the discipline and the influence of different theoretical approaches (myth-and-ritual theory, structuralism, behavioral theory, psychoanalysis, etc.). Instead, it presents important tools for the study of Greek religion (bibliographies, series, journals, works of reference), where one can find further information on sources and studies. It also provides a very basic orientation to the main aspects of Greek religion and current discussions. Mythology, naturally relevant for the study of Greek religion, is not comprehensively covered by this bibliography. Because of the limited space, there is an emphasis on recent studies, where one can find earlier bibliography. This bibliography considers as “Greek religion” not only the religion of the Greeks but also, in the Hellenistic and Roman Imperial periods, the religion of areas where the source material is primarily in the Greek language (Asia Minor, Egypt, the Near East).
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  5. Bibliographies
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  7. The bibliographical guide Mentor (Motte, et al. 1992; Motte, et al. 1998) allows a quick and reliable orientation in the field of Greek religion c. 1914–1990; this should be the starting point for all research. For publications after 1990, one may consult the annual “Chronique bibliographique” in the journal Kernos. New archaeological and epigraphic finds are presented both there and in the “Epigraphic Bulletin for Greek Religion” in the same journal.
  8.  
  9. “Chronique archéologique.” 2001–. Kernos 14–.
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  11. From 2001 onward, a team of specialists has presented in the “Chronique archéologique” annual reports about new archaeological discoveries pertaining to Greek religion; the reports are organized geographically and are an excellent source of information on new developments in the archaeology of Greek religion.
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  13. “Chronique bibliographique.” 1987–. Kernos 1–.
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  15. From 1987 onward, the “Chronique bibliographique” has presented an annual bibliographical bulletin for Greek religion.
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  17. “Epigraphic bulletin for Greek religion.” 1991–. Kernos 4–.
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  19. Founded in 1991, the “Epigraphic Bulletin for Greek Religion” annually presents critical summaries of epigraphic publications concerning Greek religion (new inscriptions, discussions of inscriptions, religious studies based on inscriptions). A concise index allows search of selected subjects, geographical areas, and Greek words in approximately 4,300 summaries of books and articles.
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  21. Motte, André, Vinciane Pirenne-Delforge, and Paul Wathelet, eds. 1992. Mentor: Guide bibliographique de la religion grecque. Kernos Supplément 2. Liège, Belgium: Université de Liège.
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  23. Annotated bibliography of Greek religion including 2,060 titles (mostly 1914–1985) with critical remarks; a detailed index (French and English) permits an elaborate search; an extremely valuable bibliographical guide; very useful for students.
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  25. Motte, André, Vinciane Pirenne-Delforge, and Paul Wathelet, eds. 1998. Mentor 2: 1986–1990; Guide bibliographique de la religion grecque. Kernos Supplément 6. Liège, Belgium: Université de Liège.
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  27. The second volume of the annotated bibliography of Greek religion covers 1,310 recent publications (1986–1990); an indispensable bibliographical guide.
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  29. Journals
  30.  
  31. Almost all journals of classical studies, and many journals dedicated more generally to religious studies and to biblical and patristic studies, host studies on Greek religion. Kernos is exclusively dedicated to Greek religion and has also developed into an important source of bibliographical information. The Archiv für Religionsgeschichte is broader in scope, studying Greek religion in the context of ancient religions.
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  33. Archiv für Religionsgeschichte. 1999–. Berlin: de Gruyter.
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  35. This journal, conceived as a continuation of the Archiv für Religionswissenschaft (1898–1943), specializes in the study of ancient religions (Greek, Roman, Egyptian, Jewish, Mesopotamian).
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  37. Jahrbuch für Antike und Christentum. 1958–. Münster, Germany: Aschendorff.
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  39. This journal specializes in the study of religious development primarily in Late Antiquity, combining the study of early Christianity with the study of ancient religion.
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  41. Kernos. 1987–. Liège, Belgium: Université de Liège.
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  43. Published by the Centre International d’Étude de la Religion Grecque Antique, Kernos is exclusively dedicated to the study of Greek religion. In addition to articles, it hosts very useful annual reports on new epigraphic and archaeological finds, reviews of books and journals, and reports on congresses. It is a leading journal for Greek religion and should be regularly consulted.
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  45. Métis: Anthropologie des mondes grecs anciens: Histoire, philologie, archéologie. 1986–. Paris: Daedalus.
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  47. Applying the methods and theoretical models of social anthropology in the study of Greek social and cultural history, this journal places emphasis on religion and religious mentality.
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  49. Series
  50.  
  51. Several series of publications emphasize Greek religion, and their volumes should be consulted. Kernos Suppléments 1992– continually produces monographs and collective volumes dedicated to a variety of aspects of Greek religion. Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World 2005– provides reliable surveys of the myths and cults of Greek gods. The series Études préliminaires aux religions orientales dans l’Empire romaine 1961–1992, continued by Religions of the Graeco-Roman World 1992–, is important in particular for later periods of Greek religion and its relation to foreign religions (see New Documents Illustrating Early Christianity 1981– for relations between Christianity and paganism).
  52.  
  53. Études préliminaires aux religions orientales dans l’Empire romaine. 1961–1992. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
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  55. Founded in 1961, this series published more than one hundred volumes. Despite its title, the series did not publish only monographs pertaining to Oriental religions in the Roman Empire, but also books on contacts of the Greek world with Egyptian and Oriental cults; it is a very important series for the study of foreign influences on Greek religion, religion in the Hellenistic world and in the Roman Empire, mystery cults, and syncretism. It is continued by the series Religions of the Graeco-Roman World 1992–.
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  57. Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World. 2005–. London: Routledge.
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  59. This series presents short, readable overviews of the myths, cults, and characteristics of Greek and Roman gods and heroes; very useful for undergraduates.
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  61. Kernos Suppléments. 1992–. Liège, Belgium: Université de Liège.
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  63. This series has produced more than twenty volumes exclusively dedicated to Greek religion. The subjects include the iconography of cult (no. 1), private and public cults (15), cult regulations and norms (21), sacrificial rites (3, 12), the cult of gods and heroes (4, 7, 8, 10, 13, 17, 18), hymns (14), and the significance of Pausanias as a source for Greek religion (5, 8, 20).
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  65. New Documents Illustrating Early Christianity. 1981–. Alexandria, Australia: Macquarie Univ.
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  67. The volumes of this series, founded by G. H. R. Horsley, appear irregularly (nine volumes until 2002). They present commentaries of selected inscriptions and papyri of religious significance, which reveal convergence of religious mentality and vocabulary between paganism and Christianity (from the Hellenistic period to Late Antiquity).
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  69. Religions of the Graeco-Roman World. 1992–. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
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  71. Continuing the series Études préliminaires aux religions orientales dans l’Empire romaine, this series has abandoned the focus on Oriental cults and covers, more broadly, cults, rituals, and religious mentality in Greece, Rome, and the Roman Empire.
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  73. Reference Works
  74.  
  75. A general introduction to the most important phenomena of ancient religions is given by Johnston 2004. Boardman 1981–1999 is an invaluable resource for the iconography and the myths—and to some extent for the cults—of divine figures. The Thesaurus cultus et rituum antiquorum (J. Paul Getty Museum 2005–2006) provides general overviews (with useful reference to sources) to all aspects of Greek cult.
  76.  
  77. Boardman, John, ed. 1981–1999. Lexicon iconographicum mythologiae classicae. 9 vols. Zurich and Munich: Artemis.
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  79. This lexicon assembles images of myths associated with gods, heroes, demons, personifications, and other mythological figures in Greek, Roman, and Etruscan mythology; relevant literary sources and inscriptions are also adduced. The material is organized in alphabetical order with reference to the name of the mythological figure. An extremely helpful work of reference for the study of Greek gods and heroes.
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  81. J. Paul Getty Museum. 2005–2006. Thesaurus cultus et rituum antiquorum. 6 vols. Los Angeles: Getty Trust Publications.
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  83. This multivolume work aims at exhaustively covering all known aspects of Greek, Etruscan, and Roman cults and rituals. Each chapter (in English, French, German, and Italian) is followed by lists of inscriptions, literary sources, and images related to the topic. Vol. 1, Processions, sacrifices, libation, fumigations, dedications; Vol. 2, Purification, consecration, foundation rite, initiation, heroization and apotheosis, banquet, dance, music rites; Vol. 3, Divination; Prayer, gestures and acts of prayer; Gestures and acts of veneration; Hikesia; Asylia; Oath; Malediction; Profanation; Magic rituals; Vol. 4, Cult places; Representation of cult places; Vol. 5, Personnel of cult; Cult instruments; Vol. 6, an index that facilitates the use of this work, which is a very important work of reference, written by leading scholars.
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  85. Johnston, Sarah Iles, ed. 2004. Religions of the ancient world: A guide. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
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  87. Collection of short, readable overviews of all important aspects of ancient religions; a good starting point for students and a general audience.
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  89. Sources
  90.  
  91. The study of Greek religion is based on the information provided by literary, documentary (inscriptions, papyri), and archaeological sources. It is not possible to survey here the primary sources for the study of Greek religion (literature, inscriptions, papyri, archaeological finds). Le Guen-Pollet 1991 is a useful selection of epigraphic sources. New source material is continually added through epigraphic finds, the most important being the cult regulations (see Cult Regulations), curse tablets (see Curse), and magical papyri (see Magical Texts). Representative for the religious concepts of intellectual circles is the fragmentary Derveni papyrus (see Derveni Papyrus).
  92.  
  93. Le Guen-Pollet, Brigitte. 1991. La vie religieuse dans le monde grec du Ve au IIIe siècle avant notre ère: Choix de documents épigraphiques traduits et commentés. Toulouse, France: Presses Universitaires du Mirail.
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  95. A representative collection of eighty-six inscriptions (with translations and commentaries) related to religious matters: sacrifice, hymns, finances, cult personnel, sanctuaries, and the role of religion in the life of citizens.
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  97. Warrior, Valerie M. 2009. Greek religion: A sourcebook. Focus Classical Sources. Newburyport, MA: Focus Publishing, R. Pullins & Company.
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  99. Collection of sources related to the following topics: the gods in the literary sources (Homer, Hesiod, Athenian drama); family and community; prayer and sacrifice; divination; sanctuaries; festivals; competitions; gods and justice; mystery cults and initiation; challenges to traditional religion; magic; new cults and new gods. Useful as a textbook, but with an emphasis on early periods of Greek religion and on literary sources.
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  101. Cult Regulations
  102.  
  103. One of the most important groups of sources is regulations of cult (laws, decrees, oracles). These regulations are usually found in inscriptions and are usually (and misleadingly) designated “sacred laws.” For the meaning of this term, see Parker 2004 and the essays collected by Brulé 2009. Many such regulations have been collected by Sokolowski 1955, Sokolowski 1962, and Sokolowski 1969; Lupu 2005 presents some important new finds and provides a list of additions to Sokolowski’s collections.
  104.  
  105. Brulé, Pierre, ed. 2009. La norme en matière religieuse en Grèce antique. Liège, Belgium: Centre International d’Étude de la Religion Grecque Antique.
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  107. Collection of essays discussing the general features and development of cult regulations.
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  109. Lupu, Eran. 2005. Greek sacred law: A collection of new documents. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
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  111. Lupu presents a small selection of cult regulations published after the appearance of Sokolowski’s collections; in an appendix (pp. 396–404) he provides a useful checklist of relevant inscriptions from Asia Minor (thirty-eight texts) and Kos (forty-two texts). An informative introduction to cult regulations (pp. 3–112) gives an overview of the content and form of “sacred law” (regulations concerning sacred space and sanctuaries; purity regulations; regulations concerning cult officials; sacrifice; funerary laws; cult foundations; festivals, etc.). This book is more than just a selection of texts; it is a good introduction to cult practices.
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  113. Parker, Robert. 2004. What are sacred laws? In The law and the courts in ancient Greece. Edited by Edward M. Harris and Lene Rubinstein, 57–70. London: Duckworth.
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  115. Addressing the problematic term “sacred law,” Parker distinguishes between two groups of “sacred laws”: laws that had their origin in the assembly (concerning the protection of sanctuaries, calendars of cult, festivals, the perquisites of priests, and funerary cult), and “exegetical laws” that prescribe the proper way to do things (especially as regards purity and sacrifice).
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  117. Sokolowski, Franciszek. 1955. Lois sacrées de l’Asie Mineure. Paris: Boccard.
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  119. Collection of cult regulations from Asia Minor (only Greek texts, no translations, brief commentaries). Although the commentaries are not always informative, this is an indispensable work of reference for the study of religion in the Greek poleis of Asia Minor.
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  121. Sokolowski, Franciszek. 1962. Lois sacrées des cités grecques: Supplément. Paris: Boccard.
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  123. Collection of cult regulations not included in Sokolowski 1955. The volume includes Greek texts (no translations) and brief commentaries. Although Sokolowski did not have a clear concept of what a “sacred law” is, his selection sometimes is arbitrary, and his comments inadequate for the understanding of the texts, he has collected a very important group of sources; still an indispensable work of reference.
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  125. Sokolowski, Franciszek. 1969. Lois sacrées des cités grecques. Paris: Boccard.
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  127. Improved edition of the cult regulations collected by Ludwig Ziehen (Leges Graecorum sacrae e titulis collectae. 2.1. Leges Graeciae et insularum, Leipzig, Germany: Teubner, 1906). The volume has the weaknesses mentioned in the connection with Sokolowski 1962, but it remains an indispensable work of reference.
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  129. Derveni Papyrus
  130.  
  131. Found in 1962 and published entirely in Kouremenos, et al. 2006, this philosophical commentary on a theogonical poem ascribed to Orpheus is a major discovery. The discussion concerning its interpretation has only begun. Betegh 2004 and Laks and Most 1997 are good introductions to the interpretative problems.
  132.  
  133. Betegh, Gábor. 2004. The Derveni papyrus: Cosmology, theology and interpretation; A preliminary reading, critical edition and translation. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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  135. Detailed and original analysis of the text of the Derveni papyrus; a significant contribution to the understanding of the text.
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  137. Laks, André, and Glenn W. Most, eds. 1997. Studies on the Derveni papyrus. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
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  139. Published prior to the final publication of the text but with knowledge of its content, this important collection of essays explains the significance of the text for Greek religion and philosophy.
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  141. Kouremenos, Theokritos, George M. Parássoglou, and Kyriakos Tsantsanoglou, eds. 2006. The Derveni papyrus. Florence, Italy: Olschki.
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  143. Edition, translation, and detailed commentary of the text on the Derveni papyrus; some of the readings are uncertain, but this does not diminish the value of this edition and the in-depth analysis of the text.
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  145. Magical Texts
  146.  
  147. Instructions and formulae for incantations, curses, protective amulets, prophetic dreams, and so on, both explained in magical handbooks and contained in short excerpts, are numerous, and new finds are continually added, providing information on belief in supernatural powers as well as on foreign (Egyptian, Jewish, Oriental) influences on Greek rituals. Preisendanz 1973–1974 is the most comprehensive collection; Daniel and Maltomini 1990–1991 collects additional material. Luck 1985 and Betz 1992 are representative and useful for students. Merkelbach and Totti 1990–1991 focuses on magical prayers, Kotansky 1994 on amulets. All these collections are important sources of information for ancient superstition. See also Curse and Magic.
  148.  
  149. Betz, Hans Dieter, ed. 1992. Texts. Vol. 1 of The Greek magical papyri in translation. including the demotic spells. 2d ed. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
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  151. This volume assembles reliable translations of approximately 150 magical papyri, with explanatory notes, bibliography, and glossary; an excellent collection of sources for the study of ancient magic.
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  153. Daniel, Robert W., and Franco Maltomini, eds. 1990–1991. Supplementum magicum. 2 vols. Opladen, Germany: Westdeutscher.
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  155. Collection of magical papyri, with translations and notes.
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  157. Kotansky, Roy. 1994. Greek magical amulets: The inscribed gold, silver, copper, and bronze lamellae. Part I, Published texts of known provenance. Opladen, Germany: Westdeutscher.
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  159. Corpus of texts representing protective magic, with Greek and Latin texts, translations, and thorough commentaries; they concern love, victory, and protection from illness, evil spirits, demons, sorcery, and bad weather.
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  161. Luck, Georg. 1985. Arcana mundi: Magic and the occult in the Greek and Roman worlds; A collection of ancient texts. Baltimore. Johns Hopkins Univ. Press.
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  163. Representative selection of ancient sources concerning magical practices; very useful as a textbook and work of reference.
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  165. Merkelbach, Reinhold, and Maria Totti. 1990–1991. Abrasax: Ausgewählte Papyri religiösen und magischen Inhalts. 2 vols. Opladen, Germany: Westdeutscher.
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  167. These two volumes assemble prayers and relevant texts found in papyri; a useful collection for the study of religious mentality, but confined to material from Egypt.
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  169. Preisendanz, Karl. 1973–1974. Papyri graecae magicae: Durchgesehen und herausgegeben von Albert Henrichs. 2 vols. 2d ed. Stuttgart, Germany: Teubner.
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  171. Originally published between 1928 and 1941 by Preisendanz and his collaborators A. Abt and Erich Diehl, this work presents Greek editions and German translations of magical papyri, with corrections by A. Henrichs. It remains the most informative collection of magical texts. Reprinted, Munich and Leipzig, Germany: Saur, 2001.
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  173. Archaeological Sources
  174.  
  175. The study of Greek religion depends largely on the information provided by images (iconography), objects of cult, and excavated cult places.
  176.  
  177. Iconography
  178.  
  179. Lissarague 2001 exemplifies how images can help us understand an ancient culture and its religion; good examples for the exploitation of iconographic material are also Connelly 2007 (on priestesses) and Simon 1983 (on festivals).
  180.  
  181. Boardman, John, ed. 1981–1999. Lexicon iconographicum mythologiae classicae. 9 vols. Zurich and Munich: Artemis.
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  183. This lexicon assembles images of myths associated with gods, heroes, demons, personifications, and other mythological figures in Greek, Roman, and Etruscan mythology; an extremely helpful work of reference for the iconographical aspects of Greek religion and myth.
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  185. Connelly, Joan Breton. 2007. Portrait of a priestess: Women and ritual in ancient Greece. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
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  187. An excellent panorama of the active participation of women in cult, exploiting primarily the archaeological material.
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  189. Lissarague, François. 2001. Greek vases: The Athenians and the images. Translated by Brian Eskenazi. New York: Riverside.
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  191. A superb study of Classical Athenian vases as a source for important aspects of Athenian life and culture, including religion (with emphasis on Herakles and Dionysos); accessible to a general readership, with good illustrations.
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  193. Simon, Erika. 1983. Festivals of Attica: An archaeological commentary. Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Press.
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  195. Very good treatment of the archaeological and iconographic material for Athenian festivals.
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  197. Sanctuaries
  198.  
  199. It is not possible to provide here a bibliography on all excavated sanctuaries and cult places (see Bibliographies and Journals). The architecture and finds of some of the major Greek sanctuaries (e.g., Delos, Exploration archéologique de Délos 1909–; Delphi, Fouilles des Delphes 1892–; Olympia, Olympische Forschungen 1941–; Samothrake, Samothrace: Excavations conducted by the Institute of Fine Arts 1958; the Heraion of Samos, Samos 1961–) are presented in series.
  200.  
  201. Exploration archéologique de Délos. 1909–. Paris: Fontemoing.
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  203. The results of French excavations on the sacred island of Apollo provide important information on religious architecture and dedications.
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  205. Fouilles des Delphes. 1892–. Paris: Fontemoign; Paris: Boccard.
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  207. This series presents the results of the French excavations in Delphi; one of the most important publication series for the archaeological aspects of cult (dedications, arrangement of a sanctuary, epigraphic material concerning its administration).
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  209. Olympische Forschungen. 1941–. Berlin: de Gruyter.
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  211. This series presents the results of the German excavations in the sanctuary of Zeus in Olympia; very important for the study of a panhellenic sanctuary.
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  213. Samos. 1961–. Bonn, Germany: Habelt.
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  215. This series presents the results of the German excavations in Samos, primarily the architecture and finds of the Hera sanctuary.
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  217. Samothrace: Excavations conducted by the Institute of Fine Arts, New York University. 1958–. New York: Pantheon.
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  219. Publication series of the American excavations in the sanctuary of the Great Gods in Samothrace; most of the volumes treat aspects of the sanctuary’s architecture.
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  221. Introductions to Greek Religion
  222.  
