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Cultural Production and Circulation (Sociology)

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. The production perspective in the sociology of culture emerged in the 1970s as an alternative to “reflection” theories that assumed a strict homology between culture and social structure. Scholars of cultural production shifted attention from macro-level determinants to meso-level influences on symbolic goods, including the legal, technological, occupational, organizational, industrial, and market environments in which they are created and circulated, much like any other commercial product. Scholars in this tradition focus more on how culture is made than on meaning-making and share a general assumption that products of the creative or cultural industries can be studied in much the same way as products in other industries. Resultantly, there are strong theoretical and methodological compatibilities between work in the production of culture and that in organizational and economic sociology.
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  5. General Overviews
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  7. By the time Peterson and Anand 2004 provided an overview of the production of culture perspective in the Annual Review of Sociology, several textbooks and anthologies had already appeared with “the production of culture” in their titles (e.g., Crane 1992; Ryan and Wentworth 1998; du Gay 1997; Power and Scott 2004). Additional evidence of the broad influence and consecration of this perspective is found in a special issue assessing the scholarly contributions of Richard A. Peterson that highlighted application of the production perspective to science, theory, art and literature, organizations, and consumption (Ryan and Hughes 2000). A review essay in Poetics (Janssen and Peterson 2005) and a review issue on production perspectives solely within music sociology (Dowd 2004) also provide useful summaries.
  8.  
  9. Crane, Diana. 1992. The production of culture: Media and the urban arts. London: SAGE.
  10. DOI: 10.4135/9781483325699Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  11. Accessible overview of production of culture research with particular focus on organizations that create and circulate cultural goods. Considers both fine arts and popular culture as well as issues of stratification and inequality. The size of the audience and industry structure are linked to variations in production of culture.
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  13.  
  14. Dowd, Timothy J., ed. 2004. Music in society: The sociological agenda. Poetics 32:235–246.
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  16. Introduction focuses on production perspective in studies of music. Issue features contributions from top music sociologists, including programmatic statements and empirical studies. The latter include diverse examples such as jazz, rap, and sacred harp music.
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  18.  
  19. du Gay, Paul. 1997. Production of culture: Cultures of production. London: SAGE.
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  21. Closely tied to cultural studies tradition. Takes a global focus on culture industries and how cultural products are produced, marketed, and sold. Considers organizational strategies as well as the importance of corporate culture in culture-producing organizations. Shows how economic processes impinge on the production, circulation, and exchange of culture.
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  23.  
  24. Janssen, Susanne, and Richard A. Peterson, eds. 2005. Comparative research on cultural production and consumption. Poetics 33.5–6: 253–416.
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  26. Janssen and Peterson call for more comparative work on cultural production in their introduction. Special issue features articles that include cross-national or cohort comparisons. Substantively, studies include cultural consumption, book reading, literary writers, musicians, actors, dancers, and cultural education.
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  28.  
  29. Peterson, Richard A., and N. Anand. 2004. The production of culture perspective. Annual Review of Sociology 30:311–334.
  30. DOI: 10.1146/annurev.soc.30.012703.110557Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  31. Useful introduction to production of culture. Outlines six “constraints” or facets associated with the production of culture perspective: law, technology, organizational structure, occupation, industry structure, markets. Reviews studies that address each facet. Discusses criticisms of production of culture research and offers directions for future research.
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  33.  
  34. Power, Dominic, and Allen J. Scott, eds. 2004. Cultural industries and the production of culture. New York: Routledge.
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  36. Features interdisciplinary and international contributions. Examples span cultural production in the core and periphery of global culture industries. Addresses links between cultural economy and urban spaces.
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  38.  
  39. Ryan, John, and Michael Hughes, eds. 2000. Special issue: The production and consumption of culture: Essays on Richard A. Peterson’s contributions to cultural sociology. Poetics 28.2–3: 91–233.
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  41. Special issue devoted to work and influence of Peterson. Provides overview of Peterson’s scholarship and the production of culture perspective. Addresses relevance of production of culture to understanding scientific change, organizational theory, cultural theory, and more. Examples span domains of art, literature, music.
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  43.  
  44. Ryan, John, and William M. Wentworth. 1998. Media and society: The production of culture in the mass media. New York: Prentice-Hall.
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  46. Interdisciplinary focus on the role of mass media in social life in post-industrial society. Second half of the book takes production of culture approach to explore how technology, law, industry structure, and occupational careers shape the production of mass media.
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  48.  
  49. Classic Works
  50.  
  51. White and White 1965, a study of the emergence of 19th-century French impressionism, contained all the germinal elements of research in what would later be called the production perspective. Rejecting prevailing theories of revolutionary social change and genius artists, the Whites demonstrated that impressionism was a complex social invention. The model of cultural industry systems put forward by Hirsch 1972 advanced the production perspective by foregrounding the many individual and organizational actors—interposed between artists and audiences—that shape the creation and circulation of cultural products. A special issue of American Behavioral Scientist, edited by Richard Peterson (Peterson 1976), tied together the common threads of the production perspective and called for a sociology of culture that focused on the ways art, science, religion, and other cultural objects are deliberately produced. Van Rees 1983 later highlighted, in a special issue of Poetics that featured a seminal essay by Pierre Bourdieu (Bourdieu 1983), the commonalities between the production perspective and advances occurring in the empirical study of arts and literature in Europe, which were united by an “institutional” approach to cultural production. Griswold 1981, an analysis of American and British novels, demonstrated how changes in copyright law, along with features of genres and markets, better explained thematic content in the two countries than existing accounts that tended to emphasize fundamental differences in national character. Howard Becker’s well-read Art Worlds (Becker 1982) provided readers with rich descriptions of how artists can be seen as members of a cooperative network of producers. In explaining the emergence and ascendance of rock music in 1955, Peterson 1990 provided the rare analysis that shows the relevance of all six facets or “constraints”—law, technology, organizational structure, occupation, industry structure, markets—that have become associated with the production of culture perspective.
  52.  
  53. Becker, Howard. 1982. Art worlds. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
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  55. Arguably the most read work in the production of culture paradigm, although the book does not adopt that terminology. Examines the division of labor among artists and staff workers, the reliance on “conventions” to expedite cooperation among them. No discussion of contemporary, digital, online culture.
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  57.  
  58. Bourdieu, Pierre. 1983. The field of cultural production, or: The economic world reversed. Poetics 12:311–356.
  59. DOI: 10.1016/0304-422X(83)90012-8Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  60. Classic analysis of literary field in late-19th-century France. Literary production and status shaped by positions in the field and their homologies with social class. Logic of literary production reverses the logic of economic production by seeking symbolic capital rather than economic capital.
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  62.  
  63. Griswold, Wendy. 1981. American character and the American novel: An expansion of reflection theory in the sociology of literature. American Journal of Sociology 86:740–765.
  64. DOI: 10.1086/227315Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  65. Systematic analysis of American and British novels shows copyright law shapes literary production. After International Copyright Law of 1891, differences in content between two countries disappear because American publishers must pay foreign authors, so American writers no longer need to distinguish themselves with unique literary themes.
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  67.  
  68. Hirsch, Paul. 1972. Processing fads and fashions: An organization-set analysis of cultural industry systems. American Journal of Sociology 77:639–659.
  69. DOI: 10.1086/225192Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  70. A classic, possibly outdated, study of how music, film, and book producers preview products to “gatekeepers” or critics and use that feedback to determine what will be produced on a large scale. Useful descriptions of strategies producers use to influence gatekeepers, but nothing on digital production.
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  72.  
  73. Peterson, Richard A., ed. 1976. The production of culture. American Behavioral Scientist 19.6: 669–804.
  74. DOI: 10.1177/000276427601900601Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  75. Peterson’s prolegomenon lays out the agenda for studying how culture is deliberately produced. Issue contains foundational statements that span art, science, and religion. Organizations, government patronage, networks, and rewards systems are key themes of nascent production perspective.
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  77.  
  78. Peterson, Richard A. 1990. Why 1955? Explaining the advent of rock music. Popular Music 9.1: 97–116.
  79. DOI: 10.1017/S0261143000003767Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  80. Peterson leverages six aspects of production to explain rock music’s explosive rise: law and regulation, technology, industrial structure, organizational structure, occupational careers, and the consumer market. Excellent primer for undergraduates on the approach, and the musical style.
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  82.  
  83. van Rees, Kees J., ed. 1983. Advances in the empirical sociology of the arts and literature: The institutional approach. Poetics 12.4–5: 285–310.
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  85. Introduction highlights commonalities between sociology of arts in Europe and the production of culture perspective. Outlines an institutional approach that emphasizes contextual factors in the production, distribution, and acquisition of culture.
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  87.  
  88. White, Harrison C., and Cynthia A. White. 1965. Canvases and careers. New York: Wiley.
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  90. Historical description of the emergence of French impressionist painting. Analysis of how changes in artistic style, technology and training, critical discourse, ideology, and organizational form and function augured the decline of the Academy and initiated a new system of organizations and institutions.
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  92.  
  93. Establishing Fields
  94.  
  95. Production of culture scholars, largely in reference to work by Pierre Bourdieu (Bourdieu 1993), have adopted the concept of a “field” to describe the broad social context in which cultural production (and consumption) takes place. Most studies of this kind explore the emergence and reproduction of cultural fields, notably including DiMaggio 1982 on the emergence of the field of “high culture” in the United States; Ferguson 2004, an exploration of gastronomy in France; Baumann 2007 on American film; Fine 2004 on self-taught art; Lopes 2002 on jazz; and Griswold 2000 on literature in Nigeria. Across contexts, field studies explore how sets of conventions around activity, thought, and behavior cohere into institutions anchored in organizational contexts, peopled by professionals or specialists. There is both a need for more work on the decline of fields, and for comparative work across fields of production.
  96.  
  97. Baumann, Shyon. 2007. Hollywood highbrow: From entertainment to art. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
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  99. Careful, empirical study of how American film transitions from entertainment to art form. War and technological change produce an opportunity space, festivals and film studies departments provide contexts for enjoyment, and film reviews guide readers toward emerging canonical interpretations.
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  101.  
  102. Bourdieu, Pierre. 1993. The field of cultural production: Essays on art and literature. New York: Columbia Univ. Press.
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  104. Dense masterwork proposing both a theory and method for the study of cultural fields.
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  106.  
  107. DiMaggio, Paul. 1982. Cultural entrepreneurship in nineteenth-century Boston: The creation of an organizational base for high culture in America. Media, Culture and Society 4:33–50.
  108. DOI: 10.1177/016344378200400104Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  109. “High culture,” a strongly classified, consensually defined body of art distinct from “popular” fare, emerges between 1850 and 1900 in Boston as elites engage in classification, entrepreneurship, and framing. Essential reading on both the history of this distinction in the United States, and for meso-level analysis of cultural change.
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  111.  
  112. Ferguson, Priscilla. 2004. Accounting for taste: The triumph of French cuisine. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
  113. DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226243276.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  114. Study of the emergence of gastronomy in France from the elite, court-focused culinary practices into 19th-century public activity. Emphasizes the importance of new producers (a cadre of chefs), places (restaurants), supply links (to communication and foodstuffs), and institutions (most importantly, new writing about food).
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  116.  
  117. Fine, Gary A. 2004. Everyday genius: Self-taught art and the culture of authenticity. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
  118. DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226249605.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  119. Fine documents the process by which a cohort of untrained creators were adopted as naive, genius artists by art world insiders in the 1980s and 1990s. Class, race, and cultural tensions animate the dynamics between elite art dealers and collectors and the largely southern, poor, illiterate, sometimes mentally ill, creators.
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  121.  
  122. Griswold, Wendy. 2000. Bearing witness: Readers, writers, and the novel in Nigeria. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
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  124. Detailed study of the Nigerian literary complex. Shows how Nigerian fiction is shaped by interactions between individuals (e.g., readers, writers), organizations (e.g., publishers, booksellers), national context (e.g., military regime’s attitude toward writers), cross-national influences, and exogenous global factors (e.g., fluctuating oil prices).
  125. Find this resource:
  126.  
  127. Lopes, Paul. 2002. The rise of a jazz art world. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  128. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511489495Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  129. Jazz is depicted as a community struggling against both high and popular culture in its quest for legitimacy. The analysis of jazz literature figures heavily in the analysis, including journalism, trade texts, and educational/scholarly works.
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  131.  
  132. Industry and Organization
  133.  