  223. Stengel 1920 reflects the spirit of religious research in the early 20th century, but with its systematic approach gives a very good inventory of subjects related to the study of Greek religion. Nilsson 1955–1961 remains the most comprehensive introduction to Greek religion but reflects the state of the art in the mid-20th century; Burkert 1985 has in part replaced it for the earlier periods of Greek religion. For more modern approaches one should consult Bruit Zaidman and Schmitt Pantel 1992. Ogden 2007 is neither systematic nor comprehensive but contains many essays that give good overviews of specific subjects. Price 1999 is the best short introduction; see also Bremmer 1994. Rudhardt 1992 explains the basic concepts of Greek religion. Although Parker 2005 is exclusively dedicated to Athens, it can also serve as a good introduction, since Athens provides abundant (though not always representative) source material. See also Religious Mentality.
  224.  
  225. Bremmer, Jan N. 1994. Greek religion. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
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  227. Short, readable introduction to Greek religion, focusing on gods, sanctuaries, rituals, myths, and changes in Greek religion; accessible to a general readership. German translation by Kai Brodersen, Götter, Mythen und Heiligtümer im antiken Griechenland (Darmstadt, Germany: Primus, 1996).
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  229. Bruit Zaidman, Louise, and Pauline Schmitt Pantel. 1992. Religion in the ancient Greek city. Translated by Paul Cartledge. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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  231. Translation of La religion grecque (Paris: Armind Colin, 1989). The book treats methods in the study of Greek civic religion (pp. 3–23) rituals, religious personnel, cult places, rites of passage, the interaction between religious and political life, festivals, the major panhellenic cults (pp. 27–140), and myths (pp. 143–228); it includes a good selection of sources in translation. Paul Cartledge wrote the introduction, made several additions and corrections, rearranged the chapters, and enlarged the selective bibliography. Despite a one-sided interest in the views of the French school of the study of religion, a focus on Athens, and narrow chronological limits (750–330 BCE), this volume is suitable as a textbook and gives a good overview of current interpretative models.
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  233. Burkert, Walter. 1985. Greek religion. Translated by J. Raffan. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
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  235. Excellent introduction to the study of Greek religion; very useful for the informative overview of the history of this discipline and the various theoretical approaches. The main part of the book discusses the key aspects of Greek religion and the problems of interpretation: rituals, sanctuaries, main divinities, death and heroes, the significance of the polis for Greek religion, mystery cults, philosophical approaches to religion. Although it is limited to the early periods of Greek religion (from the Mycenaean period to the 4th century BCE), it is one of the best introductions to this subject. Translation of Burkert’s Griechische Religion der archaischen und klassischen Epoche (Stuttgart, Germany: Kohlhammer, 1977).
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  237. Nilsson, Martin P. 1955–1961. Geschichte der griechischen Religion. Vol. 1, Die Religion Griechenlands bis auf die griechische Weltherrschaft; Vol. 2, Die hellenistische und römische Zeit. 2d ed. Munich: Beck.
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  239. The most comprehensive history of Greek religion, beginning with the Bronze Age. In addition to a systematic discussion of general religious phenomena (gods, festivals, sanctuaries), the main advantage of this book is that it studies the development of Greek religion from the earliest times to the Imperial period; naturally, new finds (most importantly the Linear B texts, which have changed our understanding of Mycenaean religion) and recent theoretical approaches have rendered some views obsolete or problematic, but this book remains indispensable.
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  241. Ogden, Daniel. 2007. A companion to Greek religion. Malden, MA, and Oxford: Blackwell.
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  243. Collection of essays surveying important aspects of Greek religion from the Archaic to the Hellenistic period: gods, heroes, the dead, prayers, hymns, divination, sanctuaries, purity and pollution, aspects of gender and social status, mysteries, magic, religion in literature, philosophy, and art; readable but not comprehensive; not all the essays are of high quality.
  244. Find this resource:
  245. Parker, Robert. 2005. Polytheism and society at Athens. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
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  247. An excellent, comprehensive panorama of the position of religion in a Greek polis. The subjects discussed include, inter alia, sanctuaries and festivals, mystery cults, the religious activities of the family, civic subdivisions, the polis, ritual specialists (priests, diviners, magicians), aspects of gender and age (girls, women), the authority of priests, and the relation between religion and theater. The book focuses on only one city (Athens), but the fact that the source material from Athens is more abundant than that from other areas makes this a very good general introduction to Greek religion; accessible to students and a general audience.
  248. Find this resource:
  249. Price, Simon. 1999. Religions of the ancient Greeks. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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  251. The best short introduction to the study of Greek religion, with particular emphasis on social and political aspects. The author discusses the various subjects: gods, myths, and festivals; religious places; authority, control, and crisis; gender and age; elective cults; the religion of philosophers; and reactions to Greek religion In an appendix,he provides translations of fifteen relevant inscriptions. Good bibliography; an excellent introduction for undergraduates.
  252. Find this resource:
  253. Rudhardt, Jean. 1992. Notions fondamentales de la pensée religieuse et actes constitutifs du culte dans la Grèce classique. Paris: Picard.
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  255. Systematic survey of the important general concepts of Greek religion; not suitable as an introduction, but indispensable as a work of reference.
  256. Find this resource:
  257. Stengel, Paul. 1920. Die griechischen Kultusaltertümer. Munich: Beck.
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  259. Although dated, Stengel’s book remains a valuable introduction to Greek religion because of the thorough use of literary sources and the systematic and comprehensive survey of important aspects of religious practices: sanctuaries, priesthoods and ritual experts, divination, rituals (prayer, hymns, curses, dedications, sacrifice, purification, mysteries), festivals.
  260. Find this resource:
  261. Religious Mentality
  262.  
  263. The study of Greek religion is more than the study of gods, myths, rituals, and festivals. It also entails the study of the specific religious mentality reflected by religious practices. Harrison 1908, a very influential book in its time, reflects the attempt of early students of Greek religion to detect survivals of the “primitive mind” in the religious practices of the Greeks; it can still inspire. Written under the influence of anthropology and psychoanalysis, Dodds 1951 is a classic study of irrational elements in Greek culture. Babut 1974 remains a good introduction to the ideas of philosophical circles. The application of the methods of social anthropology by Jean-Pierre Vernant and his school influenced the study of Greek religion in the second half of the 20th century, especially in France; among his numerous books, Vernant 1974 and 1991 are representative introductions to his thought and method as regards religious matters (see also Gordon 1981). In more recent decades, a predominant trend has been the effort to contextualize the evidence for Greek religious practices (especially inscriptions and archaeological material), to avoid generalizations, and to consider changing social contexts in the study of Greek religious practices. Sourvinou-Inwood 1991 and the essays in Versnel 1981 represent this approach. See also Religion and Society.
  264.  
  265. Babut, Daniel. 1974. La religion des philosophes grecs, de Thalès aux Stoïciens. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
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  267. Short, readable introduction to the religious ideas of the main Greek philosophers, from the Archaic to the early Hellenistic period.
  268. Find this resource:
  269. Dodds, Eric Robertson. 1951. The Greeks and the irrational. Berkeley and Los Angeles: Univ. of California Press.
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  271. Groundbreaking study of irrational elements in Greek culture (shame, guilt, madness, dreams, orgiastic cults, shamanism), important for the use of anthropological and psychological methods. It is an excellent introduction to the cultural context of Greek religion. Most recently reprinted in 2004. German translation by Hermann-Josef Dirkse, Die Griechen und das Irrationale (Darmstadt, Germany: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1970).
  272. Find this resource:
  273. Gordon, Richard, ed. 1981. Myth, religion and society: Structuralist essays. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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  275. Collection of essays of the major representatives of the structuralist school in the study of Greek myth and religion (Marcel Detienne, Louis Gernet, Jean-Pierre Vernant, and Paul Vidal-Naquet); a very good introduction to the thought and method of this school.
  276. Find this resource:
  277. Harrison, Jane E. 1908. Prolegomena to the study of Greek religion. 2d ed. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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  279. Groundbreaking study of Greek festivals, myths, and rituals, with an attempt to detect primitive survivals (under the influence of Darwin’s evolutionary ideas); still a fascinating and thought-provoking read.
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Sourvinou-Inwood, Christiane. 1991. ‘Reading’ Greek culture: Texts and images, rituals and myths. Oxford: Clarendon.
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  283. Collection of essays combining the structuralist anthropological method with a meticulous analysis of literary texts and images in an attempt to place Greek myths and cults within their local and social contexts, with an emphasis on social aspects (gender, youth, sexuality, marriage).
  284. Find this resource:
  285. Vernant, Jean-Pierre. 1974. Mythe et société en Grèce ancienne. Paris: Maspero.
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  287. Among Vernant’s numerous books, this is representative of the way he studied the interdependence of mythical narratives, social institutions, and religion (concept of the divine, purity and impurity). English translation, Myth and society in ancient Greece (Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press, 1980).
  288. Find this resource:
  289. Vernant, Jean-Pierre. 1991. Mortals and immortals: Collected essays. Edited by Froma Zeitlin. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
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  291. This collection of essays is an excellent introduction to Vernant’s ideas. It includes studies of Greek concepts of the divine, sacrifice, rites of passage, the cult of Artemis, concepts of death and afterlife, and the relation between gender, myth, and religion.
  292. Find this resource:
  293. Versnel, Hendrik S., ed. 1981. Faith, hope, and worship: Aspects of religious mentality in the ancient world. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
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  295. The essays in this important volume treat, inter alia, religious mentality in ancient prayer (pp. 1–64), dedications (65–151), the perception of the worshipper as a servant of the god (152–192), hymns (193–215), and the attitude of philosophers toward religion (216–263). A very important contribution to the study of ancient religious mentality.
  296. Find this resource:
  297. Gods
  298.  
  299. The study of the gods worshipped by the Greeks entails the study of their myths, functions, cults, sanctuaries, festivals, imagery, and reception. The series Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World, published by Routledge since 2005, presents short, readable overviews of the myths, cults, and characteristics of Greek and Roman gods and heroes, useful for undergraduates. Here we cannot present bibliography on every god (see Bibliographies), but provide a very selective bibliography of recent studies on the Concepts of the Divine and a selection of books representative of current approaches in the study of Greek gods.
  300.  
  301. Concepts of the Divine
  302.  
  303. The Greek concepts of divine power are revealed in many different ways: through myths and images (Reference Works), hymns, epithets (see Belayche 2005, Parker 2003), prayers (see Prayer), rituals, narratives of miracles, and images (see Introductions to Greek Religion and Religious Mentality). Sissa and Detienne 1989 is a readable general introduction to basic aspects of Greek gods. These concepts were not static: from the Hellenistic period onward, one observes a trend toward the worship of a single more powerful deity (variously termed “monolatry,” “henotheism,” or “pagan monotheism”), first observed by Peterson 1926 and in recent decades intensely studied (see Athanassiadi and Frede 1999, Versnel 1990 and Versnel 2000). Parker 1998 is the best short study of the principle of reciprocity in relations between men and gods.
  304.  
  305. Athanassiadi, Polymnia, and Michael Frede, eds. 1999. Pagan monotheism in Late Antiquity. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
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  307. Six essays dedicated to the development of monotheistic ideas in Late Antiquity, especially under the influence of philosophy and Judaism; although the existence of genuine monotheistic ideas is debatable and the term “monotheistic” is problematic (cf. the terms “soft monotheism” and “henotheism”), these essays are innovative and thought-provoking.
  308. Find this resource:
  309. Belayche, Nicole, ed. 2005. Nommer les dieux: Théonymes, épithètes, épiclèses dans l’Antiquité. Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols.
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  311. Important collection of essays discussing epithets and names of divinities (e.g., Ourania, Hypsistos), divine personifications, and invocations of gods in oaths; these studies show how the construction and use of divine names reflect concepts of divine power.
  312. Find this resource:
  313. Parker, Robert. 1998. Pleasing thighs: Reciprocity in Greek religion. In Reciprocity in ancient Greece. Edited by Christopher Gill, Nicholas Postlethwaite, and Richard Seaford, 105–125. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
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  315. An excellent presentation of the principle of do ut des (“I give that you may give”), which is very important for the understanding of many aspects of Greek religion and ritual (sacrifice, prayer, dedication).
  316. Find this resource:
  317. Parker, Robert. 2003. The problem of the Greek cult epithet. Opuscula Atheniensia 28:173–183.
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  319. Parker surveys the functions fulfilled by cult epithets: they identified the aspect of a deity that was relevant in a specific situation, differentiated between cult sites, commemorated divine interventions, alluded to the social group of worshippers, and referred to festivals and rituals or to the origin and basis of a cult. An important contribution to the study of cult epithets as an expression of beliefs about divine power.
  320. Find this resource:
  321. Peterson, Erik. 1926. Heis theós: Epigraphische, formgeschichtliche und religionsgeschichtliche Untersuchungen. Göttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht.
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  323. Thorough study of the expression heis theos (“one god”), used in acclamations by pagans, Jews, and Christians, as evidence for ancient concepts of the divine, for the development of monotheistic ideas, and for interdependence among different religious groups; still readable.
  324. Find this resource:
  325. Sissa, Giulia, and Marcel Detienne. 1989. La vie quotidienne des dieux grecs. Paris: Hachette.
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  327. Short, readable, well-written introduction to the main aspects of Greek gods (nature, properties, divine interference, significance for the Greek polis). English translation by Janet Lloyd, The daily life of the Greek gods (Stanford: Stanford Univ. Press, 2000).
  328. Find this resource:
  329. Versnel, Hendrick S. 1990. Ter unus: Isis, Dionysos, Hermes; Three studies in henotheism. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
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  331. Examining three case studies, Versnel explores important aspects of the ancient concept of divinity, in particular personal devotion to a single god. The author examines the relationship between secular rule and divine power (Isis); piety, innovation, and mystic aspects (Dionysos and Bacchic rites); and the praise of the omnipotence of a single god as an expression of henotheism (Hermes). An innovative book that draws attention to neglected aspects of ancient religiosity.
  332. Find this resource:
  333. Versnel, Hendrick S. 2000. Thrice one: Three Greek experiments in oneness. In One god or many? Concepts of divinity in the ancient world. Edited by Barbara N. Porter, 79–164. Chebeague, ME: Casco Bay Assyriological Institute.
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  335. Thought-provoking study of the development of the concept of a single superior god; rich in source material and clearly written.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. Traditional Greek Gods
  338.  
  339. Simon 1980 gives a good overview of the Greek pantheon. The origins of most Greek gods go back to the Mycenaean period; Gérard-Rousseau 1968 is the most comprehensive collection of the relevant material, although now out of date owing to more recent finds.
  340.  
  341. Gérard-Rousseau, Monique. 1968. Les mentions religieuses dans les tablettes mycéniennes. Incunabula Graeca 29. Rome: Edizioni dell’Ateneo.
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  343. Collection of references to divinities in the Linear B texts, including those of Knossos; an indispensable work of reference for Mycenaean religion, though new material has come to light in the past forty years.
  344. Find this resource:
  345. Simon, Erika. 1980. Die Götter der Griechen. 4th ed. Munich: Hirmer.
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  347. Useful overview of the Greek gods, their myths, and their iconography.
  348. Find this resource:
  349. Aphrodite
  350.  
  351. Aphrodite, more than just a patron of love, is one of the most complex divine figures of the Greek pantheon, with close connections to the Near East. Pirenne-Delforge 1994 is the best representation of the various aspects of her cult in Greece, but also exemplary in method. Ustinova 1999 studies a specific local manifestation of Aphrodite in the periphery of the Greek world.
  352.  
  353. Pirenne-Delforge, Vinciane. 1994. L’Aphrodite grecque: Contribution à l’étude de ses cultes er de sa personnalité dans le panthéon archaique et classique. Kernos Supplément 4. Liège, Belgium: Université de Liège.
  354. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  355. Masterly synthesis on the cult of Aphrodite in Greece and Cyprus (epithets, sanctuaries, statues, dedications, sacrifices, festivals, personnel, attributes, association with plants, animals, other gods, and natural elements, patronage of sexuality).
  356. Find this resource:
  357. Ustinova, Yulia. 1999. The supreme gods of the Bosporan Kingdom: Celestial Aphrodite and the most high god. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
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  359. Thorough study of the worship of Aphrodite in the northwest Black Sea region; a good example of the way a Greek goddess (Aphrodite Apatouros), brought by colonists, merged together with an indigenous Great Goddess.
  360. Find this resource:
  361. Apollo
  362.  
  363. Apollo was one of the most popular Greek gods, associated with divination, purity, music, and colonization, very important also for the later reception of Greek culture. Graf 2008 offers a comprehensive, reliable, and up-to-date representation of the god’s main aspects. For Apollo’s role in divination, see Divination.
  364.  
  365. Graf, Fritz. 2008. Apollo. London: Routledge.
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  367. Excellent introduction to the main features of the cult of Apollo.
  368. Find this resource:
  369. Artemis
  370.  
  371. Huntress, virgin, patron of birth and youth, but also associated with death, Artemis and her cult were omnipresent in Greek culture. Cole 2004 is a reliable survey of the most important facets of Artemis’s cult. Chirassi 1964 explores an area with different local manifestations of this cult in early Greece; for the transformation of Artemis’s cult in the Hellenistic period, see Petrovic 2007. Muss 2001 assembles studies concerning her most important sanctuary, in Ephesos. For Artemis’s significance in girls’ transition rites, see Transition Rituals.
  372.  
  373. Chirassi, Ileana. 1964. Miti e culti arcaici di Artemis nel Peloponneso e Grecia centrale. Trieste, Italy: Istituto di Storia Antica.
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  375. Reliable study of the myths and cults of Artemis in the Peloponnese, an area with important cult places; representative of the various aspects of Artemis’s worship.
  376. Find this resource:
  377. Cole, Susan Guettel. 2004. Landscapes, gender, and ritual space: The ancient Greek experience. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
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  379. Cole examines the connection of Artemis’s cult with gender in Greece (pp. 178–230); a short, useful survey with good bibliography.
  380. Find this resource:
  381. Muss, Ulrike, ed. 2001. Der Kosmos der Artemis von Ephesos. Vienna: Österreichisches Archäologisches Institute.
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  383. Very good collection of essays covering all aspects of the cult of Artemis in Ephesos, from the earliest period to Late Antiquity.
  384. Find this resource:
  385. Petrovic, Ivana. 2007. Von den Toren des Hades zu den Hallen des Olymp: Artemisikult bei Theokrit und Kallimachos. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
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  387. Excellent study of the cult, perception, and properties of Artemis as reflected by Hellenistic poetry; a major contribution not only to the study of Artemis but also to the understanding of the relation between Hellenistic poetry and contemporary religious practices.
  388. Find this resource:
  389. Asklepios
  390.  
  391. As god of medicine, Asklepios represents more than any other god the “soteriological” aspects of Greek gods: gods as saviors of humans. Edelstein and Edelstein 1945 still is the best collection of written sources. The archaeological material has been collected by Riethmüller 2005, which also offers original contributions on the god’s origins. An important source for “incubation” (seeking healing by sleeping in sanctuaries of Asklepios) is the reports of healing miracles; the longest surviving collection of this type is from Epidauros (see LiDonnici 1995).
  392.  
  393. Edelstein, Emma J., and Ludwig Edelstein. 1945. Asclepius: A collection and interpretation of the testimonies. 2 vols. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press.
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  395. In addition to the most complete collection of literary and epigraphic sources for the myths and cults of Asklepios, this book gives a very good overview of the history of the cult and the significance of Asklepios as a healing deity and more generally as a savior god; although the study of the archaeological material has changed some views concerning the origins and diffusion of the cult, this book should still be consulted. Reprinted with a new introduction by Gary B. Ferngren (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1998).
  396. Find this resource:
  397. LiDonnici, Lynn R. 1995. The Epidaurian miracle inscriptions. Text, translation, and commentary. Texts and Translations 36. Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press.
  398. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  399. Critical edition, translation, and brief commentary of the healing miracles of Epidauros.
  400. Find this resource:
  401. Melfi, Milena. 2007. I santuari di Asclepio in Grecia. Rome: L’Erma di Bretschneider.
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  403. Thorough survey and presentation of the sanctuaries of Asklepios in Greece; a useful work of reference both for this cult and, more generally, for the study of sanctuaries.
  404. Find this resource:
  405. Riethmüller, Jürgen W. 2005. Asklepios: Heiligtümer und Kulte. 2 vols. Heidelberg, Germany: Verlag Archäologie und Geschichte.
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  407. Detailed study of the history of the cult of Asklepios and the basic features of his sanctuaries, primarily from an archaeological perspective; an up-to-date and original contribution to the study of Asklepios.
  408. Find this resource:
  409. Athena
  410.  
  411. Best known as patron of the Acropolis and the city of Athens (Neils 1998), Athena was a complex goddess as regards her properties. Deacy 2008 and Deacy and Villing 2001 provide good overviews.
  412.  
  413. Deacy, Susan. 2008. Athena. London: Routledge.
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  415. Excellent panorama of the various aspects of Athena’s properties, cults, and reception; a good textbook for students.
  416. Find this resource:
  417. Deacy, Susan, and Alexandra Villing, eds. 2001. Athena in the classical world. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  418. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  419. Good collection of essays exploring the main aspects of Athena’s myths, cults, and functions.
  420. Find this resource:
  421. Neils, Jenifer, ed. 1998. Worshipping Athena: Panathenaia and Parthenon. Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Press.
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  423. Collection of essays providing a panorama of the cult of Athena on the Athenian Acropolis and the celebration of her major festival.
  424. Find this resource:
  425. Pötscher, Walter. 1987. Hera: Eine Strukturanalyse im Vergleich mit Athena. Darmstadt, Germany: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft.
  426. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  427. A stimulating attempt to identify the main features of Hera’s perception and cult through a comparison with Athena.
  428. Find this resource:
  429. Demeter
  430.  
  431. Usually worshipped together with her daughter, Kore or Persephone, Demeter was present in the pantheon of every Greek city and was primarily associated with fertility. Her sanctuaries (see Hinz 1998), her festivals, especially the Thesmophoria, which were celebrated exclusively by women (Brumfield 1981, Versnel 1993), and her mysteries (Sfameni Gasparro 1986, Kledt 2004; see also Mystery Cults) have been the object of intensive research. The current trends are reflected by Di Stefano 2008.
  432.  
  433. Brumfield, Allaire C. 1981. The Attic festivals of Demeter and their relation to the agricultural year. New York: Arno.
  434. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  435. An attempt to interpret the festivals of Demeter in Athens, especially the Thesmophoria, against the background of agricultural activities and the promotion of fertility; the author also considers parallels from other cultures (Near East); stimulating, but unavoidably speculative at times.
  436. Find this resource:
  437. Di Stefano, Carmela Angela. 2008. Demetra: La divinità, i santuari, il culto, la leggenda; atti del I congresso internazionale, Enna, 1–4 Iuglio 2004. Pisa, Italy: Serra.
  438. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  439. Twenty-five essays discussing various aspects of the cult of Demeter, especially in the colonies of Magna Grecia; useful for orientation to recent research trends.
  440. Find this resource:
  441. Hinz, Valentina. 1998. Der Kult von Demeter und Kore auf Sizilien und in der Magna Graecia. Wiesbaden, Germany: Reichert.
  442. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  443. Useful survey of the numerous and relatively well-studied sanctuaries of Demeter and Kore in the Greek colonies of Sicily and Italy; representative of the main features of sanctuaries of Demeter.
  444. Find this resource:
  445. Kledt, Annette. 2004. Die Entführung Kores: Studien zur athenisch-eleusinischen Demeterreligion. Stuttgart, Germany: Steiner.
  446. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  447. Stimulating study of the Homeric hymn on Demeter and other textual and archaeological evidence in connection with the celebration of mysteries of Demeter in Athens and Attica; useful as an introduction to the problems connected with the interpretation of the mysteries of Eleusis.
  448. Find this resource:
  449. Sfameni Gasparro, Giulia. 1986. Misteri e culti mistici di Demetra. Rome: L’Erma di Bretschneider.
  450. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  451. Excellent panorama of the mystery cults of Demeter; a good introduction to the rites connected with Demeter’s cult.
  452. Find this resource:
  453. Versnel, Hendrick S. 1993. Inconsistencies in Greek and Roman religion II: Transition and reversal in myth and ritual. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  454. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  455. The chapter on the festival of the Thesmophoria (pp. 235–288) is the best interpretation of this festival, also very instructive as regards its sociological aspects.
  456. Find this resource:
  457. Dionysos
  458.  
  459. No other god has attracted as much interest as Dionysos, because of his importance for Greek drama and for mystery cults, the diversity of his properties, the complexity of his myths, and the fascination that his image has exercised on different schools of thought. Seaford 2006 is the best introduction. Detienne 1986 has written a stimulating book on Dionysos’ ambivalent nature. Local aspects of Dionysos’ cult are studied by Casadio 1994 and Casadio 1997; for the Dionysiac associations, an important aspect of Dionysiac cult, see Jaccottet 2003. A good overview of the iconography is offered by Isler-Kerényi 2007.
  460.  
  461. Casadio, Giovanni. 1994. Storia del culto di Dioniso in Argolide. Rome: GEI.
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  463. This study follows the development of the cult of Dionysos in Argolis from the Mycenaean period to Late Antiquity, with a focus on questions of continuity, myths, festivals, rituals, and mystic elements; valuable because it places the cult of Dionysos in specific geographical and historical contexts.
  464. Find this resource:
  465. Casadio, Giovanni. 1997. Il vino dell’anima: Storia del culto di Dioniso a Corinto, Sicione, Trezene. Rome: Il Calamo.
  466. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  467. Study of the cult of Dionysos in the northern Peloponnese, focusing on local aspects.
  468. Find this resource:
  469. Detienne, Marcel. 1986. Dionysos à ciel ouvert. Éditions de la Maison des Sciences de l’Homme. Paris: Hachette.
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  471. A study of the wild nature of Dionysos from the perspective of French structuralism; often suggestive and not always easy reading, but thought-provoking. English translation by Arthur Goldhammer, Dionysos at large (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 1989).
  472. Find this resource:
  473. Isler-Kerényi, Cornelia. 2007. Dionysos in Archaic Greece: An understanding through images. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  474. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  475. Useful collection of the iconographical material concerning the early perception of Dionysos.
  476. Find this resource:
  477. Jaccottet, Anne-Françoise. 2003. Choisir Dionysos: Les associations dionysiaques ou la face cachée du Dionysisme. 2 vols. Zurich: Acanthus.
  478. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  479. Thorough study of the organization and rituals of associations of Dionysos’ worshippers, but without a detailed discussion of changes in Dionysiac worship.
  480. Find this resource:
  481. Seaford, Richard. 2006. Dionysos. London: Routledge.
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  483. Innovative and original approach to one of the most complex divine figures; accessible to a general audience.
  484. Find this resource:
  485. Hera
  486.  
  487. Best known from her representations in Homeric poetry, Hera was venerated in every Greek city. Pötscher 1987 remains the most reliable study of her myths and cults. Kerényi 1972, by the author of numerous monographs on the Greek gods and their myths, attempts to detect in Hera the archetypal wife, under the influence of Karl Jung; although inadequate as a study of cult practices, it makes for stimulating reading.
  488.  
  489. Kerényi, Karl. 1972. Zeus und Hera: Urbild des Vaters, des Gatten und der Frau. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  490. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  491. Based on a close study of the myths of Zeus and Hera, Kerényi reconstructs this divine pair as an archetypal couple of husband/father and wife. This book best represents Kerényi’s method in the study of Greek gods and their myths, under the influence of psychoanalysis and philosophy; a stimulating work of great erudition, it is inadequate as a treatment of Zeus and Hera after the Classical period. English translation by Christopher Holme, Zeus and Hera: Archetypal images of the husband and wife (Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press, 1976).
  492. Find this resource:
  493. Pötscher, Walter. 1987. Hera: Eine Strukturanalyse im Vergleich mit Athena. Darmstadt, Germany: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft.
  494. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  495. A stimulating attempt to identify the main features of Hera’s perception and cult through a comparison with Athena.
  496. Find this resource:
  497. Nemesis
  498.  
  499. Connected with concepts of punishment and retribution, Nemesis did not have an official cult in every polis (best attested in Rhamnous and Smyrna), but she became an object of private worship in the entire Greek and Roman world. Hornum 1993 is the most comprehensive study of her cult, but covers only the Imperial period and is somewhat one-sided; Lichocka 2004 focuses on the material from Egypt, primarily archaeological sources.
  500.  
  501. Hornum, Michael B. 1993. Nemesis, the Roman state, and the games. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  502. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  503. Based on an impressive collection of sources, the author studies the origins of the cult of Nemesis as a goddess of retribution and its diffusion in the Imperial period; he challenges (though not convincingly) the traditional view that Nemesis was regarded as a patron of contests generally, and associates her cult exclusively with gladiatorial events.
  504. Find this resource:
  505. Lichocka, Barbara. 2004. Nemesis en Égypte romaine. Mainz, Germany: Zabern.
  506. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  507. Exhaustive study of the manifestations of the cult of Nemesis in Roman Egypt, especially in connection with spectacles and magic.
  508. Find this resource:
  509. Pan
  510.  
  511. Though he is not one of the Olympians, Pan’s worship is paradigmatic for the cult of gods who represent and protect the non-urban Greek landscape. Borgeaud 1988 is a masterly study.
  512.  
  513. Borgeaud, Philippe. 1988. The cult of Pan in ancient Greece. Translated by Kathleen Atlass and James Redfield. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
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  515. Excellent study of the various aspects of the cult of Pan in Arcadia and Greece and its development (myths, patronage of hunting and herding, relationship to sexuality, music, possession, fear, animality); very instructive for questions of method in the study of Greek gods.
  516. Find this resource:
  517. Poseidon
  518.  
  519. The realm of Poseidon, one of the earliest and most important Greek gods, was more than the sea, with which he is usually associated: He was also the god of earthquakes and horses, and patron of aristocratic families and leagues. Poseidon’s sanctuaries and cults have been systematically studied by Mylonopoulos 2003 in the Peloponnese, the area regarded as his most important.
  520.  
  521. Mylonopoulos, Joannis. 2003. Pelopónnesos oiketérion Poseidonos = Heiligtümer und Kulte des Poseidon auf der Peloponnes. Liège, Belgium: Université de Liège.
  522. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  523. Thorough discussion of the cult, sanctuaries, festivals, and political significance of Poseidon in the Peloponnese; an exemplary study in terms of method, approach, and combination of diverse source material for the interpretation of the cult and significance of a god in a specific geographical context.
  524. Find this resource:
  525. Zeus
  526.  
  527. The “father of gods and men” was part of the pantheon of every Greek polis, recipient of many different forms of worship, and associated with many different properties, which are reflected by his innumerable attributes. Dowden 2005 is the best introduction to his image and cult. The cultic aspects have been summarized by Kreutz 2007; Vonderstein 2006 explores the local manifestations in the world of the colonies. Arafat 1990 is a very good analysis of images (but only in Classical Athens). For an attempt to detect in Zeus the archetypal father and husband, see Kerényi 1972.
  528.  
  529. Arafat, Karim. 1990. Classical Zeus: A study in art and literature. Oxford. Clarendon.
  530. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  531. Less than what the title implies, this book focuses on the representation of Zeus in Athenian red-figured vases, comparing the images with the literary accounts of Zeus’s myths but without taking rituals into consideration; the book contributes more to the history of Greek art than to the history of religion, but the study of about four hundred images is valuable as an introduction to the representation of divine beings in Greek art.
  532. Find this resource:
  533. Dowden, Ken. 2005. Zeus. London: Routledge.
  534. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  535. Reliable and thorough synthesis of the various aspects of Zeus’s cult, myths, functions, and reception; an indispensable introduction to the study of Greek gods.
  536. Find this resource:
  537. Kerényi, Karl. 1972. Zeus und Hera: Urbild des Vaters, des Gatten und der Frau. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  538. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  539. Based on a close study of the myths of Zeus and Hera, Kerényi reconstructs this divine couple as an archetypal couple of husband/father and wife. This book best represents Kerényi’s method in the study of Greek gods and their myths, under the influence of psychoanalysis and philosophy; a work of great erudition and stimulating, it is inadequate as a treatment of Zeus and Hera after the Classical period. English translation by Christopher Holme, Zeus and Hera: Archetypal images of the husband and wife (Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press, 1976).
  540. Find this resource:
  541. Kreutz, Natascha. 2007. Zeus und die griechischen Poleis: Topographische und religionsgeschichtliche Untersuchungen von archaischer bis in hellenistische Zeit. Rahden, Germany: Leidorf.
  542. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  543. Good overview of the significance of Zeus in the cults of the Greek poleis, with particular emphasis on the archaeological evidence concerning his sanctuaries.
  544. Find this resource:
  545. Vonderstein, Mirko. 2006. Der Zeuskult bei den Westgriechen. Wiesbaden, Germany: Reichert.
  546. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  547. Thorough study of the local manifestations of the cult of Zeus in the Greek colonies of Italy and Sicily; a useful work of reference.
  548. Find this resource:
  549. Foreign Gods
  550.  
  551. The colonization of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea and, after the conquests of Alexander the Great, the incorporation of large areas of Asia Minor, North Africa, and the Near East into the Hellenistic kingdoms, resulted in the introduction of many new cults in the Greek poleis. This subject has attracted considerable attention. Nock 1933 was an influential study at its time and still recommended reading. Burkert 1984 is a fascinating survey of influences from the Near East on Greek religion. The following titles have been selected because they represent the latest approaches to the subject and provide further bibliography: Bonnet and Motte 1997 is a useful collection of studies in syncretism; Ribichini, et al. 2001 assembles essays exploring Oriental influences; Baslez 1974 is very instructive as a case study focusing on Hellenistic Delos.
  552.  
  553. Baslez, Marie-Françoise. 1974. Recherches sur les conditions de pénétration et de diffusion des religions orientales à Délos (IIer–Ier s. avant notre ère). Paris: École Normale Supérieure de Jeunes Filles.
  554. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  555. Thorough study of the introduction of Egyptian, Syro-Phoenician, Arabic, and Anatolian cults in Delos. Although this study is limited to Delos, it is of paradigmatic value for the process of the introduction of foreign cults, the organization of cult associations, and the significance of foreign traders in this process.
  556. Find this resource:
  557. Bonnet, Corinne and André Motte, eds. 1997. Les syncrétismes religieux dans le monde méditerranéen antique: Actes du colloque international en l’honneur de Franz Cumont à l’occasion du cinquantième anniversaire de sa mort. Brussels, Belgium: Brepols.
  558. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  559. Collection of essays studying different manifestations of the merging of Greek and Oriental religious concepts and gods; the volume also has a good introduction to the concept of religious syncretism.
  560. Find this resource:
  561. Burkert, Walter. 1984. Die orientalisierende Epoche in der griechischen Religion und Literatur. Heidelberg, Germany: Winter.
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  563. An influential and innovative study of Oriental influences on Greek religion and culture in the Archaic period. English translation by Margaret Pinder, The Orientalizing revolution: Near Eastern influence on Greek culture in the Early Archaic age (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 1995).
  564. Find this resource:
  565. Nock, Arthur Darby. 1933. Conversion: The old and new in religion from Alexander the Great to Augustine of Hippo. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
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  567. A masterly study of the adoption by individuals of foreign religious beliefs, especially in the Hellenistic and Imperial period; still an inspiring book.
  568. Find this resource:
  569. Ribichini, Sergio, Maria Rocchi, and Paolo Xella, eds. 2001. La questione delle influenze vicino-orientali sulla religione greca: Stato degli studi e prospettive della ricerca; Atti del Colloquio Internazionale, Roma, 20-22 maggio 1999. Rome: Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche.
  570. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  571. A collection of essays reflecting the state of the art in the study of Oriental influence on Greek religion, the introduction of Oriental cults, and the cult associations of worshippers of foreign gods in the Greek world.
  572. Find this resource:
  573. Egyptian Cults
  574.  
  575. Egyptian deities were worshipped in the Greek world from the 4th century BCE onward, but primarily after the 3rd century BCE. Their cult and the nature of the initiation into mysteries have been subject to intense research. Witt 1971 is a readable and reliable introduction. Bricault 2001and Bricault 2005 have replaced earlier collections of evidence and have become indispensable works of reference. Totti-Gemünd 1985 remains a useful and representative selection of sources. Bommas 2005 offers an original approach to the transformation of the Egyptian cults in Greece. Malaise 2005 is a solid contribution to the study of various aspects of these cults. See also Exaltation.
  576.  
  577. Bommas, Martin. 2005. Heiligtum und Mysterium: Griechenland und seine ägyptischen Götter. Mainz, Germany: Zabern.
  578. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  579. Reconstruction of the development of the worship of Egyptian gods in Greece, with an original discussion of the gradual transformation of the Egyptian cults in Greece, under the influence of local practices; lavishly illustrated and accessible to a general readership.
  580. Find this resource:
  581. Bricault, Laurent. 2001. Atlas de diffusion des cultes isiaques (IVe s. av. J.-C.–IVe s. apr. J.-C.) Paris: Boccard.
  582. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  583. Survey of the diffusion of the cults of Isis and Sarapis in the ancient Mediterranean; a useful work of reference.
  584. Find this resource:
  585. Bricault, Laurent. 2005. Recueil des inscriptions concernant les cultes isiaques. Mémoires de l’Institut de France, Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres 31. 3 vols. Paris: Boccard.
  586. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  587. Valuable corpus of Greek and Latin inscriptions (but also coins) concerning the cults of the Egyptian deities in Greece, Thrace, the Black Sea region, Asia Minor, the Near East, Italy, Western Europe, and North Africa (critical edition of texts, translations, brief commentaries); an indispensable work of reference for the study of Egyptian cults in the Greek world.
  588. Find this resource:
  589. Malaise, Michel. 2005. Pour une terminologie et une analyse des cultes isiaques. Brussels, Belgium: Académie Royale de Belgique.
  590. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  591. Thorough discussion of various aspects of Egyptian cults: the terminology of the worshippers, the association of Isis with other divinities, and polymorphy and polysemy in her cult; a significant contribution to the understanding of the cult of Isis in the Greek and Hellenized worlds.
  592. Find this resource:
  593. Totti-Gemünd, Maria. 1985. Ausgewählte Texte der Isis- und Sarapis-Religion. Hildesheim, Germany: Olms.
  594. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  595. Useful selection of sources related to the cult of Isis and Sarapis.
  596. Find this resource:
  597. Witt, Reginald Eldred. 1971. Isis in the ancient world. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press.
  598. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  599. An excellent introduction to the religious ideas and rites connected with the cult of Isis in Egypt, in the Greek world, and in the Roman Empire; very useful for undergraduate students and accessible to a general readership.
  600. Find this resource:
  601. Cybele and Attis
  602.  
  603. Among the foreign cults, the Anatolian (Phrygian) cult of Cybele and Attis is exceptionally well represented in the archaeological material, which has been collected by Vermaseren 1977–1987. Roller 1999 gives an excellent overview of the cult and its history.
  604.  
  605. Roller, Lynn E. 1999. In search of god the mother: The cult of Anatolian Cybele. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
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  607. Thorough, reliable study of the sources concerning the cult of Cybele, from its prehistoric origins to the Imperial period; the best study of the subject.
  608. Find this resource:
  609. Vermaseren, Maarten J. 1977–1987. Corpus cultus Cybelae Attidisque. 7 vols. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  610. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  611. A monumental collection of sources (especially archaeological monuments and inscriptions) concerning the cult of the Anatolian gods Cybele and Attis.
  612. Find this resource:
  613. Mithras
  614.  
  615. Worshipped already in the Hellenistic period, Mithras became the focus of one of the most important cults in the Imperial period, mainly in the Roman West but also in the East, especially in sites where the Roman army was quartered. Beck 2006 is the most recent survey of the evidence. Clauss 2000 focuses on the cult in the Roman West but is a very solid study that avoids speculation. Hinnells 1994 is a representative collection of essays giving an impression of the different approaches. Gordon 2001 is very instructive as regards social aspects of this cult. Most of the material evidence has been collected by Vermaseren 1956–1960.
  616.  
  617. Beck, Roger. 2006. The religion of the Mithras cult in the Roman Empire: Mysteries of the unconquered sun. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  618. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  619. The most recent comprehensive reconstruction of Mithras’s cult, written by one of the leading scholars in this field; some interpretations are debatable.
  620. Find this resource:
  621. Clauss, Manfred. 2000. The Roman cult of Mithras: The god and his mysteries. Translated by Richard Gordon. Edinburgh: Edinburgh Univ. Press.
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  623. Solid, readable overview of the cult of Mithras and its history; accessible to a general readership.
  624. Find this resource:
  625. Gordon, Richard. 2001. Ritual and hierarchy in the mysteries of Mithras. Antigüedad: Religiones y Sociedades 4:245–274.
  626. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  627. Drawing upon iconographic and epigraphic material, Gordon defends the traditional view that there existed grades of initiates in the Mithraic mysteries and shows how the hierarchical structure of the Mithraic communities and their rituals reproduced phenomena of contemporary society, especially relations of patronage; an excellent discussion of sociological aspects of the cult of Mithras.
  628. Find this resource:
  629. Hinnells, John R. 1994. Studies in Mithraism: Papers associated with the Mithraic panel organized on the occasion of the XVIth Congress of the International Association for the History of Religions. Rome: L’Erma di Bretschneider.
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  631. Collection of essays dedicated to the origins and character of Mithras’s cult; not all are of equal quality, but because of its heterogeneity, this volume is a good introduction to the problems connected with the interpretation of this god and his cult.