  134. Production of culture scholars have amassed considerable evidence with regard to the role of industry and organizational structure in the creation of cultural goods. A longstanding concern, for example, is how industry concentration (i.e., the degree to which cultural production is controlled by a small number of firms) affects the originality and diversity of creative output. In the music industry, Peterson and Berger 1975 showed that high market concentration was associated with less diverse and innovative music. Lopes 1992 extended this work and argued that the negative impact of market concentration depends on the system of production used by recording firms as well as on their conceptions of the market. Building on these somewhat divergent accounts, Dowd 2004 provided compelling evidence that a shift to decentralized production among recording firms mitigated the negative impact of market concentration on musical diversity, while Lena 2006 shows that artists’ perceptions of market conditions impacts their songwriting, at least in rap music. More recently, de Laat 2014 revisited the question of innovation and diversity amid changes in the music industry. A variety of organizational dynamics and theories figure prominently in production of culture scholarship. For example, DiMaggio 1991 shows how the organizational form and mission widely adopted by American art museums in the early 20th century rapidly altered the content of their collections. In the case of television and film, Bielby and Bielby 1999 focuses on the role of organizations (i.e., talent agencies) in mediating the work of screenwriters. Others have considered the role of social movements in spurring the proliferation of new types of culture-producing organizations (e.g., Greve, et al. 2006). Espeland and Sauder 2016 (see Evaluation) show how legal education changed in response to measures of quality that were incorporated into the institutional environment by media organizations.
  135.  
  136. Bielby, William T., and Denise D. Bielby. 1999. Organizational mediation of project-based labor markets: Talent agencies and the careers of screenwriters. American Sociological Review 64.1: 64–85.
  137. DOI: 10.2307/2657278Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  138. Based on employment and earnings trajectories of 8,819 screenwriters from 1982 to 1992. Organizations (talent agencies) affect careers of screenwriters; core agencies enhance reputations and careers of their writers. Core agencies exert influence on TV/film production through packaging, whereby they provide a team of workers for a project.
  139. Find this resource:
  140.  
  141. DiMaggio, Paul J. 1991. Constructing an organizational field as a professional project: US art museums, 1920–1940. In The new institutionalism in organizational analysis. Edited by Walter W. Powell and Paul J. DiMaggio, 267–292. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
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  143. Emergence of organizational field of art museums in United States linked to professional mission of museum staff. Field-wide structures at the national level drove the diffusion of museums as museum workers sought to enhance their professional status and authority. Competing logics clashed at the field level rather than within organizations.
  144. Find this resource:
  145.  
  146. Dowd, Timothy J. 2004. Concentration and diversity revisited: Production logics and the U.S. mainstream recording market, 1940–1990. Social Forces 82.4: 1411–1455.
  147. DOI: 10.1353/sof.2004.0067Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  148. Studies market concentration and diversity in the wake of the record industry’s reorganization in the 1970s. Finds the new “open system” decentralizes production, so big firms can produce music as diverse as the independents.
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  150.  
  151. de Laat, Kim. 2014. Innovation and diversity redux: Analyzing musical form and content in the American recording industry, 1990–2009. Sociological Forum 29.3: 673–697.
  152. DOI: 10.1111/socf.12109Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  153. Examines top twenty songs on Billboard from 1990 to 2009. New artists drive musical innovation (new subgenres) while artists that combine songwriting and producer roles create more musical diversity (in lyrics, chords, melody). Roles rather than industry concentration are more influential amid ongoing decentralization of musical production.
  154. Find this resource:
  155.  
  156. Lena, Jennifer C. 2006. Social contexts and musical content of rap music, 1979–1995. Social Forces 85.1: 479–496.
  157. DOI: 10.1353/sof.2006.0131Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  158. Examines market structure and diversity for one musical style, utilizing musicological measures of diversity. Discovers rap artists respond to market conditions, making them active participants in market-level outcomes.
  159. Find this resource:
  160.  
  161. Greve, Henrich R., Jo-Ellen Pozner, and Hayagreeva Rao. 2006. Vox populi: Resource partitioning, organizational proliferation, and the cultural impact of the insurgent microradio movement. American Journal of Sociology 112.3: 802–837.
  162. DOI: 10.1086/507853Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  163. Analysis of 2,796 applications for radio towers in the United States, durint the 2000–2005 period. Shows how a movement opposed to mass production and industry concentration catalyzed microradio activists who won the right to broadcast. Organizational proliferation is a mechanism by which social movements can impact the production of culture.
  164. Find this resource:
  165.  
  166. Lopes, Paul. 1992. Innovation and diversity in the popular music industry, 1969 to 1990. American Sociological Review 57:56–71.
  167. DOI: 10.2307/2096144Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  168. A partial replication and expansion of Peterson and Berger 1975 to capture a longer and more recent period, that includes the reorganization of major firms into conglomerates and brief examinations of the chart performance of new wave and rap music, and changes to radio and music television. Concludes major firms can sustain innovation.
  169. Find this resource:
  170.  
  171. Peterson, Richard A., and David G. Berger. 1975. Cycles in symbol production: The case of popular music. American Sociological Review 40.2: 158–173.
  172. DOI: 10.2307/2094343Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  173. Studying twenty years of music charts (1948–1973), the authors find periods of increasing firm concentration (oligopoly) and musical homogeneity, followed by short bursts of competition and diversity. Measure of diversity (new acts on the charts) may not equate to musical diversity, limiting interpretation of these results.
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  175.  
  176. Markets
  177.  
  178. Closely related to the role of industries and organizations are the markets (and conceptions of markets) that shape their cultural production. The unpredictability of cultural markets is a common theme in production scholarship, which was underscored Bielby and Bielby 1994 on the “flukish” character of hit television shows. Indeed, experimental findings suggest that the relationship between quality and success is fairly tenuous in cultural markets (Salganik, et al. 2006). Given this unpredictability, “market information regimes” can exert considerable influence on the strategies that cultural producers employ (Anand and Peterson 2000). Structures of distribution and audience preferences also impact the performance of cultural products, as Rossman 2012 demonstrates in a study of hit radio songs. Demographic characteristics and interpersonal influences can impact the evaluation and interpretation of cultural products in local markets (Childress and Friedkin 2012). Contemporary changes in art markets, such as international expansion, declining public funding, and neoliberal models of arts administration, provide a dynamic context for production of culture scholarship (Alexander and Bowler 2014). The expansion of global markets for culturally distinctive goods presents both opportunities and constraints for traditional and local systems of cultural production (Wherry 2008).
  179.  
  180. Alexander, Victoria D., and Anne E. Bowler, eds. 2014. Art at the crossroads: The arts in society and the sociology of art. Poetics 43:1–92.