  632. Find this resource:
  633. Vermaseren, Maarten J. 1956–1960. Corpus inscriptionum et monumentorum religionis Mithriacae. 2 vols. The Hague: M. Nijhoff.
  634. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  635. Although more primary source material has become known in the past five decades, this collection concerning the cult of Mithras remains an indispensable work of reference.
  636. Find this resource:
  637. Mes or Men
  638.  
  639. Probably of Iranian origins, the cult of Mes (or Men) became very important in Hellenized Anatolia but is also known in Greece. Lane 1971–1978 has collected and interpreted the relevant evidence.
  640.  
  641. Lane, Eugene N. 1971–1978. Corpus monumentorum religionis dei Menis. 4 vols. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  642. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  643. Collection and interpretation of the sources for the cult of the Iranian moon god Mes (or Men), whose worship acquired great significance in the Imperial period.
  644. Find this resource:
  645. Italic Cults
  646.  
  647. Cults and rituals were introduced by Roman and Italian traders and soldiers. No systematic survey of these innovations exists, but Hasenohr 2003, one of many case studies, is very instructive as regards this phenomenon.
  648.  
  649. Hasenohr, Claire. 2003. Les Compitalia à Délos. Bulletine de Correspondance Hellénique 127:167–249.
  650. DOI: 10.3406/bch.2003.7128Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  651. Thorough study of the festival of the Compitalia in Delos, introduced by Italian traders; an instructive example for the introduction of an Italian cult and its merging with Greek rituals.
  652. Find this resource:
  653. New Gods
  654.  
  655. In addition to the introduction of foreign gods, the Greeks were confronted with the introduction of cults that did not exist earlier. The cult of the personification of Rome, Dea Roma, is an example of a cult with political origins. The snake god Glykon, the New Asklepios, is the best-known example. Whether references to Theos Hypsistos (the “Highest God”) reflect the worship of a single god—the result of religious innovation under Jewish influence—or the use of an attribute of praise of already existing gods is a matter of debate.
  656.  
  657. Glykon Neos Asklepios
  658.  
  659. The cult of the snake god Glykon was introduced by Alexander of Abonouteichos in the mid-2nd century CE and acquired great popularity. The main source (Lucian, Alexander) has been analyzed in detail by Victor 1997. Robert 1981 has collected epigraphic and archaeological evidence for the diffusion of the cult. The content of the cult (healing, divination, mysteries) in connection with religious trends of the Imperial period has been discussed by Chaniotis 2002 and Sfameni Gasparro 1996 and Sfameni Gasparro 1999.
  660.  
  661. Chaniotis, Angelos. 2002. Old wine in a new skin: Tradition and innovation in the cult foundation of Alexander of Abonouteichos. In Tradition and innovation in the ancient world. Edited by Edward Dabrowa, 67–85. Electrum 6. Krakow, Poland: Jagiellonian Univ. Press.
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  663. Through a detailed analysis of the cult of Glykon Neos Asklepios, the author attributes its success to the adoption, modification, and extension of existing religious traditions and the construction of a specific profile, and to the conscious combination of traditional and innovative elements; a case study of religious competition in the 2nd century CE.
  664. Find this resource:
  665. Robert, Louis. 1981. Le serpent Glykon d’Abônouteichos à Athènes et Artémis d’Éphèse à Rome. Comptes Rendus de l’Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres: 513–535.
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  667. Collection of the material evidence concerning the cult of Glykon, which confirms the narrative of Lucian. Reprinted in Robert’s Opera minora selecta V, 747–769 (Amsterdam: Hakkert, 1989).
  668. Find this resource:
  669. Sfameni Gasparro, Giulia. 1996. Alessandro di Abonutico, lo ‘pseudo-profeta’ ovvero come construirsi un’ identità religiosa. I. Il profeta, ‘eroe’ e ‘uomo divino’. Studi e Materiali di Storia delle Religioni 62:565–590.
  670. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  671. Meticulous study of Lucian’s Alexander and very good reconstruction of Alexander’s religious innovation in the context of religious mentalities in the Imperial period.
  672. Find this resource:
  673. Sfameni Gasparro, Giulia. 1999. Alessandro di Abonutico, lo ‘pseudo-profeta’ ovvero come construirsi un’ identità religiosa. II. L’oracolo e i misteri. In Les syncrétismes religieux dans le monde méditérranéen antique: Actes du colloque international en l’honneur de Franz Cumont. Edited by Corinne Bonnet and André Motte, 275–305. Brussels, Belgium: Brepols.
  674. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  675. Reliable reconstruction of the mystery cult and the divinatory practices introduced by Alexander of Abonouteichos.
  676. Find this resource:
  677. Victor, Ulrich. 1997. Lukian von Samosata, Alexander oder Der Lügenprophet: Eingeleitet, herausgegeben, übersetzt und erklärt. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  678. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  679. Thorough commentary of the main source of information for this cult; indispensable for the study of Alexander’s religious initiative.
  680. Find this resource:
  681. Dea Roma (Thea Rhome)
  682.  
  683. The personification of Rome is one among many personifications worshipped in the Greek world, including that of the Roman Senate. Mellor 1975 has studied the history of this cult.
  684.  
  685. Mellor, Ronald. 1975. Thea Rome: The worship of the goddess Roma in the Greek world. Göttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht.
  686. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  687. Reconstruction of the history of the cult of Rome (Thea Rhome, Dea Roma) from the 2nd century BCE onward.
  688. Find this resource:
  689. Theos Hypsistos
  690.  
  691. The cult of Theos Hypsistos has attracted much interest as part of a cultural process characterized as “pagan monotheism.” However, it is still debated whether this divine name designates a single god worshipped by a particular group (Mitchell 1999) or was used as an attribute of praise (Belayche 2005; cf. Ustinova 1999).
  692.  
  693. Belayche, Nicole. 2005. Hypsistos: Une voie de l’exaltation des dieux dans le polythéisme gréco-romain. Archiv für Religionsgeschichte 7:34–55.
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  695. Belayche plausibly places the worship of Theos Hypsistos in the historical context of polytheism in the Roman Empire. The epithet Hypsistos, used for many different divinities, is connected with a significant trend of the Imperial period: the exaltation of a deity. It is misleading to associate all attestations of Theos Hypistos with the worship of a single god (“monolatry”). A good analysis of the relevant sources and a significant contribution to the study of religiosity in the Roman Empire.
  696. Find this resource:
  697. Mitchell, Stephen. 1999. The cult of Theos Hypsistos between pagans, Jews, and Christians. In Pagan monotheism in Late Antiquity. Edited by Polymnia Athanassiadi and Michael Frede, 81–148. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  698. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  699. Mitchell argues that the theosebeis, Gentiles who attended the Jewish synagogue, should be identified with the worshippers of Theos Hypsistos. This monotheistic worship, which was strongly influenced by Judaism, was widely diffused in the Mediterranean, and although it is best documented in the later Imperial period and in Late Antiquity, its origins should be sought in the Late Hellenistic period. This article includes a valuable collection of the relevant inscriptions.
  700. Find this resource:
  701. Ustinova, Yulia. 1999. The supreme gods of the Bosporan Kingdom: Celestial Aphrodite and the most high god. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
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  703. Thorough study of the worship of Theos Hypsistos in the northwest Black Sea region. Ustinova challenges the view of a uniform cult under Jewish influence; she argues that Theos Hypsistos (the Highest God) was associated neither with the Jewish god nor with Thracian divinities, but rather combined features of Iranian and local deities. The divinity worshipped as Highest God in several places was not necessarily the same god.
  704. Find this resource:
  705. Heroes
  706.  
  707. Between mortals and gods, heroes and heroines had a central position both in public and private worship. The origin of hero cults from the cult of the dead (Antonaccio 1995) is debatable (Ekroth 2002). Kearns 1989 studies the best-known heroes, those of Attica; Larson 1995 and Lyons 1997 are good introductions to the cult of heroines. Brelich 1958 is a stimulating overview of the functions of heroes, but in many respects dated. Ekroth 2002 is the most important recent contribution, exploiting the evidence provided by sacrificial rites. A good example of the study of the myths and cults of a particular hero is Calame 1996, a study of Theseus.
  708.  
  709. Antonaccio, Carla M. 1995. An archaeology of ancestors: Tomb cult and hero cult in early Greece. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
  710. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  711. Meticulous study of the archaeological evidence for the cult of the dead in Geometric and Archaic Greece in connection with the origins of the cult of heroes; a significant contribution, although the interpretation of some of the evidence is debatable.
  712. Find this resource:
  713. Brelich, Angelo. 1958. Gli eroi greci, un problema storico-religioso. Rome: Ateneo.
  714. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  715. Still readable overview of the various functions of heroic cults, in connection with divination, healing, sport, war, rites of passage, and family.
  716. Find this resource:
  717. Calame, Claude. 1996. Thésée et l’imaginaire athénien: Légende et culte en Grèce antique. 2d ed. Lausanne, Switzerland: Payot.
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  719. Excellent analysis of the Athenian myths, festivals, and rituals connected with the national hero Theseus; this study places Theseus in the context of Athenian society.
  720. Find this resource:
  721. Ekroth, Gunnel. 2002. The sacrificial rituals of Greek hero-cults in the Archaic to the Early Hellenistic periods. Kernos Supplément 12. Liège, Belgium: Université de Liège.
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  723. Innovative study of sacrificial rituals in honor of Greek heroes; the author expresses doubt of the widespread assumption that hero cults originated in the cult of the dead and argues that heroes were ritually assimilated to gods.
  724. Find this resource:
  725. Kearns, Emily. 1989. The heroes of Attica. London: Institute of Classical Studies.
  726. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  727. Thorough study of the cult of heroes in Attica, including a study of healing and seafaring heroes, kourotrophic heroines, the eponymous heroes of the civic subdivisions, cult associations of heroes, and the role of heroes as protectors of the city. A catalogue of Attic heroes is given in Appendix I.
  728. Find this resource:
  729. Larson, Jennifer. 1995. Greek heroine cults. Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Press.
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  731. Meticulous study of the evidence for the cult of heroines; accessible to students.
  732. Find this resource:
  733. Lyons, Deborah. 1997. Gender and immortality: Heroines in ancient Greek myth and cult. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
  734. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  735. Original approach to the study of heroines in connection with Greek perceptions of gender.
  736. Find this resource:
  737. Cult of Mortals
  738.  
  739. The cult of mortals (founders of colonies, athletes, poets, generals, etc.) was already practiced before the beginning of the Hellenistic period (see Cults of Poets). Buraselis and Anezir 2004 presents a short, informative overview. An important innovation of the Hellenistic period was the cult of kings and dynasts, which served as a model for the cult of the Roman emperors in the East. Cerfaux and Tondriau 1957 is a still stimulating general survey of the cult of rulers (see Hellenistic Ruler Cult and Imperial Cult).
  740.  
  741. Buraselis, Kostas, and Sophia Aneziri. 2004. Apotheose: Die griechische und hellenistische Apotheose. In Thesaurus cultus et rituum antiquorum II: Purification, initiation, heroization, apotheosis; banquet, dance, music, cult images, 158–180. Los Angeles: Getty Trust Publications.
  742. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  743. Short systematic overview of the cult of mortals, with a representative collection of sources; excellent for quick reference.
  744. Find this resource:
  745. Cerfaux, L., and J. Tondriau. 1957. Un concurrent du christianisme: Le culte des souverains dans la civilisation gréco-romaine. Tournai, Belgium: Desclée.
  746. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  747. Detailed study of the development of the cult of rulers in the Greek and Roman worlds; it has been surpassed by more recent studies, but its value is the comparative analysis of the Greek and Roman ruler cults.
  748. Find this resource:
  749. Cults of Poets
  750.  
  751. The cult of poets, both legendary (Homer) and historical (e.g., Archilochos), is an interesting phenomenon of Greek religious practice. Clay 2005 is the most recent and most comprehensive study of the subject.
  752.  
  753. Clay, Diskin. 2005. Archilochos heros: The cult of poets in the Greek polis. Washington, DC: Center for Hellenic Studies.
  754. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  755. Based on an exhaustive collection of the relevant literary, epigraphic, and archaeological evidence, Clay presents a thorough study of the cult of poets and posthumous honors awarded to them. The largest part of the book is dedicated to the best-known cult, that of Archilochos in Paros.
  756. Find this resource:
  757. Hellenistic Ruler Cult
  758.  
  759. The cult of kings, established both by cities and centrally by dynasties, became one of the most striking features of Hellenistic royal propaganda and of the relations between poleis and kings. Habicht 1970 is unsurpassed as the most thorough treatment of the basic features of the cults established by cities, but new epigraphic finds continually add information. For the centrally organized dynastic cult, Egypt provides the best paradigm (Melaerts 1998, Koenen 1993). There is less evidence for the Seleucid dynastic cult (Van Nuffelen 2004).
  760.  
  761. Habicht, Christian. 1970. Gottmenschentum und griechische Städte. 2d ed. Munich: Beck.
  762. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  763. The best study of the cult established by Hellenistic poleis for kings (form, aims, diffusion).
  764. Find this resource:
  765. Koenen, Ludwig. 1993. The Ptolemaic king as a religious figure. In Images and ideologies: Self-definition in the Hellenistic world. Edited by A. Bulloch, et al., 25–115. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  766. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  767. Excellent overview of the various religious functions of Ptolemaic kings (ruler cult, patronage over sanctuaries, incorporation of Egyptian elements).
  768. Find this resource:
  769. Melaerts, Henri, ed. 1998. Le culte du souverain dans l’Égypte ptolémaïque au IIIe siècle avant notre ère. Louvain, Belgium: Peeters.
  770. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  771. Collection of essays treating various aspects of the establishment and development of dynastic cult in Egypt.
  772. Find this resource:
  773. Van Nuffelen, Peter. 2004. Le culte royal de l’empire des Séleucides: Une réinterpretation. Historia 52:278–301.
  774. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  775. Attempts to reassess the significance of dynastic cult in the Seleucid empire, with useful collection of the more recent finds and further bibliography.
  776. Find this resource:
  777. Imperial Cult
  778.  
  779. Continuing the traditions and practices of the Hellenistic ruler cult, the cult of the emperor was prominent in the public ceremonies of Greek cities and leagues. The best introduction to this subject remains Price 1984. Burrell 2004 is a useful addition to Price’s study, with a more detailed presentation of the source material. Cancik and Hitzl 2003 is a useful collection of studies focusing on both specific areas and specific aspects (e.g., rituals). The best-known manifestation of the imperial cult is that in Asia Minor, studied by Friesen 1993.
  780.  
  781. Burrell, Barbara. 2004. Neokoroi: Greek cities and Roman emperors. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
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  783. Meticulous study of the source material for the existence of temples for the provincial imperial cult; a valuable work of reference.
  784. Find this resource:
  785. Cancik, Humbert, and Konrad Hitzl, eds. 2003. Die Praxis der Herrscherverehrung in Rom und seinen Provinzen: Akten der Tagung in Blaubeuren vom 4. bis zum 6. April 2002. Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck.
  786. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  787. Thirteen essays dedicated to a variety of subjects related to the emperor cult: the rituals and their origin, the cult places and festivals, the cult of the emperor in Rome, Greece, Sicily, and Asia Minor, and the relation between the worship of the emperor and Christianity; it reflects current trends in the study of the subject.
  788. Find this resource:
  789. Friesen, Stephen D. 1993. Twice Neokoros: Ephesus, Asia, and the cult of the Flavian imperial family. Religions in the Graeco-Roman World 116. Cologne, Germany: Brill.
  790. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  791. A comprehensive study of the imperial cult in the province of Asia, 1st century CE. The author examines the early provincial cults in Pergamon, Smyrna, Miletos, and other provinces, the erection of temples for the imperial cult, high priesthood, contests and festivals, and the significance of the imperial cult. Some of his views (e.g., that the provincial high priestesses held this office in their own right and not as wives of high priests, and that asiarches was not a different designation of the office of archiereus) are not convincing.
  792. Find this resource:
  793. Price, Simon R. F. 1984. Rituals and power: The Roman imperial cult in Asia Minor. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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  795. The best study of the imperial cult in the Roman East; indispensable reading.
  796. Find this resource:
  797. Mystery Cults
  798.  
  799. A particular manifestation of religiosity in the Greek world was the initiation into a mystery cult. Naturally, little is known about cults, for which secrecy was a requirement, and the debates on their nature and content have continued for more than a century. Burkert 1987 is a short, informative introduction. Cosmopoulos 2003 assembles essays showing current trends of research.
  800.  
  801. Burkert, Walter. 1987. Ancient mystery cults. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
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  803. An excellent short introduction, very useful for students.
  804. Find this resource:
  805. Cosmopoulos, M. B., ed. 2003. Greek mysteries: The archaeology and ritual of ancient Greek secret cults. London: Routledge.
  806. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  807. Eleven essays reflecting current research on mystery cults. The essays discuss aspects of the mysteries in Eleusis, Samothrace, Boiotia, Arkadia, and Athens, initiation grades and the importance of mystery cults for concepts of afterlife; the volume thus covers a broad spectrum of subjects and provides good bibliography.
  808. Find this resource:
  809. Andania
  810.  
  811. The mystery cult of the Great Gods in Andania (Messenia) is particularly well known because of an extant, long cult regulation that treats important subjects in the celebration of the mysteries. Deshours 2006 reconstructs the history of the cult and provides a thorough analysis of this text.
  812.  
  813. Deshours, Nadine. 2006. Les mystères d’Andania: Étude d’épigraphie et d’histoire religieuses. Bordeaux, France: Ausonius.
  814. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  815. Edition, translation, and exhaustive commentary of the cult regulation of the mysteries of Andania; although many puzzles remain concerning the early history of this cult, the cult regulation is a superb source of information about the organization of a religious celebration.
  816. Find this resource:
  817. Eleusinian Mysteries
  818.  
  819. The most famous mystery cult of the Greek world, connected with Demeter, Persephone, and Dionysos, may have originated as early as the Mycenaean period. Mylonas 1961 has not been replaced as a general study, primarily based on the archaeological evidence. Clinton 1974 presents a solid study of the organization of the mysteries; Clinton 1992 studies images connected with this cult. The theological aspects have been treated by Graf 1974. See also Demeter.
  820.  
  821. Clinton, Kevin. 1974. The sacred officials of the Eleusinian mysteries. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society.
  822. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  823. Very important contribution to the organization of the mysteries of Eleusis and their ritual experts.
  824. Find this resource:
  825. Clinton, Kevin. 1992. Myth and cult: The iconography of the Eleusinian mysteries. Stockholm, Sweden: Åström.
  826. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  827. Collection of images associated with the Eleusinian mysteries, their myths and rituals; very important for the study of this subject.
  828. Find this resource:
  829. Graf, Fritz. 1974. Eleusis und die orphische Dichtung: Athens in vorhellenistischer Zeit. Berlin and New York: de Gruyter.
  830. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  831. Profound study of literary sources that associate Orphic ideas and Dionysos with the Eleusinian mysteries; although our knowledge of the Orphics has advanced because of new finds, Graf’s book remains an important contribution to the interpretation of the Eleusinian cult.
  832. Find this resource:
  833. Mylonas, Georgios E. 1961. Eleusis and the Eleusinian mysteries. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
  834. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  835. Wide-ranging study of the cult in Eleusis; still readable and accessible to a general readership; some aspects need to revised on the basis of more recent studies.
  836. Find this resource:
  837. Samothrace
  838.  
  839. The mystery cult of the Great Gods (Kabeiroi) in Samothrace acquired great significance in the Hellenistic and Imperial periods. Cole 1984 is the best overview of the history of the sanctuary and the cult practices; Dimitrova 2008 offers a very good discussion of the participants in the cult.
  840.  
  841. Cole, Susan Guettel. 1984. Theoi megaloi: The cult of the Great Gods at Samothrace. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
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  843. The most comprehensive and reliable study of the cult in Samothrace, its history, the cult officials, and the rites.
  844. Find this resource:
  845. Dimitrova, Nora M. 2008. Theoroi and initiates in Samothrace: The epigraphical evidence. Princeton, NJ: American School of Classical Studies at Athens.
  846. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  847. Collection and study of the inscriptions that evidence foreign sacred envoys and initiates in the mysteries in Samothrace; important for the study of the cult’s significance.
  848. Find this resource:
  849. Dionysiac or Orphic Initiation
  850.  
  851. The Orphic mysteries, associated with the cult of Dionysos but also with the religious ideas of Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans, have long fascinated scholars of Greek religion, but real progress in the understanding of this cult was made in the past two decades thanks to the discovery of gold tablets inscribed with relevant ritual texts and the publication of the Derveni Papyrus (see Derveni Papyrus). The relevant texts have now been collected by Bernabé Pajares 2004–2007; translations and discussion of the gold tablets of the initiates are given by Bernabé Pajares and Jiménez San Cristóbal 2008, and Graf and Johnston 2007. Borgeaud 1991 reflects current research trends.
  852.  
  853. Bernabé Pajares, Alberto. 2004–2007. Poetae epici graeci: Testimonia et fragmenta. Pars II. Orphicorum et Orphicis similium testimonia et fragmenta. 3 vols. Leipzig, Germany: Teubner; Berlin: de Gruyter.
  854. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  855. Collection of the fragments and testimonies pertaining the to beliefs of the Orphics (only Greek texts); an indispensable work of reference for the study of the Dionysiac or Orphic initiation.
  856. Find this resource:
  857. Bernabé Pajares, Alberto, and Ana Isabel Jiménez San Cristóbal. 2008. Instructions for the netherworld: The Orphic gold tablets. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  858. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  859. Edition, translation, and commentary of the inscribed gold tablets deposited in the graves of initiates into this cult; a valuable contribution to the study of the religious beliefs of this group.
  860. Find this resource:
  861. Borgeaud, Philippe, ed. 1991. Orphisme et Orphée, en l’honneur de Jean Rudhardt. Geneva, Switzerland: Droz.
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  863. Collection of essays that treat various aspects of the Orphic poetry and the religious ideas associated with Orpheus and the initiation in the Orphic or Dionysiac mysteries; after the publication of this volume more sources have become available, but it is representative of research trends and problems of interpretation.
  864. Find this resource:
  865. Graf, Fritz, and Sarah Iles Johnston. 2007. Ritual texts for the afterlife: Orpheus and the Bacchic gold tablets. London: Routledge.
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  867. Taking into consideration the recent finds of ritual texts, the authors reconstruct the religious ideas connected with the Orphics and the Dionysiac or Orphic mysteries; also edition and translation of the inscribed gold tablets; some interpretation are debatable, but this book is the best introduction to the subject.
  868. Find this resource:
  869. Rituals, Festivals, and Forms of Worship
  870.  
  871. The study of the rituals of Greek religion is strongly influenced by theoretical approaches and models, usually introduced to the study of Greek religion from social anthropology and ritual studies. A general study of Greek rituals does not exist, but the general handbooks (see Introductions to Greek Religion) treat this subject and provide information on methods, questions, and interpretive models. The following bibliography is not a complete survey of all Greek religious rituals. For bibliography on particular rituals see Bibliographies and Reference Works. For regulations concerning rituals see Cult Regulations. See also Mystery Cults and Dedications.
  872.  
  873. Acclamation
  874.  
  875. Acclamations, short texts performed orally by a group (or an individual) in the presence of an audience, expecting and eliciting the audience’s verbal approval, played an important part in almost all rituals and reflect religious ideas. Chaniotis 2008 summarizes their content and significance.
  876.  
  877. Chaniotis, Angelos. 2008. Acclamations as a form of religious communication. In Die Religion des Imperium Romanum: Koine und Konfrontationen. Edited by Hubert Cancik and Jörg Rüpke, 199–218. Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck.
  878. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  879. Study of the part played by acclamations in cult, as a medium of communication between the worshippers and the gods, and as expression of personal piety and religious change.
  880. Find this resource:
  881. Banquet
  882.  
  883. Accompanying most sacrifices (with a few exceptions, especially sacrifices for heroes; see Sacrifice), the banquet fulfilled important social functions (Schmitt Pantel 1992) and created the illusion of divine presence (Jameson 1994). Detienne and Vernant 1989 is an instructive collection of essays dedicated to the treatment of sacrificial animals (see also Berthiaume 1982).
  884.  
  885. Berthiaume, Guy. 1982. Les rôles du mageiros: Étude sur la boucherie, la cuisine et le sacrifice dans la Grèce ancienne. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
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  887. Study of the practical aspects of sacrifice (killing, cutting, preparing the animal for the sacrificial banquet); very useful also because of the representative selection of images.
  888. Find this resource:
  889. Detienne, Marcel and Jean-Pierre Vernant, eds. 1989. The cuisine of sacrifice among the Greeks. Translated by Paula Wissing. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
  890. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  891. Nine essays by leading representatives of the French school of the study of religion, dedicated to culinary practices following the sacrifice. Jesper Svenbro provides an excellent bibliography on sacrifice (pp. 204–217).Translation of La cuisine du sacrifice en pays grec (Paris: Gallimard, 1979).
  892. Find this resource:
  893. Jameson, Michael H. 1994. Theoxenia. In Ancient Greek cult practice from the epigraphical evidence: Proceedings of the Second International Seminar on Ancient Greek Cult, organized by the Swedish Institute at Athens, 22–24 November 1991. Edited by Robin Hägg, 35–57. Stockholm, Sweden: Åström.
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  895. With the ritual of theoxenia the Greeks explicitly honored supernatural figures by using the conventions of entertaining a guest (invitation, preparation of a couch and a table, offering of food). The features of this ritual are thoroughly examined through an analysis of relevant inscriptions;
  896. Find this resource:
  897. Schmitt Pantel, Pauline. 1992. La cité au banquet: Histoire des repas publiques dans les cités grecques. Rome and Paris: École Française de Rome.
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  899. Impressive and meticulous study of the history of public banquets in the Greek cities, from the Archaic to the Roman period; a major contribution to the study of public cult and festivals, the contributions of benefactors, and the role of religious rites for the construction of identity.
  900. Find this resource:
  901. Confession
  902.  
  903. The confession of sins did not have a tradition in Greek religion, but relevant evidence is known from Asia Minor in the Imperial period, where a group of Greek inscriptions (somewhat misleadingly called “confession inscriptions”) contains narratives of divine punishment, confession of sins, and exaltation of the gods. The material published until about 1990 is collected by Petzl 1994; the religious mentality behind these texts is discussed by Belayche 2006 and Chaniotis 2004 (with further bibliography). Pettazzoni 1929–1936 gives an overview of the praxis of confession in the ancient world.
  904.  
  905. Belayche, Nicole. 2006. Les stèles dites de confession: Une religiosité originale dans l’Anatolie impériale? In the Impact of Imperial Rome on religions, ritual, and religious life in the Roman Empire. Edited by Lukas de Blois, Peter Funke, and Johannes Hahn, 66–81. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
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  907. Analysis of the religious beliefs on which the confession of sins and the exaltation of gods were based; very important for religious mentality in Roman Asia Minor.
  908. Find this resource:
  909. Chaniotis. Angelos. 2004. Under the watchful eyes of the gods: Aspects of divine justice in Hellenistic and Roman Asia Minor. In The Greco-Roman East: Politics, culture, society. Edited by Stephen Colvin, 1–43. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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  911. Study of the intervention of religious authorities in legal disputes (mainly as arbitrators) and of the belief in divine punishment, primarily based on “confession inscriptions” from Lydia and Phrygia; important for the study of religious mentality.
  912. Find this resource:
  913. Pettazzoni, Raffaele. 1929–1936. La confessione dei peccati. 3 vols. Bologna, Italy: Zanicheli.
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  915. Monumental study of the ritual of confession in ancient cultures. The evidence from Greece and Asia Minor is discussed in volume 3, Siria, Hittiti, Asia Minore, Grecia; although more material has come to light in recent decades (“confession inscriptions”), this study places the Greek evidence in the broad context of ancient religions.
  916. Find this resource:
  917. Petzl, Georg. 1994. Die Beichtinschriften Westkleinasiens. Epigraphica Anatolica 22. Bonn, Germany: Habelt.
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  919. Corpus of more than one hundred “confession inscriptions” with introduction, text, translation, and commentary, which provide valuable information concerning the belief in divine punishment and the role of religion in the social life of small poleis and villages in Asia Minor; since this publication, more relevant texts have come to light.
  920. Find this resource:
  921. Curse
  922.  
  923. Usually the phenomenon of cursing is associated with lead tablets (defixiones), which contain curses; Audollent 1904 and Wuensch 1897 provide collections of this material known until the late 19th century; addenda to this material have been compiled by Jordan 1985 and Jordan 2000. A particular type of curses that contain justifications and request revenge or justice (“prayers for justice”) has been studied by Versnel 1991 and Versnel 2002 (see also Björck 1938); for funerary curses and their formulae see Strubbe 1997. Ancient curse poetry is discussed by Watson 1991. See also Magic.
  924.  
  925. Audollent, Auguste. 1904. Defixionum tabellae. Paris: Fontemoign.
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  927. The largest collection of Greek curse tablets (with the exception of Athens, for which see Wünsch 1897); still useful, although many corrections have been suggested by later scholars for many texts and more material has been published. Reprinted, Frankfurt: Minerva, 1967.
  928. Find this resource:
  929. Björck, Gudmund. 1938. Der Fluch des Christen Sabinus, Uppsala, Sweden: Almquist and Wiksell.
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  931. Edition and commentary of a papyrus containing the curse of Sabinus, a Christian, against his own daughter and a man who had wronged him; although the text is written by a Christian, it is a good example of a prayer for revenge or justice, and Björck discusses earlier relevant material; a very important study for religious mentality and the use of curses by victims of injustice.
  932. Find this resource:
  933. Jordan, David R. 1985. Survey of Greek defixiones not included in the Special Corpora. Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 26:1–81.
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  935. Very useful list of additions to earlier collections of curse tablets; indispensable for the study of this subject.
  936. Find this resource:
  937. Jordan, David R. 2000. New Greek curse tablets (1985–2000). Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 41:5–46.
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  939. Catalogue of 122 curse tablets published between 1985 and 2000; indispensable for the study of this subject
  940. Find this resource:
  941. Strubbe, Johan. 1997. Arai epitymbioi: Imprecations against desecrators of the grave in the Greek epitaphs of Asia Minor, a catalogue. Bonn, Germany: Habelt.
  942. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  943. Useful corpus of 405 curses addressed against desecrators of graves; an indispensable reference work for students of religious mentalities, magic, burial practices, and divine justice.
  944. Find this resource:
  945. Versnel, Hendrick S. 1991. Beyond cursing: The appeal to justice in judicial prayers. In Magika hiera: Ancient Greek magic and religion. Edited by Christopher A. Faraone and Dirk Obbink, 60–106. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
  946. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  947. In this important study Versnel recognizes among the defixiones a separate group of “prayers for justice,” which aimed at getting divine support in order to take revenge on an evildoer or to restore justice; an important contribution to the interpretation of curses.
  948. Find this resource:
  949. Versnel, Hendrick S. 2002. Writing mortals and reading gods: Appeal to the gods as a strategy in social control. In Demokratie, Recht und soziale Kontrolle im klassischen Athens. Edited by David Cohen, 37–76. Munich: Oldenbourg.
  950. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  951. Discussion of representative examples of “prayers for justice” and related texts and of the persuasion strategies applied by the victims of wrongdoing in order to evoke divine punishment. Versnel identifies two different strategies of social control connected with these texts: people appealed to the gods for help against an opponent; and they informed the opponent that the gods have been called in for assistance; an important contribution to the study of the social context of magical practices.
  952. Find this resource:
  953. Watson, Lindsay. 1991. Arae: The curse poetry of Antiquity. Leeds, UK: Cairns.
  954. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  955. This study focuses on curse poetry from Homer to the 1st century CE, with special emphasis on Hellenistic examples (Kallimachos, Euphorion, Moiro, Theokritos, P.Sorbonn. 2254). Watson discusses the relation between prayer and cursing, the execution of curses, the various subcategories of curses, their themes, phraseology, and aims; the book includes a useful index of curse themes.
  956. Find this resource:
  957. Wuensch, Richard. 1897. Defixionum tabellae Atticae. Berlin: Reimer.
  958. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  959. Collection of curse tablets found in Athens; still useful, since it has never been replaced by a new corpus.
  960. Find this resource:
  961. Divination
  962.  
  963. The anxiety of humans to learn about the future produced many different divinatory practices, from the consultation of oracles to the induction of prophetic dreams, the casting of knucklebones, or necromancy.
  964.  
  965. General Aspects
  966.  
  967. Johnston 2008 is a short general introduction. Johnston 2005 assembles essays that treat different divinatory practices; Flower 2008 is a good general introduction to seers. For the religious and cultural significance of oracles in Late Antiquity, see Busine 2005.
  968.  
  969. Busine, Aude. 2005. Paroles d’Apollon: Pratiques et traditions oraculaires dans l’Antiquité tardive (IIe-VIe siècles). Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
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  971. In-depth study of the literary and epigraphic evidence for oracles in Late Antiquity, and in particular of their significance for religious mentalities and theological beliefs.
  972. Find this resource:
  973. Flower, Michael Attyah. 2008. The seer in ancient Greece. Berkeley and Los Angeles: Univ. of California Press.
  974. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  975. Systematic, reliable introduction to the religious, cultural, and political function of seers in ancient Greece.
  976. Find this resource:
  977. Johnston, Sarah Iles, ed. 2005. Mantikê: Studies in ancient divination. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  978. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  979. Nine essays that treat different divinatory practices and their cultural background; a good introduction to the subject.
  980. Find this resource:
  981. Johnston, Sarah Iles. 2008. Ancient Greek divination. Malden, MA, and Oxford: Blackwell.
  982. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  983. Very good short overview of the main aspects of Greek divination (aims, important oracles, seers, magic, and divination).
  984. Find this resource:
  985. Oracles
  986.  
  987. The best-known oracular sanctuary is that of Delphi; its oracles have been collected and studied by Fontenrose 1978 and Parke and Wormell 1956. Numerous oracular inquiries survive from Dodona (Lhôte 2006, Parke 1967). Important for the study of ancient oracles are also the studies of Bonnechère 2003, who treats the peculiar practices of the oracle of Trophonios, and of Merkelbach and Stauber 1996, who collect the oracles of Apollo Klarios (cf. Parke 1985). For the oracle of Alexander of Abonouteichos, see Glykon Neos Asklepios.
  988.  
  989. Bonnechère, Pierre. 2003. Trophonios de Lébadée: Cultes et mythes d’une cité béotienne au miroir de la mentalité antique. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  990. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  991. Systematic study of the sanctuary of Trophonios in Lebadeia, the relevant myths and rituals, with emphasis on the peculiar oracular consultation.
  992. Find this resource:
  993. Fontenrose, Joseph. 1978. The Delphic Oracle: Its responses and operations. Berkeley and Los Angeles: Univ. of California Press.
  994. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  995. Reconstruction of the oracular practices and the cult in the sanctuary of Apollo in Delphi, with a collection of the oracle’s responses; sometimes speculative, it remains a major work of reference for ancient divination.
  996. Find this resource:
  997. Lhôte, Éric. 2006. Les lamelles oraculaires de Dodone. Geneva, Switzerland: Droz.
  998. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  999. Critical edition with translation of and mainly linguistic commentary on 167 oracular inquiries from Dodona (short texts written on lead tablets), i.e., all the published texts (many more await publication). This material, especially the inquiries of private individuals (nos. 18–153), is a very important source of information for religious mentality and the anxieties of the people who asked Zeus Naios and Diona for advice.
  1000. Find this resource:
  1001. Merkelbach, Reinhold, and Joseph Stauber. 1996. Die Orakel des Apollon von Klaros. Epigraphica Anatolica 27:1–54.
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  1003. Useful collection of the metrical oracles of Apollo of Claros (edition, translation, brief commentary) and discussion of the methods of divination; many oracles recommended cult regulations and purifications as remedies in critical situations; a “theological” oracle is connected with contemporary philosophical works; important for the way oracles reflect changes in religious mentality.
  1004. Find this resource:
  1005. Parke, Herbert W. 1967. Oracles of Zeus: Dodona, Olympia, Ammon. Oxford: Blackwell.
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  1007. Useful general overview of the oracular practices in the sanctuaries of Zeus in Dodona and Olympia and Zeus Ammon in Egypt; informative for a general readership.
  1008. Find this resource:
  1009. Parke, Herbert W. 1985. The oracles of Apollo in Asia Minor. London: Croom Helm.
  1010. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1011. Systematic study of the less-known but important oracles of Apollo in Didyma (near Miletos), Klaros, Patara, and Gryneion; although new archaeological finds have added important information (especially on Didyma and Klaros), this book remains the best survey of oracles in Asia Minor
  1012. Find this resource:
  1013. Parke, Herbert W., and Donald E. W. Wormell. 1956. The Delphic Oracle. 2 vols. Oxford: Blackwell.
  1014. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1015. Study of the history of the sanctuary and oracle of Apollo in Delphi (Vol. 1) and collection and discussion of the oracles attributed to Apollo; still the most comprehensive study of the subject.
  1016. Find this resource:
  1017. Specific Types of Divination
  1018.  
  1019. In addition to the most widespread practices of divination (oracles, seers), the Greeks exploited many different methods to learn about the future. One of the oldest practices is appeal to the dead (Ogden 2001); a popular method in the Imperial period was the use of knucklebones, dice, or verses arranged alphabetically (Nollé 2007).
  1020.  
  1021. Nollé, Johannes. 2007. Kleinasiatische Losorakel: Astragal- und Alphabetchresmologien der hochkaiserzeitlichen Orakelrenaissance. Munich: Beck.
  1022. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1023. Edition and systematic study of the dice and alphabetic oracles found in Asia Minor dating to the Imperial period; a thorough study of important source material for religious mentality.
  1024. Find this resource:
  1025. Ogden, Daniel. 2001. Greek and Roman necromancy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
  1026. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1027. Systematic study of the Greek practice of necromancy, of the places where it was practiced, and of relevant theories and methods.
  1028. Find this resource:
  1029. Exaltation
  1030.  
  1031. The praise of gods and their power (arete, hence “aretalogy”) was a very important form of worship (Belayche 2005). Longo 1969 has collected many relevant texts. Two characteristic examples, both connected with the cult of Egyptian deities, have been thoroughly studied by Engelman 1975 and Grandjean 1975.
  1032.  
  1033. Belayche, Nicole. 2005. Hypsistos: Une voie de l’exaltation des dieux dans le polythéisme gréco-romain. Archiv für Religionsgeschichte 7:34–55.
  1034. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1035. Study of the divine epithet Hypsistos in connection with a significant trend of the Imperial period: the exaltation of a deity.
  1036. Find this resource:
  1037. Engelman, Helmuth. 1975. The Delian Aretalogy of Sarapis. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  1038. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1039. Detailed commentary of an important text from Delos, which narrates both in prose and in meter the introduction of the cult of Sarapis and the manifestations of his power.
  1040. Find this resource:
  1041. Grandjean, Yves. 1975. Une nouvelle arétalogie d’Isis à Maronée. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  1042. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1043. Edition with meticulous commentary on a praise of Isis by a man who had experienced her miraculous power.
  1044. Find this resource:
  1045. Longo, Vincenzo. 1969. Aretalogie nel mondo greco. Genoa, Italy: Istituto di Filologia Classica e Medioevale.
  1046. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1047. Useful collection of praises of the power of gods and narratives of miracles; more texts have become known since publication of this book, but it has not been replaced.
  1048. Find this resource:
  1049. Festival
  1050.  
  1051. Festivals were the predominant form of religious worship, usually consisting of a procession (see Procession), the offering of a sacrifice followed by a banquet (see Banquet and Sacrifice), and athletic and/or musical contests. Nilsson 1906 is out of date but has never been replaced and is still useful as a survey of different types of festivals; the best-known festivals are those of Athens, studied by Deubner 1966 and Parke 1977 (see also Athens). Perpillou-Thomas 1993 offers a panorama of festivals in Egypt, an instructive example of cultural intersections between Greeks and native populations. Chaniotis 1995 surveys changes in the celebration of festivals in the Hellenistic period. A very important regulation concerning the celebration of an agonistic festival has been edited with excellent commentary by Wörrle 1988. For regulations concerning the celebration of festivals, see also Cult Regulations.
  1052.  
  1053. Chaniotis, Angelos. 1995. Sich selbst feiern? Die städtischen Feste des Hellenismus im Spannungsfeld zwischen Religion und Politik. In Stadtbild und Bürgerbild im Hellenismus. Edited by Michael Wörrle and Paul Zanker, 147–172. Munich: Beck.
  1054. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1055. An overview of the typical elements of festivals in the Hellenistic period, with emphasis on the staging of the procession.
  1056. Find this resource:
  1057. Deubner, Ludwig. 1966. Attische Feste. 2d ed. Berlin: Akademie Verlag.
  1058. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1059. Detailed study of the Athenian festivals; the interpretations are debatable, but the collection of the relevant sources is extremely useful.
  1060. Find this resource:
  1061. Nilsson, Martin P. 1906. Griechische Feste von religiöser Bedeutung mit Ausschluss der attischen. Leipzig, Germany: Teubner.
  1062. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1063. A panorama of religious festivals (with the exception of Athens); in many details out of date, but still useful as a work of reference because it covers the entire Greek world and includes references to the main literary sources.