  181. DOI: 10.1016/j.poetic.2014.02.003Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  182. Introduction to special issue highlights broad changes in art markets relevant to production of culture scholarship. Contributions highlight many production of culture (POC) issues, including threats against arts organizations, identities of arts professionals, fashion design in Italy, market valuation in Korean art, among others.
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  184.  
  185. Anand, N., and Richard A. Peterson. 2000. When market information constitutes fields: Sensemaking of markets in the commercial music industry. Organization Science 11:270–284.
  186. DOI: 10.1287/orsc.11.3.270.12502Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  187. Authors argue that “market information regimes” like stock prices and bestseller lists define what counts as “information,” thus impacting market strategies. Results show music industry participants relying on market information in Billboard magazine charts change their definitions of success and may invest resources in different trends, producing large changes in what culture is produced.
  188. Find this resource:
  189.  
  190. Bielby, William T., and Denise D. Bielby. 1994. “All hits are flukes”: Institutionalized decision-making and the rhetoric of network prime-time program development. American Journal of Sociology 99:1287–1313.
  191. DOI: 10.1086/230412Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  192. Empirical study of the content of television show “pitches” made to network programmers in the 1991–1992 season. Having a successful producer on the project is the only strategy associated with being purchased, but neither it, nor genre, nor imitation predict commercial success, which is just a “fluke.”
  193. Find this resource:
  194.  
  195. Childress, C. Clayton, and Noah E. Friedkin. 2012. Cultural reception and production: The social construction of meaning in book clubs. American Sociological Review 77:45–68.
  196. DOI: 10.1177/0003122411428153Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  197. Study of eighteen book clubs, including pre- and post-discussion evaluations of a work of historical fiction. Findings highlight importance of interpersonal influence within book clubs and suggest that markets are comprised of audiences with more agency over social structure and textual content than is often acknowledged.
  198. Find this resource:
  199.  
  200. Rossman, G. 2012. Climbing the charts: What radio airplay tells us about the diffusion of innovation. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
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  202. Detailed models of song diffusion across radio stations show that hits are a product of endogenous forces (influential DJs, payola, and other forms of co-optation), and radio format. Well-established formats allow more rapid diffusion of hits. Great exploration of the controversy when Dixie Chicks’ front woman Natalie Maines spoke against President Bush, illustrating the power of radio listeners over programming.
  203. Find this resource:
  204.  
  205. Salganik, Matthew J., Peter Sheridan Dodds, and Duncan J. Watts. 2006. Experimental study of inequality and unpredictability in an artificial cultural market. Science 311:854–856.
  206. DOI: 10.1126/science.1121066Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  207. Important online experiment using music data. Demonstrates that while exceptional quality guarantees at least moderate success and exceptional badness forecloses it, every other outcome is unpredictable.
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  209.  
  210. Wherry, Frederick F. 2008. Global markets and local crafts: Thailand and Costa Rica compared. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press.
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  212. Based on interviews and fieldwork with artisans and exporters in both countries, study shows how the global market for authentic handicrafts shapes the way they use and understand their cultural traditions. Whereas Thailand markets crafts with indigenous cultural heritage, Costa Rican entrepreneurs position their handicrafts to meet market demand.
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  214.  
  215. Careers, Contracts, and Status Orders
  216.  
  217. Production scholarship often examines the careers of creative workers in the technical subsystem of culture industries as well as the careers of administrative professionals in the managerial subsystem and the boundary spanners (e.g., agents, scouts) that operate between the two. Since the mid-20th century, creative workers in such industries have seen reduced employment security and are likely to work under part-time or short-term contracts with careers developing iteratively from one project to another (Faulkner and Anderson 1987). The entrepreneurial and contingent character of creative work creates considerable uncertainty, which has likely been exacerbated by recent economic changes (Lingo and Tepper 2013). Much production of culture research focuses on the status orders that result from careers and contracts, which shape the character and popularity of cultural products. Status positions in culture industries are linked to the “track records” of creative workers (Pinheiro and Dowd 2009), their interpersonal ties (Giuffre 2001), and aesthetic conventions (Lena and Pachucki 2013). Studies of careers in a variety of culture industries, ranging from Hollywood actors (Rossman, et al. 2010) to literary writers (Janssen 1998), illustrate the relevance of these factors as well as the “sideline” activities that are often necessary to sustain careers and secure future contracts. Relative to other professions, the resulting distribution of financial rewards is highly skewed in artistic careers and individual income often varies dramatically across the course of a career (Menger 1999). Likewise, other signals of reputation in culture industries, such as sales, productivity, critical acclaim, or prestigious awards, accrue to relatively few creative workers.
  218.  
  219. Faulkner, Robert R., and Andy B. Anderson. 1987. Short-term projects and emergent careers: Evidence from Hollywood. American Journal of Sociology 92:879–909.
  220. DOI: 10.1086/228586Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  221. Quantitative analysis of almost twenty-five hundred films made between 1965 and 1980 demonstrates the multiplicative advantages that accrue to producers, cinematographers, directors, and actors who enjoy early success.
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  223.  
  224. Giuffre, Katherine. 2001. Mental maps: Social networks and the language of critical reviews. Sociological Inquiry 71:381–393.
  225. DOI: 10.1111/j.1475-682X.2001.tb01118.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  226. An excellent, early illustration of how social network methods and Bourdieu-inspired production of culture (POC) work can blend to provide careful, empirical analysis of status structures in the arts. Here, we examine photographers linked through gallerists, and a status order characterized by stars, strugglers, and “invisible colleges” enjoying small, dense cliques.
  227. Find this resource:
  228.  
  229. Janssen, Susanne. 1998. Side-roads to success: The effect of sideline activities on the status of writers. Poetics 25:265–280.
  230. DOI: 10.1016/S0304-422X(97)00018-1Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  231. The critical reception of an artist’s work is not only a function of its quality, but of the context of its production and the author’s reputation. Here, Janssen examines the careers of 279 Dutch writers and finds the status of their publisher, their prior work, and their “sideline” activities each impact critical reception.
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  233.  
  234. Lena, Jennifer C., and Mark C. Pachucki. 2013. The sincerest form of flattery: Innovation, repetition, and status in an art movement. Poetics 41.3: 236–264.