  1064. Find this resource:
  1065. Parke, Herbert W. 1977. Festivals of the Athenians. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press.
  1066. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1067. Short, reliable survey of the Athenian festivals; a very good introduction for students and a general audience.
  1068. Find this resource:
  1069. Perpillou-Thomas, Françoise. 1993. Fêtes d’Égypte ptolémaïque et romaine d’après la documentation papyrologique grecque. Louvain, Belgium: Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique.
  1070. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1071. Meticulous study of the papyri for a reconstruction of religious life in Hellenistic and Roman Egypt; a very good case study of religious practices in a multicultural environment.
  1072. Find this resource:
  1073. Wörrle, Michael. 1988. Stadt und Fest im kaiserzeitlichen Kleinasien: Studien zu einer agonistischen Stiftung aus Oinoanda. Munich: Beck.
  1074. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1075. With the publication of a long and important dossier of documents related to the establishment of a new festival of the Imperial cult (Demostheneia) in Oinoanda (124 CE), Wörrle discusses in detail central aspects of festivals and contests in the Imperial period (private endowments for festivals, the responsibilities of the agonothetes, who organized the festival, processions, order, competitions, sacrifices).
  1076. Find this resource:
  1077. Funerary Rituals
  1078.  
  1079. The burial and veneration of the dead is an important phenomenon at the border between religious history (beliefs in afterlife) and social history. Kurtz and Boardman 1971 is a readable, comprehensive introduction to burial customs. Early Greek burial customs have been treated by Ahlberg 1971 and Andronikos 1968; subsequent normative interventions aiming at restricting the number of participants and the expense have been studied by Engels 1998. Alexiou 2002 is a masterly treatment of ritual lament. For beliefs in afterlife see Dionysiac or Orphic Initiation and Afterlife.
  1080.  
  1081. Ahlberg, Gudrun. 1971. Prothesis and ekphora in Greek Geometric art. 2 vols. Gothenburg, Sweden: Aström.
  1082. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1083. Detailed study of representations of funerary rites in Geometric art; an important study for the understanding of the social significance of funerary rituals.
  1084. Find this resource:
  1085. Alexiou, Margaret. 2002. The ritual lament in Greek tradition. Revised by Dimitris Yatromanolakis and Panagiotis Roilos. Lanham, MD: Roman & Littlefield.
  1086. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1087. Groundbreaking study of funerary lament in ancient Greece and the continuation of this tradition in the Byzantium and in modern Greece; a classic work of reference for funerary rituals.
  1088. Find this resource:
  1089. Andronikos, Manolis. 1968. Totenkult. Archaeologia Homerica 3. Göttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht.
  1090. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1091. Excellent overview of the information provided by the Homeric epics on funerary cult and comparison of this information with the archaeological evidence from the late Bronze and early Iron Ages.
  1092. Find this resource:
  1093. Engels, Johannes. 1998. Funerum sepulcrorumque magnificentia: Begräbnis- und Grabluxusgesetze in der griechisch-römischen Welt. Stuttgart, Germany: Steiner.
  1094. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1095. Collection of regulations concerning limitation of the participants in burials, the relevant expenses, and excessive mourning.
  1096. Find this resource:
  1097. Kurtz, Donna C., and John Boardman. 1971. Greek burial customs. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press.
  1098. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1099. The strength of this book is the survey of the archaeological material, not the theoretical issues connected with burial customs; it has never been replaced as a short, readable introduction for a general audience.
  1100. Find this resource:
  1101. Human Sacrifice
  1102.  
  1103. More prominent in myth than in real life, human sacrifice is one of the most puzzling rituals. Bonnechere 1994 is a good overview that avoids speculation.
  1104.  
  1105. Bonnechere, Pierre. 1994. Le sacrifice humain en Grèce ancienne. Kernos Supplément 3. Liège, Belgium: Centre International d’Etude de la Religion Grecque Antique.
  1106. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1107. The most up-to-date study of human sacrifice in ancient Greece, with very cautious use of the sources and a good critical assessment of earlier research.
  1108. Find this resource:
  1109. Hymnody
  1110.  
  1111. The singing of hymns always played an important part in the worship of the gods, although it became increasingly important as a form of spiritual offering in the Imperial period. Furley and Bremer 2001 give the best introduction to this subject and a representative collection of texts (cf. the analysis by Vamvouri Ruffy 2004); Brulé and Vendries 2001 collects essays that treat the significance of music and singing in cult. Kolde 2003 is a very good discussion of a particular hymn (see also Exaltation).
  1112.  
  1113. Brulé, Pierre, and Christophe Vendries, eds. 2001. Chanter les dieux: Musique et religion dans l’antiquité grecque et romaine; Actes du colloque des 16, 17 et 18 décembre 1999 (Rennes et Lorient). Rennes, France: Presses Universitaires de Rennes.
  1114. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1115. Very good collection of essays treating the role of singing and music in Greek religion.
  1116. Find this resource:
  1117. Furley, William D., and Jan M. Bremer. 2001. Greek hymns. Vol. I, The texts in translation. Vol. II, Greek texts and commentary. Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck.
  1118. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1119. Collection of hymns with translations and commentaries; a very good introduction to performative ritual texts, which reveal religious mentality.
  1120. Find this resource:
  1121. Kolde, Antje. 2003. Politique et religion chez Isyllos d’Épidaure. Basel, Switzerland: Schwabe.
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  1123. New critical edition of a famous hymn for Asklepios from Epidauros, with excellent commentary; a very good study of religious experience, healing miracles, and the political exploitation of religion.
  1124. Find this resource:
  1125. Vamvouri Ruffy, Maria. 2004. La fabrique du divin: Les hymnes de Callimaque à la lumière des hymnes homériques et des hymnes épigraphiques. Kernos Supplément 14. Liège, Belgium: Université de Liège.
  1126. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1127. Primarily based on the study of the literary hymns of Callimachus, the author shows how they continue but also change earlier traditions; a strength of this book is the comparison with hymns in the epigraphic material (especially of Isyllos); an interesting study of the convergence of literary skill, intellectual erudition, and piety.
  1128. Find this resource:
  1129. Magic
  1130.  
  1131. Magical rituals were complex and diverse ritual actions, and their study is very important for the understanding of ancient beliefs in supernatural powers, for the study of society, for mutual influences between different cultures, and for understanding the function of rituals more generally. For bibliography on one of the most common expressions of magic, cursing, see Curse. Dickie 2001 and Graf 1997 are the best introductions, accessible also to the non-specialist. A representative treatment of a particular type of magic, love magic, is Faraone 1999. For relevant sources, see Magical Texts.
  1132.  
  1133. Collins, Derek. 2008. Magic in the ancient Greek world. Malden, MA, and Oxford: Blackwell.
  1134. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1135. Short, readable introduction to ancient magic; accessible to a general readership.
  1136. Find this resource:
  1137. Dickie, Matthew W. 2001. Magic and magicians in the Greco-Roman world. London: Routledge.
  1138. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1139. Thorough systematic survey of magical practices; a very good first introduction to this subject.
  1140. Find this resource:
  1141. Faraone, Christopher A. 1999. Ancient Greek love magic. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
  1142. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1143. Masterly treatment of the literary and papyrological evidence for love magic; accessible to undergraduate students.
  1144. Find this resource:
  1145. Faraone, Christopher A., and Dirk Obbink, eds. 1991. Magika hiera: Ancient Greek magic and religion. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  1146. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1147. Very good collection of stimulating essays that treat both theoretical and practical aspects of various types of magical rituals; a good introduction to current research trends.
  1148. Find this resource:
  1149. Graf, Fritz. 1997. Magic in the ancient world. Translated by Franklin Philip. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
  1150. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1151. Reliable introduction to magic, with an emphasis on curses and love magic; a good discussion of the theoretical background for the study of magic; very useful for undergraduate students and a general audience. French original, Magie dans l’antiquité gréco-romaine (Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1994). German version by the author, Gottesnähe und Schadenzauber: Die Magie in der griechisch-römischen Antike (Munich: Beck, 1996).
  1152. Find this resource:
  1153. Meyer, Marvin W., and Paul Allan Mirecki, eds. 1995. Ancient magic and ritual power. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  1154. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1155. Twenty-four essays that both present new material and treat theoretical matters (e.g. theories of magic in antiquity, the power of word, ritual expertise); a very good general survey and a good representation of current research trends.
  1156. Find this resource:
  1157. Oath
  1158.  
  1159. Oath, a speech act and an invocation of gods, is a ritual with great significance for law and society. Plescia 1970 remains the most comprehensive introduction, but Sommerstein and Fletcher 2007 assembles essays covering many aspects and reflecting today’s state of the art. Giordano 1999 covers the religious aspects but is limited to Archaic Greece.
  1160.  
  1161. Giordano, Manuela. 1999. La parola efficace: Maledizioni, giuramenti e benedizioni nella Grecia arcaica. Pisa and Rome: Istituti Editoriali e Poligrafici Internazionali.
  1162. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1163. Very good treatment of the oath and its relation to malediction, cursing, and benediction, but limited to early Greek culture.
  1164. Find this resource:
  1165. Plescia, Joseph. 1970. The oath and perjury in ancient Greece. Tallahassee: Florida State Univ. Press.
  1166. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1167. Short overview of the religious and legal aspects of oath and perjury; out of date in details, it still is useful for quick reference.
  1168. Find this resource:
  1169. Sommerstein, Alan H.,and Judith Flercher, eds. 2007. Horkos: The oath in Greek society. Exeter, UK: Bristol Phoenix Press.
  1170. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1171. Collection of essays treating the religious and legal aspects of Greek oath-taking; a good introduction to the various aspects of this subject.
  1172. Find this resource:
  1173. Prayer
  1174.  
  1175. The prayer is the most important oral form of mortals’ communication with the gods. Pulleyn 1997 is the best introduction, but Aubriot-Sévin 1992 is very instructive as regards early Greece. Jakov and Voutiras 2005 briefly treat all important aspects and provide sources and bibliography. Chapot and Laurot 2001 is a representative selection of prayers. Versnel 1981 places the prayer in the context of religious mentality.
  1176.  
  1177. Aubriot-Sévin, Danièle. 1992. Prière et conceptions religieuses en Grèce ancienne jusqu’à la fin du V siècle av. J.-C. Lyon, France: Maison de l’Orient Méditerranéen.
  1178. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1179. Useful analysis of various aspects of prayer: the circumstances of prayers; the role of priests; the social position of the praying individual; the place and time of prayer; preparation, subject, posture, gestures; voice; morphology of prayers; the relation between prayer, curse, oath, supplication, and expiation. Because of the chronological limits of the study, the use of inscriptions is limited. The study is limited to the early period (8th–5th centuries BCE); consequently, it is mainly based on literary texts.
  1180. Find this resource:
  1181. Chapot, Frédéric, and Bernand Laurot. 2001. Corpus de prières grecques et romaines: Textes réunis, traduits et commentés. Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols.
  1182. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1183. A representative selection of 101 Greek and 89 Latin prayers, primarily from literary sources; useful for quick reference.
  1184. Find this resource:
  1185. Jakov, Daniel, and Emmanouel Voutiras. 2005. Gebet, Gebärden und Handlungen des Gebetes. In Thesaurus cultus et rituum antiquorum III, 104–141. Los Angeles: Getty Trust Publications.
  1186. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1187. Short, informative overview of ancient prayer with very good bibliography.
  1188. Find this resource:
  1189. Pulleyn, Simon. 1997. Prayer in Greek religion. Oxford: Clarendon.
  1190. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1191. Exhaustive study of numerous aspects of Greek prayer and the concepts associated with it (reciprocity, gratitude, praise, language, relation to sacrifice, supplication, curses, magic, the cult of the dead, language); ample use of literary sources and inscriptions and a useful appendix with prayer words. A very good introduction for students.
  1192. Find this resource:
  1193. Versnel, Hendrick S. 1981. Religious mentality in ancient prayer. In Faith, hope, and worship: Aspects of religious mentality in the ancient world. Edited by Hendrick S. Versnel, 1–64. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  1194. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1195. Innovative study of how ancient prayers reveal significant aspects of religious mentality (concepts of the divine, human expectations).
  1196. Find this resource:
  1197. Procession
  1198.  
  1199. The procession was an indispensable part of most Greek public festivals. The main features of processions are discussed by Graf 1996. Rice 1983 and Rogers 1991 treat two well-documented cases; Kavoulaki 1999 gives a good overview of processions in democratic Athens.
  1200.  
  1201. Graf, Fritz. 1996. Pompai in Greece: Some considerations about space and ritual in the Greek polis. In The role of religion in the early Greek polis. Edited by Robin Hägg, 55–65. Stockholm, Sweden: Åström.
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  1203. Graf distinguishes between two types of processions—those going toward the civic and religious centers (centripetal), and those starting from the center to reach a place in the periphery (centrifugal)—making use of iconography, literary sources, and inscriptions concerning them; a good short introduction to processions, with further bibliography.
  1204. Find this resource:
  1205. Kavoulaki, Athena. 1999. Processional performance and the democratic polis. In Performance culture and Athenian democracy. Edited by Simon Goldhill and Robin Osborne, 293–320. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1206. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1207. Good overview of the social and religious functions of processions in Classical Athens.
  1208. Find this resource:
  1209. Rice, Ellen. 1983. The grand procession of Ptolemy Philadelphus. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  1210. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1211. Detailed study of the best-known procession of the Hellenistic period, a procession in Alexandria described by Kallixeinos of Rhodes; very good introduction to the culture of spectacles in royal capitals.
  1212. Find this resource:
  1213. Rogers, G. M. 1991. The sacred identity of Ephesos: Foundation myths of a Roman city. London and New York: Routledge.
  1214. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1215. Exhaustive study of an inscription of Ephesos (I.Ephesos 27) that records the foundation of C. Vibius Salutaris (104 CE). It contains an excellent analysis of the procession of statues, whose aim was to dramatize the historical identity of Ephesos and to further the acculturation of the youth by educating them in the historical traditions of the city; this procession, connected with the imperial cult, was planned to coincide with an already existing festival of Artemis.
  1216. Find this resource:
  1217. Purification and Pollution
  1218.  
  1219. The concept of pollution, caused by death, blood, sexual intercourse, eating forbidden foods, and so on, is of great significance in Greek religion. Parker 1983 is a classic study of this subject; more insights have been provided by a new find, a regulation from Selinous edited by Jameson, et al. 1993; in addition to the first edition, one should consult more recent studies; Dimartino 2003 and Dubois 2003 are good summaries of recent research on this text, with further bibliography. An important development of the idea of purity—the concept of purity of mind—is treated by Chaniotis 1997.
  1220.  
  1221. Chaniotis, Angelos. 1997. Reinheit des Körpers—Reinheit der Seele in den griechischen Kultgesetzen. In Schuld, Gewissen und Person. Edited by Jan Assmann and Theo Sundermeier, 142–179. Gütersloh, Germany: Gütersloher Verlagshaus.
  1222. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1223. Primarily based on the information provided by cult regulations, this article suggests that the requirement of a pure mind, in addition to traditional requirements of ritual purity, was influenced by mystery cults, the notion of guilt in Greek law, and the understanding of disease as divine punishment for deeds (or even thoughts) that remained unpunished by secular law. Available online.
  1224. Find this resource:
  1225. Dimartino, Alessia. 2003. Omicidio, contaminazione, purificazione: Il ‘caso’ della lex sacra di Selinunte. Annuario della Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa 8:305–349.
  1226. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1227. A substantial contribution to the study of a cult regulation from Selinous concerning purification, which should accompany the reading of this text.
  1228. Find this resource:
  1229. Dubois, Laurent. 2003. La nouvelle loi sacrée de Sélinonte. Comptes Rendus de l’Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres 2003:105–125.
  1230. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1231. New critical edition and thorough analysis of the lex sacra of Selinous concerning the purification of those who have committed manslaughter; with French translation and useful bibliography.
  1232. Find this resource:
  1233. Jameson, Michael H., David R. Jordan, and Roy D. Kotansky. 1993. A lex sacra from Selinous. Greek, Roman and Byzantine Monographs 11. Durham, NC: Duke Univ. Press.
  1234. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1235. Edition with thorough commentary on a lead tablet from Selinous (early–mid-5th century BCE) containing a cult regulation that concerns purification rituals connected with manslaughter; this is one of the most important texts concerning Greek purification rituals, and the editors’ commentary, although somewhat technical, gives a very good overview of relevant rituals (sacrifice, banquet, libation).
  1236. Find this resource:
  1237. Moulinier, Louis. 1952. Le pur et l’impur dans la pensée des Grecs d’Homére à Aristote. Paris: Klincksieck.
  1238. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1239. A classic study of the concept of purity in Greek thought; its strength is the thorough discussion of the literary sources; it is limited to Archaic and Classical Greece and does not take into consideration important later epigraphic finds.
  1240. Find this resource:
  1241. Parker, Robert. 1983. Miasma: Pollution and purification in early Greek religion. Oxford: Clarendon.
  1242. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1243. The best study of the concept of pollution and rituals of purification in Archaic and Classical Greece; in addition to an excellent analysis of the sources, this book also takes into consideration theoretical models of social anthropology; accessible to students.
  1244. Find this resource:
  1245. Sacrifice
  1246.  
  1247. No other ritual has attracted as much attention as sacrifice, nor has any been studied from so many different approaches. This can be explained because of the association of sacrifice with violence and its complexity, but also because of its prominent role in public and private celebrations and the abundance of sources. Exactly because of the heterogeneity of approaches, the best introduction to Greek sacrifice and its problems is through collective volumes. A series of recent collections (Étienne and Le Dinahet 1991, Hägg and Alroth 2005, Rudhard and Revedrin 1981) contain representative essays. Van Straten 1995 is a masterly treatment of the images of sacrifice and at the same time a very good introduction. Burkert 1983 is a fascinating introduction to the theoretical problems connected with sacrifice and its origins. Until recently, most studies of sacrifice were dedicated to its origins and early history. In recent years, more attention has been paid to the further development of sacrifice in the Hellenistic and Imperial periods (Petropoulou 2008, Stroumsa 2009). For the practical aspects of sacrifice, see Rosivach 1994 and Banquet (with further bibliography on sacrifice). For a particular type, see Human Sacrifice.
  1248.  
  1249. Burkert, Walter. 1983. Homo necans: The anthropology of ancient Greek sacrificial ritual and myth. Translated by P. Bing. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  1250. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1251. Translation of Homo necans: Interpretationen altgriechischer Opferriten und Mythen (Berlin: de Gruyter, 1972; reprint with new preface, 1997). This is one of the most influential and fascinating studies of ancient Greek sacrifice. Drawing upon research in anthropology, behavioral studies, zoology, and sociology, the author traces myths and rituals connected with sacrifice back to the response of prehistoric hunting societies to acts of violence through ritualization. This groundbreaking study on the relations between myths and rituals, rituals and violence, and religion and society is obligatory reading for students of Greek religion, although the individual interpretations of myths and cult practices are debatable.
  1252. Find this resource:
  1253. Étienne, R., and Marie-Therese Le Dinahet, eds. 1991. L’espace sacrificiel dans les civilisations méditerranéennes de l’antiquité: Actes du colloque tenu à la Maison de l’Orient, Lyon, 4–7 Juin 1988. Paris: Diffusion de Boccard.
  1254. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1255. Essays discussing a large variety of subjects concerning animal sacrifice in the ancient Mediterranean; a strength of this collection is a focus on practical aspects of sacrifice, such as the parts of the sacrificial animal to be received by the priest, preliminary sacrifices, and expenses for sacrificial animals.
  1256. Find this resource:
  1257. Georgoudi, Stella, and Nicole Belayche, eds. 2005. La cuisine de l’autel: Les sacrifices en questions dans les sociétés de la Méditerranée ancienne. Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols.
  1258. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1259. Essays on various aspects of sacrifice in Greece and Rome; the volume reflects current methodological and theoretical approaches and is very instructive.
  1260. Find this resource:
  1261. Hägg, Robin, and Brita Alroth, eds. 2005. Greek sacrificial ritual, Olympian and chthonian: Proceedings of the Sixth International Seminar on Ancient Greek Cult, organized by the Department of Classical Archaeology and Ancient History, Göteborg University, 25–27 April 1997. Stockholm, Sweden: Aström.
  1262. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1263. Important collection of fourteen essays concerning various aspects of Greek sacrifice: the distinction between sacrifice for Olympian gods, chthonic powers, heroes and the dead; peculiar types of sacrifice (plunging animals into the sea, sacrifice of pregnant animals, pig sacrifice); the role of priests.
  1264. Find this resource:
  1265. Petropoulou, Maria-Zoe. 2008. Animal sacrifice in ancient Greek religion, Judaism, and Christianity, 100 BC–AD 200. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  1266. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1267. A refreshing new approach to sacrifice in late periods and to developments of sacrificial rituals during periods of intense interaction among the cultures and religions of the eastern Mediterranean.
  1268. Find this resource:
  1269. Rosivach, Vincent J. 1994. The system of public sacrifice in fourth-century Athens. Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press.
  1270. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1271. The author examines the economic and social aspects of public sacrifice in Athens (funding, price of animals, selection); informative for the practical aspects of sacrifice.
  1272. Find this resource:
  1273. Rudhardt, Jean, and Olivier Revedrin, eds. 1981. Le sacrifice dans l’antiquité: Huit exposés suivis de discussions. Entretiens sur l’Antiquité Classique. Vandoeuvres and Geneva, Switzerland: Fondation Hardt.
  1274. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1275. Eight essays dedicated to various aspects of sacrifice, in particular, questions of method and theoretical issues; very stimulating, but not suitable as a first introduction.
  1276. Find this resource:
  1277. Stroumsa, Guy G. 2009. The end of sacrifice: Religious transformations in Late Antiquity. Translated by Susan Emanuel. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
  1278. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1279. An innovative approach to the development, critical reception, and decline of sacrificial rituals in the later Roman Empire; an important contribution to the study of sacrifice. French original, La fin du sacrifice: Les mutations religieuses de l’Antiquité tardive (Paris: Jacob, 2005).
  1280. Find this resource:
  1281. van Straten, Folkert. 1995. Hiera kala: Images of animal sacrifice in Archaic and Classical Greece. Religions in the Graeco-Roman World 127. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  1282. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1283. This valuable book, more than just a study of the iconography of sacrifice, covers every aspect of sacrifice, from the selection and decoration of the sacrificial animal to the burning of the flesh and the feast, and from the prerogatives of priests and votive offerings to sacrifices for individual deities; indispensable for the study of sacrifice.
  1284. Find this resource:
  1285. Scapegoat Rituals
  1286.  
  1287. The Greek version of the scapegoat (pharmakos) is not well attested in the sources, but in early Greece it must have been an important protective and purificatory ritual. Bremmer 1983 is the best summary of our knowledge on this subject.
  1288.  
  1289. Bremmer, Jan N. 1983. Scapegoat rituals in ancient Greece. Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 87:299–320.
  1290. DOI: 10.2307/311262Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1291. Excellent overview of the source material concerning the ritual of the pharmakos (scapegoat) in Greek cities.
  1292. Find this resource:
  1293. Supplication
  1294.  
  1295. Supplication in Greek sanctuaries, which provided asylia, was a ritual with great social and political significance in Greece, and not only in the early period. Naiden 2006 is the best treatment of this subject; for various legal aspects and the representation of supplication in literature, see Dreher 2003. Rigsby 1996 assembles the epigraphic material for the asylia in sanctuaries.
  1296.  
  1297. Dreher, Martin, ed. 2003. Das antike Asyl: Kultische Grundlagen, rechtliche Ausgestaltung und politische Funktion. Cologne, Germany: Böhlau.
  1298. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1299. Collection of essays treating asylia and supplication from the perspective of law and religious practices; a good introduction to the problems of interpretation.
  1300. Find this resource:
  1301. Naiden, F. S. 2006. Ancient supplication. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  1302. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1303. The first systematic study of supplication in Greece, Rome, and ancient Israel, taking into consideration literary sources and inscriptions, studying developments, and approaching supplication in close connection with ancient law and legal mentality; an excellent book, an important work of reference on this subject.
  1304. Find this resource:
  1305. Rigsby, Kent J. 1996. Asylia: Territorial inviolability in the Hellenistic world. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  1306. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1307. Collection of the evidence concerning the important institution of asylia (inviolability of cities and sanctuaries); very important for the political significance of religious institutions.
  1308. Find this resource:
  1309. Transition Rituals
  1310.  
  1311. Transition rituals are social rituals with religious connections. Among them, the rites of passage of girls and young men have attracted much attention. Brelich 1969 and Jeanmaire 1939 are classic treatments of the subject, influenced by social anthropology. Waldner 2000 studies the reflection of transition rites for young men in myths. The ritual of the arkteia in Athens is the best-documented transition ritual for girls (Sourvinou-Inwood 1988, Gentili and Perusino 2002). Rites of passage are well studied in conservative regions, such as Macedonia (Hatzopoulos 1994), Sparta (Jeanmaire 1939), Crete (Leitao 1995).
  1312.  
  1313. Brelich, Angelo. 1969. Paides e parthenoi. Incunabula Greaca 36. Rome: Ateneo.
  1314. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1315. A very influential book for the study of transition rituals of young men and girls, for the concept of initiation, and for the relevant rituals and festivals; although it is not suitable as an introduction for students, it remains a thought-provoking study.
  1316. Find this resource:
  1317. Gentili, Bruno, and Franca Perusino, eds. 2002. Le orse di Brauron: Un rituale di iniziazione femminile nel santuario di Artemide. Pisa, Italy: ETS.
  1318. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1319. Essays discussing the evidence concerning the rite of passage of girls in Athens.
  1320. Find this resource:
  1321. Hatzopoulos, Miltiades B. 1994. Cultes et rites de passage en Macédoine. Athens, Greece: Kentron Hellenikes kai Romaikes Archaiotetos; Paris: Boccard.
  1322. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1323. Masterly treatment of inscriptions in Macedonia and Thessaly that attest to the existence of transition rites for young men and girls.
  1324. Find this resource:
  1325. Jeanmaire, Henri. 1939. Couroi et courètes: Essai sur l’éducation spartiate et sur les rites d’adolescence dans l’antiquité classique. Lille, France: Université de Lille.
  1326. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1327. A classic and influential work on rites of passage, applying theoretical models of social anthropology; still stimulating reading.
  1328. Find this resource:
  1329. Leitao, David D. 1995. The perils of Leukippos: Initiatory transvestism and male gender ideology in the ekdusia at Phaistos. Classical Antiquity 14:130–163.
  1330. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1331. Based on a discussion of a myth located in Crete, Leitao discusses coming-of-age rituals in Crete.
  1332. Find this resource:
  1333. Sourvinou-Inwood, Christiane. 1988. Studies in girls’ transitions: Aspects of the arkteia and age representation in Attic iconography. Athens, Greece: Kardamitsa.
  1334. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1335. Exploiting in a thorough manner images and literary sources, the author reconstructs the transition ritual in the Artemis sanctuary at Brauron near Athens; not easy reading, but an important interpretative essay.
  1336. Find this resource:
  1337. Waldner, Katharina. 2000. Geburt und Hochzeit des Kriegers: Geschlechterdifferenz und Initiation in Mythos und Ritual der griechischen Polis. Berlin and New York: de Gruyter.
  1338. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1339. Original study of myths and rituals that concern transition rites of young men.
  1340. Find this resource:
  1341. Priests and Other Religious Personnel
  1342.  
  1343. No systematic study exists for different types of religious personnel. This is in part compensated for by collective volumes (Beard and North 1990, Dignas and Trampedach 2008). Connelly 2007 gives an excellent introduction to priestesses. For an important phenomenon, the sale of priesthoods, see Wiemer 2003.
  1344.  
  1345. Beard, Mary, and John North, eds. 1990. Pagan priests: Religion and power in the ancient world. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press.
  1346. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1347. Nine essays that attempt to explore common features in priesthoods, primarily in Republican Rome and the Roman Empire, but also in the Mycenaean kingdoms (James Hooker: “Cult-personnel in the Linear B Texts from Pylos”), Athens (Robert Garland, “Priests and power in Classical Athens”), and Ptolemaic Memphis (Dorothy J. Thompson, “The high priests of Memphis under Ptolemaic rule”); stimulating and accessible to a general readership, but does not fulfill the expectations raised by the title.
  1348. Find this resource:
  1349. Connelly, Joan Breton. 2007. Portrait of a priestess: Women and ritual in ancient Greece. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press, 2007.
  1350. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1351. An excellent panorama of the active participation of women in cult, exploiting primarily the archaeological material; the most comprehensive attempt to study the subject, accessible to a general readership.
  1352. Find this resource:
  1353. Dignas, Beate, and Kai Trampedach, eds. 2008. Practitioners of the divine: Greek priests and religious officials from Homer to Heliodorus. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
  1354. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1355. Ten studies of various aspects of Greek priesthood, focusing the authority and ritual expertise of priests, the roles of priests in various cults (Artemis, Demeter, Egyptian cults), and their representation in images.
  1356. Find this resource:
  1357. Wiemer, Hans-Ulrich. 2003. Käufliche Priestertümer im hellenistischen Kos. Chiron 33:263–310.
  1358. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1359. A very good overview of the practice of selling priestly offices in Kos, but also adducing examples from Asia Minor.
  1360. Find this resource:
  1361. Sanctuaries
  1362.  
  1363. Sanctuaries have been studied primarily by archaeologists, in connection with the history of architecture and sculpture. Pedley 2005 is a useful general introduction to the organization of sanctuaries; Bergquist 1967 remains a useful study of sacred precincts. The organization of sacred space is treated by various essays in Alcock and Osborne 1994. For the sanctuaries of particular gods, see Gods. For a particular type of a sanctuary, the amphictyonic sanctuary of Delphi, see Amphictyony of Delphi. For archaeological research in important sanctuaries, see Archaeological Sources.
  1364.  
  1365. Alcock, Susan E., and Robin Osborne. 1994. Placing the gods: Sanctuaries and sacred space in ancient Greece. Oxford: Clarendon.
  1366. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1367. Eleven essays surveying various types of sanctuaries and their functions in various Greek regions (Attica, Peloponnese, Magna Grecia) and historical periods (especially in the Mycenaean, Archaic, and Classical periods); although these essays do not cover all aspects of sacred space, they are thought-provoking, especially as regards the relations of sanctuaries with collective memory and political organization.
  1368. Find this resource:
  1369. Bergquist, Birgitta. 1967. The Archaic Greek temenos: A study of structure and function. Lund, Sweden: Gleerup.
  1370. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1371. Study of sacred precincts and their cultic significance (c. 700–480 BCE) based on the archaeological material; still an important study on the basic features of sanctuaries.
  1372. Find this resource:
  1373. Pedley, John G. 2005. Sanctuaries and the sacred in the ancient Greek world. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1374. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1375. Systematic study of general features of Greek sanctuaries and their functions, with presentation of some of the most important sanctuaries (Olympia, Delphi, Heraion of Samos, Acropolis of Athens); a very good first introduction.
  1376. Find this resource:
  1377. Amphictyony of Delphi
  1378.  
  1379. The sanctuary of Apollo in Delphi is instructive because of the abundant source material concerning its history, divinatory practices (see Divination), administration, sacred land, and finances, but also because it was the center of a religious league or amphictyony. The best study of the amphictyony is Lefèvre 1998 (see also Sánchez 2001, for partly different views); the documents concerning the administration of the amphictyony have been collected by Lefèvre 2002; for the sacred land of Apollo see Rousset 2002.
  1380.  
  1381. Lefèvre, François. 1998. L’amphictionie pyléo-delphique: Histoire et institutions. Athens, Greece: École Française d’Athènes.
  1382. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1383. Detailed study of the history of the amphictyony, its origin, its institutions, its members, its financial administration, and its officials; an indispensable work of reference for the study of the sanctuary of Delphi.
  1384. Find this resource:
  1385. Lefèvre, François. 2002. Corpus des Inscriptions de Delphes. Tome IV, Documents amphictioniques avec une Note d’architecture par Didier Laroche et des notes d’onomastique par Olivier Masson. Paris: Boccard.
  1386. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1387. Critical editions of the documents of the Delphic amphictyony, with detailed commentaries.
  1388. Find this resource:
  1389. Rousset, Denis. 2002. Le territoire de Delphes et la terre d’Apollon. Paris: Boccard.
  1390. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1391. Drawing primarily upon inscriptions, Rousset discusses the notion, origins, administration, and use of the sacred land of Apollo in Delphi; a major contribution to the study of the administration and the finances of a sanctuary.
  1392. Find this resource:
  1393. Sánchez, Pierre. 2001. L’Amphictionie des Pyles et de Delphes: Recherches sur son rôle historique, des origines au IIe siècle de notre ère. Stuttgart, Germany: Steiner.
  1394. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1395. Comprehensive study of the history and organization of the Delphic amphictyony.
  1396. Find this resource:
  1397. Cult Statues
  1398.  
  1399. Cult statues played an important part in the representation of divine power. Scheer 2000 is a useful analysis of the ancient sources concerning the function of statues in cult; Damaskos 1999 gives a very good overview of the Hellenistic period.
  1400.  
  1401. Damaskos, Dimitris. 1999. Untersuchungen zu hellenistischen Kultbildern. Stuttgart, Germany: Steiner.
  1402. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1403. Important study of cult statues of gods and rulers in the Hellenistic period, based on archaeological and epigraphic sources.
  1404. Find this resource:
  1405. Scheer, Tanja S. 2000. Die Gottheit und ihr Bild: Untersuchungen zur Funktion griechischer Kultbilder in Religion und Politik. Munich: Beck.
  1406. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1407. Thorough study of the treatment of statues in religious rituals (processions, sacrifice, dedications) and of their exploitation for political purposes; a good introduction to the role of statues in cult.
  1408. Find this resource:
  1409. Dedications
  1410.  
  1411. Offerings to the gods were based on the principle of reciprocity and played an important part in communication between mortals and gods. Bartoloni, et al. 1991 is a good overview of dedicatory practices and types of dedications (see also Linders and Nordquist 1987). Although limited to the Greek colonies of Italy and Sicily, Doepner 2002 gives a representative overview of types of dedications. Schörner 2003 is a masterly treatment of dedications in the Late Hellenistic and Imperial periods. The dedications from particular sanctuaries present instructive case studies: Raubitschek 1949 is a superb study of the dedicatory inscriptions from the Acropolis; Aleshire 1989 treats the dedications from the sanctuary of Asklepios in Athens against their sociological background; an important group, family dedications, has been studied by Löhr 2000. For formulas of dedication, see Lazzarini 1976.
  1412.  
  1413. Aleshire, Sara B. 1989. The Athenian Asklepieion: The people, their dedications, and the inventories. Amsterdam: Gieben.
  1414. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1415. A model study of dedications known from inventory lists in a particular sanctuary, that of Asklepios in Athens. The author discusses the history, topography, and administration of the sanctuary, the dedications, and the sociology of the people who participated in the cult. The epigraphic part of the book (pp. 103–369) presents the nine inventories of dedications and cult objects of the Asklepieion (Greek text, translation, commentaries).
  1416. Find this resource:
  1417. Bartoloni, G., G. Colonna, and C. Grotanelli, eds. 1991. Atti del convegno internazionale “Anathema. Regime delle offerte e vita dei santuari nel mediterraneo antico”, Roma 15–18 Giugno 1989. Scienze dell’antichità, 3–4 (1989–1990). Rome: Università degli Studi di Roma La Sapienza.
  1418. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1419. Representative collection of essays concerning dedicatory practices in the ancient Mediterranean. In addition to studies discussing dedication in particular sanctuaries and specific types of dedications (e.g., boat-shaped lamps dedicated to Isis), the essays also address more general questions, such as temple treasuries, reciprocity in communication with the gods, the vocabulary used in dedications, and the melting down of damaged metal offerings.
  1420. Find this resource:
  1421. Doepner, Daphni. 2002. Steine und Pfeiler für die Götter: Weihgeschenkgattungen in westgriechischen Stadtheiligtümern. Wiesbaden, Germany: Reichert.
  1422. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1423. A useful panorama of the various types of dedications in sanctuaries in the Greek colonies of Italy and Sicily, with discussion of dedicatory rituals and the significance of dedications as a medium of religious and social communication.
  1424. Find this resource:
  1425. Lazzarini, Maria Letizia. 1976. Le formule delle dediche votive nella Grecia archaica. Memorie Lincei ser. 8, 19.2: 45–354.
  1426. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1427. The most comprehensive and systematic study of the language of dedications in Archaic Greece; very important for the religious mentality that underlies dedication to gods.
  1428. Find this resource:
  1429. Linders, Tullia, and Gullög Nordquist, eds. 1987. Gifts to the gods: Proceedings of the Uppsala Symposium 1985. Boreas 15. Uppsala, Sweden: Uppsala Universitet.
  1430. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1431. Important collection of essays covering a broad spectrum of subjects concerning dedications.
  1432. Find this resource:
  1433. Löhr, Christoph. 2000. Griechische Familienweihungen: Untersuchungen einer Repräsentationsform von ihren Anfängen bis zum Ende des 4. Jhs. v. Chr. Rahden, Germany: Leidorf.
  1434. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1435. Systematic study of dedications made by or on behalf of family members in the Archaic and Classical periods, their iconography and background; very useful for the sociological background of dedicatory practices.
  1436. Find this resource:
  1437. Raubitschek, Antony. 1949. Dedications from the Athenian Acropolis: A catalogue of the inscriptions of the sixth and fifth centuries B.C. Cambridge, MA: Archaeological Institute of America.
  1438. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1439. Influential study of dedications and dedicatory inscriptions from the Athenian Acropolis in the Late Classical and Early Archaic periods, with focus on the types of dedications and the dedicants; still an inspiring work.
  1440. Find this resource:
  1441. Schörner, Günther. 2003. Votive im römischen Griechenland. Untersuchungen zur späthellenistischen und kaiserzeitlishen Kunst- und Religionsgeschichte. Stuttgart, Germany: Steiner.
  1442. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1443. Systematic analysis of dedicatory practices in Greece under Roman rule (c. 2nd century BCE–4th century CE), based on an impressive collection of testimonia. The author discusses the dedicatory formulae; reasons for dedications; types of dedicatory objects and their iconography; the gender, occupation, status, and origin of the dedicants; the divine recipients of dedications; and the conception of man and god as revealed by the dedications; an excellent panorama.
  1444. Find this resource:
  1445. Religion and Society
  1446.  
  1447. Every aspect of Greek religion is related to social phenomena (see especially Transition Rituals). Representative studies on the social aspects of religion have been collected in the volume La cité des images (Institut d’Archéologie et d’Histoire Ancienne 1984) and by Easterling and Muir 1985. Here, we focus on three interesting phenomena: cult associations, slaves, and women.
  1448.  
  1449. Easterling, Pat E., and J. V. Muir, eds. 1985. Greek religion and society. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1450. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1451. Essays by leading scholars, covering a large variety of subject (festivals, divination, afterlife, temples, the relation of religion with poetry, philosophy, and art); although it does not comprehensively cover all aspects of Greek religion, it is a good introduction to the problems connected with this field and is accessible to undergraduate students.
  1452. Find this resource:
  1453. Institut d’Archéologie et d’Histoire Ancienne. 1984. La cité des images: Religion et société en Grèce ancienne. Lausanne and Paris: Éditions de la Tour-Nathan.
  1454. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1455. Collection of essays focusing on the contribution of images and iconography to the understanding of relations between religion and society. The main aspects discussed in the essays are war, sacrifice, hunting, sexuality, women’s life, festivals, banquets, and the cult of Dionysos; very useful for students and an excellent introduction to many aspects of Greek religion. English translation by Deborah Lyons, City of images: Iconography and society in ancient Greece (Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press, 1988).
  1456. Find this resource:
  1457. Associations
  1458.  
  1459. Private cult associations are an important expression of both religious devotion and social interaction. Good cases studies are presented for associations in Athens (Arnaoutoglou 2003), Asia Minor (Harland 2003), and Egypt (Brashear 1993). For the religious associations of worshippers of Dionysos, see Jaccottet 2003.
  1460.  
  1461. Arnaoutoglou, Ilias N. 2003. Thusias heneka kai sunousias: Private religious associations in Hellenistic Athens. Athens, Greece: Academy of Athens.
  1462. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1463. Thorough study of the social and legal aspects of cult associations in Hellenistic Athens: membership; organization; property; interaction with society; significance for foreigners living in Athens; reproduction of contemporary hierarchical structures; and social phenomena such as patronage, benefactions, and solidarity; representative of the functions of cult associations.
  1464. Find this resource:
  1465. Brashear, William M. 1993. Vereine im griechisch-römischen Ägypten. Constance, Germany: Universitäts-Verlag.
  1466. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1467. Study of the function of private associations in Ptolemaic and Roman Egypt.
  1468. Find this resource:
  1469. Harland, Philip A. 2003. Associations, synagogues, and congregations: Claiming a place in ancient Mediterranean society. Philadelphia: Fortress.
  1470. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1471. Original study of the function of private cult associations in the Roman Imperial period, especially in Asia Minor.
  1472. Find this resource:
  1473. Jaccottet, Anne-Françoise. 2003. Choisir Dionysos: Les associations dionysiaques ou la face cachée du Dionysisme. 2 vols. Zurich, Switzerland: Acanthus.