  235. DOI: 10.1016/j.poetic.2013.02.002Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  236. Advancing the potential connections between social network and POC methods, by using music chart and relational sound data (“samples”) from rap, the authors examine artistic status orders. They demonstrate that sales, peer esteem, and artistic excellence are distinct forms of status. They also show that spanning organizations and styles can have benefits to creatives in artistic fields.
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  238.  
  239. Lingo, Elizabeth L., and Steven J. Tepper, eds. 2013. Patterns and pathways: Artists and creative work in a changing economy. Work and Occupations 40.4: 337–525.
  240. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  241. Introduction provides overview of and agenda for research on arts-based careers. Contributors address various topics, including the unpaid work of music industry interns (Frenette) and the importance of networks among film producers (Foster) and jazz musicians (Dowd and Pinheiro).
  242. Find this resource:
  243.  
  244. Menger, Pierre-Michel. 1999. Artistic labor markets and careers. Annual Review of Sociology 25:541–574.
  245. DOI: 10.1146/annurev.soc.25.1.541Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  246. Comprehensive, international survey of research on art markets and careers. Discussions of career structures, risks, rationales for occupational choice, and consequences of labor market oversupplies.
  247. Find this resource:
  248.  
  249. Pinheiro, Diogo L., and Timothy J. Dowd. 2009. All that jazz: The success of jazz musicians in three metropolitan areas. Poetics 37:490–506.
  250. DOI: 10.1016/j.poetic.2009.09.007Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  251. Based on a survey of jazz musicians, the authors find that commercial success and national reputations flow from having wide stylistic acumen, but having the ability to play multiple instruments can have a negative effect on your reputation. This helps the authors develop a notion of “signalled competencies.”
  252. Find this resource:
  253.  
  254. Rossman, Gabriel, Nicole Esparza, and Phillip Bonacich. 2010. I’d like to thank the academy: Team spillovers and network centrality. American Sociological Review 75:31–51.
  255. DOI: 10.1177/0003122409359164Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  256. The authors use film as a context to understand how individual excellence is identified (and rewarded) in a collaborative field. They capture data on Academy Award film nominees (1936–2005) and find actors with prior success, and who work with other notables, are more likely to be celebrated with an Oscar.
  257. Find this resource:
  258.  
  259. Law and Technology
  260.  
  261. Echoing Peterson’s description of the emergence of rock music (see Classic Works), many scholars have demonstrated how the legal and technological context shapes cultural production. Changes in the regulatory environment can lead to major shifts in cultural organizations and their output (e.g., Allmendinger and Hackman 1996). At times, legal regulation can directly affect artistic content, as in the case of laws against obscene art and literature during the Victorian era in the United States (Beisel 1997). In other cases, the impact is less obvious, such as when the R&B market emerged and expanded as an indirect result of legal struggles in the recording, performance rights, and radio industries (Dowd 2003). Haveman 2015 links the evolution of the magazine industry in the United States to both legal and technological developments. Likewise, the Hollywood Antitrust Case of 1948 and the advent of television contributed to the decline of the studio system of film production, which had a particularly adverse impact on the careers of female actors (Lincoln and Allen 2004). The impact of digital technologies and the online circulation of cultural products have attracted considerable attention from production scholars across many cultural fields. Grindstaff and Turow 2006 discuss implications for “new” television, while Christin 2014 and Rosenkranz 2015 show how new technologies shape the work of journalists in various contexts.
  262.  
  263. Allmendinger, Jutta, and J. Richard Hackman. 1996. Organizations in changing environments: The case of East German symphony orchestras. Administrative Science Quarterly 41:337–369.
  264. DOI: 10.2307/2393935Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  265. Tracks the fate of East German orchestras amid the rise of socialism after World War II and its collapse in 1990. The fall of socialism led to organizational differentiation among orchestras that varied considerably in their successfulness. Resource contingency and operational autonomy were associated with stability during regulatory shocks.
  266. Find this resource:
  267.  
  268. Beisel, Nicola. 1997. Imperiled innocents: Anthony Comstock and family reproduction in Victorian America. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
  269. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  270. Detailed comparative-historical study of moral reform movements in Victorian America. Literary censorship societies and moral entrepreneurs (e.g., Anthony Comstock) were successful in promoting censorship laws that restricted literature and art deemed obscene by upper-class families.
  271. Find this resource:
  272.  
  273. Christin, Angèle. 2014. Clicks or Pulitzers? Web journalists and their work in the United States and France. PhD diss., Princeton Univ.
  274. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  275. Comparative study of an American and a French news website. Web analytics has changed news production and led to distinction between “click-based” and “editorial” evaluations of journalistic quality. Different responses among journalists at the two websites are linked to variations in newsroom routines and editorial formats.
  276. Find this resource:
  277.  
  278. Dowd, Timothy J. 2003. Structural power and the construction of markets: The case of rhythm and blues. Comparative Social Research 21:145–199.
  279. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  280. Shows how the emergence and expansion of the market for R&B music indirectly resulted from legal battles in the recording industry (expiring patents), performance rights (antitrust action against ASCAP), and radio industries (broadcast regulations increase number of stations). Television technology also created space for R&B on the radio.
  281. Find this resource:
  282.  
  283. Grindstaff, Laura, and Joseph Turow. 2006. Video cultures: Television sociology in the “new TV” age. Annual Review of Sociology 32:103–125.
  284. DOI: 10.1146/annurev.soc.32.061604.143122Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  285. Review of sociological research on television. Argues that digital technologies have altered the production and reception of television in ways that call for new approaches to TV scholarship.
  286. Find this resource:
  287.  
  288. Haveman, Heather. 2015. Magazines and the making of America: Modernization, community, and print culture, 1741–1860. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
  289. DOI: 10.1515/9781400873883Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  290. Comprehensive study of early magazine publishing in the United States. Traces both technological developments in printing as well as the legal framework of copyright law that reinforced a market-based conception of literature, both of which boosted an initially sluggish magazine industry.
  291. Find this resource:
  292.  
  293. Lincoln, Anne E., and Michael P. Allen. 2004. Double jeopardy in Hollywood: Age and gender in the careers of film actors, 1926–1999. Sociological Forum 19:611–631.
  294. DOI: 10.1007/s11206-004-0698-1Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  295. Legal changes (Hollywood Antitrust Case of 1948 forced film studios to divest their theaters) and new technology (competition from television) led to the decline of the studio system of film production. This ended long-term studio contracts for actors, which adversely impacted the careers of aging female actors.
  296. Find this resource:
  297.  
  298. Rosenkranz, Tim. 2015. Becoming entrepreneurial: Crisis, ethics and marketization in the field of travel journalism. Poetics 54:54–65.
  299. DOI: 10.1016/j.poetic.2015.09.003Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  300. Economic and technological transformations generate crisis narratives about destruction of professional travel journalism. Interviews with travel journalist, editors, and publishers draw on such narratives to justify entrepreneurial practices that would have previously been deemed unethical (e.g., partnerships with travel industry to monetize journalistic content).
  301. Find this resource:
  302.  
  303. Classification
  304.  
  305. Production of culture (POC) scholars have taken great interest in understanding classificatory processes as they order both perception and action, and are tied to identity and power. The broadest of these and an early subject of interest among American production of culture scholars was the distinction between popular culture and high art, for example by Paul DiMaggio (see Establishing Fields). New work has subjected the category-construction process to investigation, as in Lena 2012, a historical examination of 20th-century musical genres. Still others have turned toward the development of formal propositions governing classification, including those of artistic classification (DiMaggio 1987) and on boundaries (Lamont and Molnar 2002; Pachucki, et al. 2006). There is a recent explosion of important POC-inspired work on the effect of multiple category membership on market outcomes (see Hannan 2010 for a review) in film (Hsu, et al. 2009), winemaking (Negro, et al. 2010), software organizations (Pontikes 2012), and gastronomy (Rao, et al. 2005), among others.
  306.  
  307. DiMaggio, Paul. 1987. Classification in art. American Sociological Review 52:440–455.
  308. DOI: 10.2307/2095290Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  309. Much cited theory of artistic classification systems that lays out formal properties (e.g., differentiation, hierarchy, universality, boundary strength) and hypothesizes their links to social structural features. Argues classification systems are mediated by industry-specific factors associated with commercial, professional, or administrative systems of production.
  310. Find this resource:
  311.  
  312. Hannan, Michael T. 2010. Partiality of memberships in categories and audiences. Annual Review of Sociology 36:159–181.
  313. DOI: 10.1146/annurev-soc-021610-092336Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  314. A review of scholarship that explores the consequences of conceptualizing both producers and consumers as members of (or participants in) a product category to varying degrees.
  315. Find this resource:
  316.  
  317. Hsu, Greta, Michael T. Hannan, and Özgecan Koçak. 2009. Multiple category memberships in markets: A formal theory and two empirical tests. American Sociological Review 74:150–169.
  318. DOI: 10.1177/000312240907400108Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  319. Using data from eBay auctions and US feature films, the authors show that audiences don’t like products that fit into multiple categories.
  320. Find this resource:
  321.  
  322. Lamont, Michele, and Virag Molnar. 2002. The study of boundaries across the social sciences. Annual Review of Sociology 28:167–195.
  323. DOI: 10.1146/annurev.soc.28.110601.141107Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  324. A survey of developments in the study of boundaries across social science disciplines, particularly those focused on relational processes like identity, inequality, knowledge, and community.
  325. Find this resource:
  326.  
  327. Lena, Jennifer C. 2012. Banding together: How communities create genres in popular music. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
  328. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  329. Secondary analysis of historical material on over sixty musical styles reveals four sociological genre forms, an alternative to the messy and often incomplete explanations for social phenomena offered by musicological genres.
  330. Find this resource:
  331.  
  332. Negro, Giacomo, Michael T. Hannan, and Hayagreeva Rao. 2010. Categorical contrast and audience appeal: Niche width and critical success in winemaking. Industrial and Corporate Change 19:1397–1425.
  333. DOI: 10.1093/icc/dtq003Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  334. Using the evaluations of two elite Italian wine classes, the authors show that categorical fuzziness undermines the appeal of all members of a category. This is a result of both the weakening of style-related capabilities (specialization) and possibly of clouded identity.
  335. Find this resource:
  336.  
  337. Pachucki, Mark, Sabrina Pendergrass, and Michele Lamont. 2006. Boundary processes: Recent theoretical developments and new contributions. Poetics 35.6: 331–351.
  338. DOI: 10.1016/j.poetic.2007.10.001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  339. An introductory essay to a partial special issue focused on boundary processes, briefly opens with a description of three selected essays. The remaining text is a careful, thorough review of research on boundaries in several spheres (ethno-racial, aesthetic, gender, workplace, religion), and emerging trends (health, risk, and policy).
  340. Find this resource:
  341.  
  342. Pontikes, Elizabeth G. 2012. Two sides of the same coin: How ambiguous classification affects multiple audiences’ evaluations. Administrative Science Quarterly 57:81–118.
  343. DOI: 10.1177/0001839212446689Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  344. A longitudinal analysis of a US software firms (1990–2002) reveals organizations with ambiguous labels do not appeal to consumers, but can appeal to venture capitalists who, as “market-makers,” see that ambiguity as flexible and thus appealing.
  345. Find this resource:
  346.  
  347. Rao, Hayagreeva, Rodolphe Durande, Philippe Monin. 2005. Border crossing: Bricolage and the erosion of categorical boundaries in French gastronomy. American Sociological Review 70:968–991.
  348. DOI: 10.1177/000312240507000605Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  349. This study of boundary erosion examines French gastronomy during a period (1970–1997) when two styles (nouvelle and classic) vied for chefs’ allegiance. High status chefs acted to borrow elements from the other style, imitation resulted, critics agreed, and the boundaries were redrawn and settled.
  350. Find this resource:
  351.  
  352. Authenticity
  353.  
  354. Production of culture scholars have also examined the circumstances under which cultural producers and their works are seen as “authentic.” Rather than being an objective quality of a cultural object, person, place, or experience, authenticity is a socially constructed set of beliefs that is shared within a group. From this perspective, authenticity itself is something that is “produced,” made, or enacted. Scholars taking a production of culture approach have highlighted the efforts of musicians, managers, agents, producers, and other artistic support staff in “fabricating authenticity” (Peterson 1997). Attributions of authenticity frequently rest on characteristics of artists, including their race or gender, which can be as influential in the evaluative process as the formal features of the objects or performances they create (Hedegard 2013). In addition to attributes of culture producers, scholars have found that evaluations of authenticity in some contexts are based on the unique, hand-made, or traditional character of an item (Bendix 1997, Beverland 2005) or based on perceptions about its geographic origins (Phillips and Kim 2009). The production of an authentic identity is a central focus in studies of country musicians (Peterson 1997), self-taught artists (Fine 2004, see Establishing Fields), blues musicians (Grazian 2003), jazz musicians (Phillips and Kim 2009), and ethnic restaurants (Lu and Fine 1995).