  1474. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1475. Thorough study of the organization and rituals of associations of Dionysos’ worshippers; the second volume presents a corpus of approximately two hundred relevant Greek and Latin inscriptions; an impressive collection of source material, but without a detailed discussion of developments and changes in Dionysiac worship.
  1476. Find this resource:
  1477. Slaves
  1478.  
  1479. A peripheral group in the Greek polis, slaves were often active participants in cults. Bömer 1960–1961 is a useful but not exhaustive overview. Recent studies for a particular phenomenon, sacred manumission, are Darmezin 1999 and Petsas, et al. 2000.
  1480.  
  1481. Bömer, Franz. 1960–1961. Untersuchungen über die Religion der Sklaven in Griechenland und Rom. Vol. II, Die sogenannte sakrale Freilassung in Griechenland und die (δοuλοι) hiεροί. Vol. III, Die wichtigsten Kulte der griechischen Welt. 2 vols. Wiesbaden, Germany: Steiner.
  1482. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1483. The second volume of this work presents a useful overview of “sacred manumission,” the freeing of slaves through their dedication to gods. The third volume gives an overview of the main deities worshipped by slaves. Although more source material has become available in recent decades, this remains an important work of reference for social aspects of Greek religion.
  1484. Find this resource:
  1485. Darmezin, Laurence. 1999. Les affranchissements par consécration en Béotie et dans le monde grec hellénistique. Nancy, France: A.D.R.A.
  1486. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1487. Study of manumission practices based on manumission records preserved in inscriptions.
  1488. Find this resource:
  1489. Petsas, Photios, Miltiades B. Hatzopoulos, Loukia Gounaropoulou, and Paschalis Paschidis. 2000. Inscriptions du sanctuaire de la Mère des Dieux autochtone de Leukopétra (Macédoine). Athens, Greece: Kentron Hellenikes kai Romaikes Archaiotetos.
  1490. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1491. Important corpus of 194 manumission records found in the sanctuary of Meter Theon Autochthon in Leuopetra (Macedonia, Imperial period). The thorough commentary covers the sociological, religious, economic, and legal aspects of sacred manumissions.
  1492. Find this resource:
  1493. Women
  1494.  
  1495. The influence of gender studies and feminist theory in classical studies is reflected in an increased interest in relevant aspects of Greek religion. Blundell 1998 assembles interesting essays reflecting this development. For goddesses, see Gods; for heroines, see Heroes. Kraemer 1988 is a useful, but not comprehensive, collection of sources. Connelly 2007 is a very good overview, extending beyond the topic of priestesses.
  1496.  
  1497. Blundell, Sue. 1998. The sacred and the feminine in ancient Greece. London: Routledge.
  1498. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1499. Collection of stimulating essays that cover a variety of subjects connected with the role of women in religion, the perception of the power of goddesses, and rituals of women.
  1500. Find this resource:
  1501. Connelly, Joan Breton. 2007. Portrait of a priestess: Women and ritual in ancient Greece. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
  1502. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1503. An excellent panorama of the active participation of women in cult, exploiting primarily the archaeological material; the most comprehensive attempt to study the subject, accessible to a general readership.
  1504. Find this resource:
  1505. Kraemer, Ross S. 1988. Maenads, martyrs, matrons, monastics: A sourcebook on women’s religion in the Greco-Roman world. Philadelphia: Fortress.
  1506. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1507. Collection of sources (translations, no commentaries), that illustrates various aspects of women’s religious life (rituals, observances, festivals, offices, conversion, religious ideas, goddesses); not very representative, but still useful.
  1508. Find this resource:
  1509. Afterlife
  1510.  
  1511. The Greek concepts of the afterlife were diverse; they depended on initiation in mystery cults (see Dionysiac or Orphic Initiation), and they changed over the course of centuries. Rhode 1907 was a groundbreaking study at its time and is still inspiring; Sourvinou-Inwood 1995 is the best introduction to Greek ideas of afterlife, but only until the 4th century BCE. For the later periods, the valuable information provided by grave inscriptions and epigrams is exploited by Le Bris 2001 and Peres 2003.
  1512.  
  1513. Le Bris, Anne. 2001. La mort et les conceptions de l’au-delà en Grèce ancienne à travers les épigrammes funéraires: Étude d’épigrammes d’Asie mineure de l’époque hellénistique et romaine. Paris: L’Harmattan.
  1514. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1515. Useful survey of the information provided by grave epigrams from Asia Minor in the Hellenistic and Imperial periods concerning the concepts of afterlife; this material shows both the diversity of concepts of death and afterlife and the development of the relevant ideas under the influence of theological concepts and mystery cults.
  1516. Find this resource:
  1517. Peres, Imre. 2003. Griechische Grabinschriften und neutestamentliche Eschatologie. Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck.
  1518. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1519. Analysis of the evidence provided by funerary epigrams for ideas of afterlife, and comparison with passages from the New Testament; an important contribution to the study of both convergence and differences in eschatological ideas between pagans and Christians.
  1520. Find this resource:
  1521. Rohde, Erwin. 1907. Psyche: Seelencult und Unsterblichkeitsglaube der Griechen. 4th ed. Tübingen, Germany: Mohr.
  1522. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1523. Groundbreaking and influential study of Greek ideas concerning the immortality of the soul; although dated, still thought-provoking.
  1524. Find this resource:
  1525. Sourvinou-Inwood, Christiane. 1995. “Reading” Greek death to the end of the Classical period. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  1526. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1527. The best introduction to Greek ideas of afterlife, the soul, the journey to Hades, and burial customs.
  1528. Find this resource:
  1529. Vermeule, Emily. 1979. Aspects of death in early Greek art and poetry. Berkeley and Los Angeles: California Univ. Press.
  1530. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1531. Original, stimulating, and thorough analysis of early Greek art and poetry (especially Homer) in connection with concepts of death and afterlife; very influential, well-documented, and accessible to a general audience.
  1532. Find this resource:
  1533. Religious Innovation and Change
  1534.  
  1535. Greek religion experienced substantial changes from the time of the Linear B texts (c. 1300 BCE) to the final victory of Christianity (early 6th century CE). Important innovations came with the Hellenistic period (Hellenistic Trends), then in the Roman Imperial period (Religion in the Roman East), and then in Late Antiquity. The general introductions (Introductions to Greek Religion) consider these changes.
  1536.  
  1537. Hellenistic Trends
  1538.  
  1539. A thorough history of Hellenistic religion remains to be written. Chaniotis 2007, Potter 2003, and Shipley 2000 are short general overviews. Mikalson 1998 is suitable for students, but only concerns Athens. Another good case study is that of Delos (Bruneau 1970). See also Hellenistic Ruler Cult.
  1540.  
  1541. Bruneau, Philippe. 1970. Recherches sur les cultes de Délos à l’époque hellénistique et romaine. Paris: Boccard.
  1542. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1543. Thanks to the abundant source material from Delos, this book gives an excellent picture of the complex nature of Hellenistic religious activities (public and private cults, administration of sanctuaries, cult associations, foundations, cults of immigrants, festivals, magic).
  1544. Find this resource:
  1545. Chaniotis, Angelos. 2007. Religion und Mythos in der hellenistischen Welt. In Kulturgeschichte des Hellenismus. Edited by Gregor Weber, 139–157. Stuttgart, Germany: Klett-Cotta.
  1546. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1547. Main trends of the period are sketched through the study of a small selection of contemporary texts (religion as personal experience, abstract ideas, emotionality, competition among cult places) and placed in the social context of the Hellenistic period.
  1548. Find this resource:
  1549. Mikalson, Jon D. 1998. Religion in Hellenistic Athens. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  1550. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1551. Excellent overview of all aspects of religion in Hellenistic Athens; suitable for students.
  1552. Find this resource:
  1553. Potter, David. 2003. Hellenistic religion. In A companion to the Hellenistic world. Edited by Andew Erskine, 407–430. Malden, MA, and Oxford: Blackwell.
  1554. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1555. Short, readable survey of Hellenistic religion; suitable as a first introduction.
  1556. Find this resource:
  1557. Shipley, Graham. 2000. The Greek world after Alexander 323–30 BC. London: Routledge.
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  1559. An excellent introduction to the Hellenistic world; chapter 5 (“Religion and philosophy,” pp. 153–191) is a very good general overview.
  1560. Find this resource:
  1561. Religion in the Roman East
  1562.  
  1563. The impact of the Roman Empire on religious practices has attracted much attention in recent years. MacMullen 1981 is a good, readable introduction for the whole period. Three collective volumes (De Blois, et al. 2006; Haase 1987–1990; Hekster, et al. 2009) represent the interests of recent research and treat a large variety of subjects. See also Imperial Cult.
  1564.  
  1565. De Blois, Lukas, Peter Funke, and Johannes Hahn, eds. 2006. The impact of Imperial Rome on religions, ritual, and religious life in the Roman Empire. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
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  1567. Collection of essays covering a broad range of subjects related to the impact of the Roman expansion on the religious life of the provinces.
  1568. Find this resource:
  1569. Haase, Wolfgang, ed. 1987–1990. Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt, II. Prinzipat, Band 18,1–4. Religion (Heidentum: Die religiösen Verhältnisse in den Provinzen). 4 vols. Berlin and New York: de Gruyter.
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  1571. Survey of religious life and cults in the Roman Empire under the Principate. The Greek world is covered in Vols. 2 (Thrace, Attica, Samothrace, Corinth), 3 (Asia Minor, Cyprus, the Near East) and 4 (Egypt, Cyrenaika, Sicily, Italy); a useful work of reference for the position of Greek religion in the context of the Roman Empire.
  1572. Find this resource:
  1573. Hekster, Olivier, Sebastian Schmidt-Hofner, and Christian Witschel, eds. 2009. Ritual dynamics and religious change in the Roman Empire: Proceedings of the Eighth Workshop of the International Network Impact of Empire (Heidelberg, July 5–7, 2007). Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  1574. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1575. Important collection of essays studying the impact of the Roman Empire on rituals and religious practices, both in the Roman East and in the western parts of the empire; a representative sample of current research trends.
  1576. Find this resource:
  1577. MacMullen, Ramsay. 1981. Paganism in the Roman Empire. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press.
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  1579. Masterly survey of the major trends of religion in the Imperial period.
  1580. Find this resource:
  1581. Late Antiquity
  1582.  
  1583. Late Antiquity was a period of intensive interaction among religious groups, and this affected the last representatives of Greek religion. Brown 1978 is a very good introduction to the religious trends of this period. The vitality of late paganism is discussed by Bowersock 1990 and Trombley 1993–1994. Religious changes are the subject of Athanassiadi and Frede 1999 (monotheistic trends), Bradbury 1995, Stroumsa 2009 (sacrifice), and Busine 2005 (oracles).
  1584.  
  1585. Athanassiadi, Polymnia, and Michael Frede, eds. 1999. Pagan monotheism in Late Antiquity. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
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  1587. Six essays dedicated to the development of “monotheistic” ideas in Late Antiquity, especially under the influence of philosophy and Judaism; although the existence of genuine monotheistic ideas is debatable and the term “monotheistic” is problematic (cf. the terms “soft monotheism” and “henotheism”), the essays in this volume are innovative and thought-provoking.
  1588. Find this resource:
  1589. Bowersock, Glen W. 1990. Hellenism in Late Antiquity. Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press.
  1590. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1591. Excellent analysis of Late Antique sources that document the continuation of Greek religious practices after the establishment of Christianity as the only official religion.
  1592. Find this resource:
  1593. Bradbury, Scott. 1995. Julian’s pagan revival and the decline of blood sacrifice. Phoenix 49:331–356.
  1594. DOI: 10.2307/1088885Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1595. Bradbury shows that the failure of Julian to revive blood sacrifice is connected with the decline of this ritual in the Imperial period; pagan groups pursuing a higher spirituality avoided blood cult, with hymnody serving as a spiritual sacrifice; a stimulating study of religious change.
  1596. Find this resource:
  1597. Brown, Peter. 1978. The making of Late Antiquity. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
  1598. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1599. Short, readable and thought-provoking introduction to religious mentality in Late Antiquity; very useful for students.
  1600. Find this resource:
  1601. Busine, Aude. 2005. Paroles d’Apollon: Pratiques et traditions oraculaires dans l’Antiquité tardive (IIe–VIe siècles). Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
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  1603. In-depth study of the literary and epigraphic evidence for oracles in Late Antiquity, and in particular of their significance for religious mentality and theological beliefs.
  1604. Find this resource:
  1605. Stroumsa, Guy G. 2009. The end of sacrifice: Religious transformations in Late Antiquity. Translated by Susan Emanuel. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
  1606. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1607. An innovative approach to the development, critical reception, and decline of sacrificial rituals in the later Roman Empire. French original, La fin du sacrifice: Les mutations religieuses de l’Antiquité tardive (Paris: Jacob, 2005).
  1608. Find this resource:
  1609. Trombley, Frank R. 1993–1994. Hellenic religion and Christianization, c. 370–529. 2 vols. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  1610. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1611. Based on an impressive collection of sources, the author offers an excellent panorama of the continuation of Greek religion after the establishment of Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire and the transformation of Hellenic religion under the influence of philosophy.
  1612. Find this resource:
  1613. Regional Studies (A Selection)
  1614.  
  1615. Because of regional differences of cults and rituals, but also because of the importance of religion for political life, polis and regional identities, and society, Greek religion is often and fruitfully studied in the local contexts of cities and regions. The following examples have been selected on the basis of their representative and diverse character, but also for the availability of source material. These regional studies are arranged in the geographical sequence usually followed in classical studies, starting from Athens, moving from the Peloponnese to northern Greece, then to the Aegean, the western colonies, Asia Minor, the Orient, Egypt, and North Africa.
  1616.  
  1617. Arcadia
  1618.  
  1619. Because of the abundance of sources and the local peculiarities, Arcadia is an interesting case study of religious practices. Jost 1985 is a thorough study of the source material.
  1620.  
  1621. Jost, Madeleine. 1985. Sanctuaires et cultes d’Arcadie. Paris: Librairie Philosophique J. Vrin.
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  1623. A monumental study of the source material concerning sanctuaries, rituals, festivals, and deities in Arcadia; an important contribution to Greek religion.
  1624. Find this resource:
  1625. Athens
  1626.  
  1627. More source material survives from Athens than from any other Greek polis. Parker 1996 and 2005 offer the best introductions to Athenian religion. Mikalson 1998 treats the Hellenistic period, which is not included in Parker 1996. For the Athenian festivals, see Deubner 1966, Parke 1977, and Simon 1983. The sociological aspects of Athenian religion are treated in a stimulating study, Humphreys 2004.
  1628.  
  1629. Deubner, Ludwig. 1966. Attische Feste. 2d ed. Berlin: Akademie Verlag.
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  1631. Detailed study of the Athenian festivals; the interpretations are debatable, but the collection of the relevant sources extremely useful.
  1632. Find this resource:
  1633. Humphreys, Sally C. 2004. The strangeness of gods: Historical perspectives on the interpretation of Athenian religion. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  1634. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1635. Six essays primarily dedicated to sociological aspects of Athenian religion, especially to the religious activities of the demes of Attica (cults and festivals, rituals, administration, finances, and topography of sanctuaries, funding of cults, relations between the polis of Athens and the demes, sacred personnel of the deme cults, the participation of ephebes in religious ceremonies) and to religious change (Anthesteria, concepts of fertility); a stimulating analysis of epigraphic and literary sources.
  1636. Find this resource:
  1637. Mikalson, Jon D. 1998. Religion in Hellenistic Athens. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  1638. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1639. Excellent overview of all aspects of religion in Hellenistic Athens; suitable for students.
  1640. Find this resource:
  1641. Parke, Herbert W. 1977. Festivals of the Athenians. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press.
  1642. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1643. Short, reliable survey of the Athenian festivals; a very good introduction for students and a general audience.
  1644. Find this resource:
  1645. Parker, Robert. 1996. Athenian religion: A history. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
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  1647. Superb treatment of the development of religious practices in Athens until the end of the Classical period; obligatory reading for students of Greek religion.
  1648. Find this resource:
  1649. Parker, Robert. 2005. Polytheism and society at Athens. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 2005.
  1650. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1651. This book gives an excellent, comprehensive panorama of the position of religion in a Greek polis. The subjects discussed by Parker include sanctuaries and festivals, mystery cults, religious activities of the family, civic subdivisions, the polis, ritual specialists (priests, diviners, magicians), aspects of gender and age (girls, women), the authority of priests, and the relation between religion and theater. The book focuses on only one city, but the fact that the source material from Athens is more abundant than in other areas makes this book a very good general introduction to Greek religion; accessible to students and a general audience.
  1652. Find this resource:
  1653. Simon, Erika. 1983. Festivals of Attica: An archaeological commentary. Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Press.
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  1655. Very good treatment of the archaeological and iconographic material for Athenian festivals; a good supplement to Deubner 1966 and Parke 1977.
  1656. Find this resource:
  1657. Boiotia
  1658.  
  1659. Boiotia is a region in which the cults of various poleis can be studied over long periods. Schachter 1981–1994 is an encyclopedia of Boiotian cults.
  1660.  
  1661. Schachter, Albert. 1981–1994. Cults of Boiotia. 4 vols. London: Institute of Classical Studies.
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  1663. Meticulous collection and analysis of the source material; every god and cult is discussed in detail (in an alphabetical arrangement); an important work of reference.
  1664. Find this resource:
  1665. Delos
  1666.  
  1667. Hellenistic and Roman Delos presents an interesting case study for religion in a small community with strong international connections. Bruneau 1970 is an excellent overview.
  1668.  
  1669. Bruneau, Philippe. 1970. Recherches sur les cultes de Délos à l’époque hellénistique et à l’époque impériale. Paris: Boccard.
  1670. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1671. A monumental panorama of cults and their organization in Delos, based primarily on inscriptions and archaeological material; important not only for Delos but, more generally, for religion, cult associations, festivals, cult personnel, and the organization of cult in the Hellenistic and Imperial periods.
  1672. Find this resource:
  1673. Crete
  1674.  
  1675. Crete provides written sources for religion from the Mycenaean Linear B documents onward (Gérard-Rousseau 1968). Prent 2005 and Sporn 2002 present excellent overviews of religion in the historical periods.
  1676.  
  1677. Gérard-Rousseau, Monique. 1968. Les mentions religieuses dans les tablettes mycéniennes. Incunabula Graeca 29. Rome: Ateneo.
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  1679. Collection of references to divinities in the Linear B texts (including those of Knossos); an indispensable work of reference for Mycenaean religion, though new material has come to light in the past forty years.
  1680. Find this resource:
  1681. Prent, Mieke. 2005. Cretan sanctuaries and cults: Continuity and change from Late Minoan III C to the Archaic period. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  1682. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1683. Thorough study of the archaeological evidence concerning Cretan sanctuaries, their function, changes in cult practices, and survivals from the destruction of the palaces to the 6th century BCE; an important work of reference for Cretan religion.
  1684. Find this resource:
  1685. Sporn, Katja. 2002. Heiligtümer und Kulte Kretas in klassischer und hellenistischer Zeit. Studien zu antiken Heiligtümern 3. Heidelberg, Germany: Verlag Archäologie und Geschichte.
  1686. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1687. Collection and systematic study of sanctuaries and cults in Classical and Hellenistic Crete; indispensable for the study of religion in Crete.
  1688. Find this resource:
  1689. Magna Grecia
  1690.  
  1691. The cults of the Greek colonists in Sicily and Italy are well documented archaeologically and of great importance both for the continuation of practices of the mother cities and for local influences. The series Recherches sur les cultes grecs et l’Occident (Brea 1979–1986) has collected much of this material.
  1692.  
  1693. Brea, Luigi Bernabò, ed. 1979–1986. Recherches sur les cultes grecs et l’Occident. 3 vols. Naples, Italy: Centre Jean Bérard.
  1694. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1695. Volumes dedicated to sanctuaries and cults in the Greek colonies of Sicily and South Italy.
  1696. Find this resource:
  1697. Ionia
  1698.  
  1699. Ionia was an important area of colonization, preservation of old traditions, and contacts with Anatolian populations. Although limited to four cities, Graf 1985 is a very important study of cults in Greek poleis, a model of methodological approach.
  1700.  
  1701. Graf, Fritz. 1985. Nordionische Kulte: Religionsgeschichtliche und epigraphische Untersuchungen zu den Kulten von Chios, Erythrai, Klazomenai und Phokaia. Rome: Schweizerisches Institut in Rom.
  1702. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1703. A monumental survey of the source material concerning the cults of the island of Chios and the cities of Erythrai, Klazomenai, and Phokaia in Asia Minor; the detailed analysis of the sources and the comparison with other Greek areas make this study important, generally, for Greek religion, festivals, and rituals.
  1704. Find this resource:
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