  355.  
  356. Bendix, Regina. 1997. In search of authenticity: The formation of folklore studies. Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Press.
  357. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  358. Modernization excited a search for “lost” cultural origins—authentic origins—and these animate Bendix’s study of the history of folklore studies and Volkskunde, similar disciplines with different outcomes in the United States and Germany (respectively).
  359. Find this resource:
  360.  
  361. Beverland, Michael B. 2005. Crafting brand authenticity: The case of luxury wines. Journal of Management Studies 42:1003–1029.
  362. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-6486.2005.00530.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  363. Based on the analysis of twenty-six luxury wine companies, authenticity and sincerity result from proclamations of the wine’s uniqueness, relationship to place, producers’ passion, handcrafted character, modern marketing, and rational production. Somewhat ironically, establishing one’s authenticity and sincerity above commercial motivations had the effect of increasing the firm’s commercial success.
  364. Find this resource:
  365.  
  366. Grazian, David. 2003. Blue Chicago: The search for authenticity in urban blues clubs. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
  367. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  368. Ethnographic study of urban cluster of blues clubs, illustrating that audiences’ and performers’ expectations of authentic experience vary in patterned ways, demonstrating the social construction of authenticity.
  369. Find this resource:
  370.  
  371. Hedegard, Danielle. 2013. Blackness and experience in omnivorous cultural consumption: Evidence from the tourism of capoeira in Salvador, Brazil. Poetics 41:1–26.
  372. DOI: 10.1016/j.poetic.2012.11.003Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  373. Based on extensive participant observation of capoeira practice in Salvador, Brazil. Interactions between tourists and capoeira practitioners focus on constructed symbols of authentic blackness and exoticism. Omnivorous tourists valorize marginal symbols in their quest for authentic experience.
  374. Find this resource:
  375.  
  376. Lu, Shun, and Gary Alan Fine. 1995. The presentation of ethnic authenticity: Chinese food as a social accomplishment. Sociological Quarterly 36:535–553.
  377. DOI: 10.1111/j.1533-8525.1995.tb00452.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  378. Qualitative study of four, ethnic Chinese restaurants in the southern United States, and how they accomplish the simultaneous presentation of ethnic authenticity and cross-cultural recognizability. Strategies differ when appealing to connoisseurs and other customers.
  379. Find this resource:
  380.  
  381. Peterson, Richard A. 1997. Creating country music: Fabricating authenticity. Nashville: Vanderbilt Univ. Press.
  382. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  383. Archival research illuminating the emergence and then stability of a distinction that country music fans and artists make between “hard core” and “soft shell” music. Exploration of this distinction to other aspects of their identities including their race, gender, class, age, rurality, and so forth.
  384. Find this resource:
  385.  
  386. Phillips, Damon J., and Young-Kyu Kim. 2009. Why pseudonyms?: Deception as identity preservation among jazz record companies. Organization Science 20:481–499.
  387. DOI: 10.1287/orsc.1080.0371Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  388. Analysis of historical data from jazz discographies, record company directories, and newspaper advertisements show record labels used pseudonyms to sell records that would be profitable for the firm, but seen as illegitimate.
  389. Find this resource:
  390.  
  391. Evaluation
  392.  
  393. Evaluations made by a variety of gatekeepers and audiences at all stages in the production and circulation of culture comprise a central activity in artistic fields. Production of culture scholarship shows that the reputations of individual cultural producers and products as well as the legitimacy of entire fields of cultural production are influenced by the evaluations of experts and laypeople. In Baumann’s study of Hollywood cinema (see Baumann 2007, cited under Establishing Fields), film critics supplied a legitimating ideology for perceiving film as an art form through their evaluations. Likewise, much scholarship in this area has examined the role that evaluations by critics and other experts play in cultural fields. In literature, for example, studies have focused on the external factors and institutional constraints that generate consensus among reviewers in their assessments of literary fiction and in their decisions about what books to review (van Rees 1987, Janssen 1997). Despite these external influences, critics attempt to establish critical distance and draw on the discourse of scientific objectivity to legitimate their evaluations (Chong 2013). As illustrated by the study Johnston and Baumann 2007 of gourmet food writing, existing hierarchies and changing consumer tastes can influence patterns of evaluation. Criteria of evaluation have been shown to vary across the domains of fine art and popular culture as well as across national contexts (Shrum 1996; van Venrooij and Schmutz 2010). Changing sources of evaluation in culture industries have also sparked research that compares the effects of expert critics, online critics, and peers on consumers (Verboord 2010). Rankings published by media outlets illustrate the profound consequences that evaluation can have on cultural fields and organizational practices (Espeland and Sauder 2016).
  394.  
  395. Chong, Phillipa. 2013. Legitimate judgment in art, the scientific world reversed? Social Studies of Science 43:265–281.
  396. DOI: 10.1177/0306312712475256Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  397. Interviews with thirty prominent American book critics show the strategies they pursue to maintain objectivity in their evaluations of literature. Critics emulate the norms associated with the legitimate judgment of science despite the accepted subjectivity of artistic taste. Commonalities between evaluation in art and science are discussed.
  398. Find this resource:
  399.  
  400. Espeland, Wendy Nelson, and Michael Sauder. 2016. Engines of anxiety: Academic rankings, reputation, and accountability. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
  401. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  402. Influential study of academic rankings based on observations and interviews with law students, deans, and administrators. Demonstrates the negative changes in legal education that have resulted from a focus on boosting quantifiable indicators of “quality” and how such measures shape evaluations of prospective law students, lawyers, and law schools.
  403. Find this resource:
  404.  
  405. Janssen, Susanne. 1997. Reviewing as social practice: Institutional constraints on critics’ attention for contemporary fiction. Poetics 24:275–297.
  406. DOI: 10.1016/S0304-422X(96)00010-1Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  407. Study of fiction books and reviews in the Netherlands, published 1978 to 1991. Critics focus on few titles. Regular reviewers make less deviant assessments and focus on widely reviewed books. Size of publishing house, previous attention to author, and social influence of other critics structure book reviewing.
  408. Find this resource:
  409.  
  410. Johnston, Josée, and Shyon Baumann. 2007. Democracy versus distinction: A study of omnivorousness in gourmet food writing. American Journal of Sociology 113:165–204.
  411. DOI: 10.1086/518923Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  412. Analysis of gourmet food writing shows how diverse cuisines and omnivorous tastes are legitimated through the frames of authenticity and exoticism. Shifting culinary hierarchies may appear more democratic, but they argue status distinctions are maintained by food preferences and practices that are inaccessible to mainstream consumers.
  413. Find this resource:
  414.  
  415. Shrum, Wesley M., Jr. 1996. Fringe and fortune: The role of critics in high and popular art. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
  416. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  417. Study of critical reviews of hundreds of shows at Edinburgh Fringe Festival. Positive reviews from critics boost attendance, but only for highbrow theater genres. Visibility of reviews trumps the actual evaluation. Argues that aesthetic criteria in popular and fine arts are distinct; critics matter primarily in the latter.
  418. Find this resource:
  419.  
  420. van Rees, Kees J. 1987. How reviewers reach consensus on the value of literary works. Poetics 16:275–294.
  421. DOI: 10.1016/0304-422X(87)90008-8Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  422. Based on reviews of a Dutch poet, study shows that evaluative consensus is the result of extra-textual influences rather than intrinsic qualities of the artwork. Other critics and even artists themselves tend to reproduce the views of critics viewed as authoritative in the field. Evaluation involves a mode of orchestration.
  423. Find this resource:
  424.  
  425. van Venrooij, Alex, and Vaughn Schmutz. 2010. The evaluation of popular music in the United States, Germany and the Netherlands: A comparison of the use of high art and popular aesthetic criteria. Cultural Sociology 4:395–421.
  426. DOI: 10.1177/1749975510385444Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  427. Based on music reviews in American, German and Dutch newspapers, study shows distinctions between high art and popular aesthetic criteria. Cross-national differences in the prevalence of evaluative criteria are explained in terms of variation in national repertoires and features of cultural classification systems.
  428. Find this resource:
  429.  
  430. Verboord, Marc. 2010. The legitimacy of critics in the age of the internet and omnivorousness: Expert critics, internet critics, and peer critics in Flanders and the Netherlands. European Sociological Review 26:623–637.
  431. DOI: 10.1093/esr/jcp039Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  432. Study of Dutch book readers’ use of critical evaluations by traditional experts, online reviewers, and peers. Cultural omnivores have broad informational needs, so they are more inclined to rely on online or peer reviewers, but this does not lead them to exclude expert critics from traditional literary institutions.
  433. Find this resource:
  434.  
  435. Consecration
  436.  
  437. In fields of cultural production, the status associated with various forms of symbolic capital is a highly sought after reward (see Careers, Contracts, and Status Orders). Consecration connotes the pinnacle of symbolic achievement, a celebrated status that accrues to a select few producers or products in cultural fields. “Reputational entrepreneurs” play a pronounced role in securing the longstanding renown of artists and historical figures (Lang and Lang 1988, Fine 1996). Social and cultural change can lead to the reassessment and canonization of work that was previously overlooked or deemed illegitimate (Corse and Griffin 1997). Several studies have emulated the formal approach of Allen and Lincoln 2004 to the study of retrospective consecration in their examination of the American film canon. Work in this area has considered a range of factors that influence consecration outcomes, including influential institutions (Braden 2009), gender and sexuality (Schmutz and Faupel 2010, Stokes 2015), and structural position (Cattani, et al. 2014).
  438.  
  439. Allen, Michael P., and Anne E. Lincoln. 2004. Critical discourse and the cultural consecration of American films. Social Forces 82:871–893.
  440. DOI: 10.1353/sof.2004.0030Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  441. Study of films consecrated by American Film Institute and National Film Registry. Among a sample of films (1929–1991), odds of consecration are enhanced by professional and critical recognition of director and amount of critical discourse about film and director. Shows influence of critics and scholars on consecration outcomes.
  442. Find this resource:
  443.  
  444. Braden, Laura. 2009. From the Armory to academia: Careers and reputations of early modern artists in the United States. Poetics 37:439–455.
  445. DOI: 10.1016/j.poetic.2009.09.004Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  446. Tracks 308 artists from the 1913 Armory show to see who is consecrated in art textbooks later. The Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) functions as a gatekeeper (i.e., being exhibited at MoMA enhances odds of consecration). Because women were less likely to exhibit at MoMA, they are less often consecrated.
  447. Find this resource:
  448.  
  449. Cattani, Gino, Simone Ferriani, and Paul D. Allison. 2014. Insiders, outsiders, and the struggle for consecration in cultural fields. American Sociological Review 79:258–281.
  450. DOI: 10.1177/0003122414520960Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  451. Using the case of Hollywood films, their study shows how structural position and type of audience influences consecration outcomes. Peer audiences favor “insiders” who are highly embedded in the field; critics show no such preference. Authors discuss implications in art and science for relative positions of cultural producers and audiences.
  452. Find this resource:
  453.  
  454. Corse, Sarah M., and Monica D. Griffin. 1997. Cultural valorization and African American literary history: Reconstructing the canon. Sociological Forum 12:173–203.
  455. DOI: 10.1023/A:1024645715453Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  456. Demonstrates canon formation is a dynamic process. Novel by Zora Neale Hurston was consecrated decades after its publication due to new evaluative criteria, reconstruction of literary meaning, and to changing organizational and institutional environments. Reinterpretation of Hurston’s novel illustrates constructed character of consecration.
  457. Find this resource:
  458.  
  459. Fine, Gary Alan. 1996. Reputational entrepreneurs and the memory of incompetence: Melting supporters, partisan warriors, and images of President Harding. American Journal of Sociology 101:1159–1193.
  460. DOI: 10.1086/230820Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  461. Addresses conflict in consecration processes and the importance of entrepreneurs who are motivated to secure the reputation of historical figures. The success of reputational entrepreneurs is linked to the interests of a like-minded community, the resonance of their claims, and their institutional placement.
  462. Find this resource:
  463.  
  464. Lang, Gladys Engel, and Kurt Lang. 1988. Recognition and renown: The survival of artistic reputation. American Journal of Sociology 94:79–109.
  465. DOI: 10.1086/228952Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  466. Seminal study of consecration among American and French etchers. Durability of artistic reputation depends on artists’ efforts to secure their own legacy, survivors with an interest in promoting the artist, networks with artistic circles or elites, and geographical location or historical coincidence.
  467. Find this resource:
  468.  
  469. Schmutz, Vaughn, and Alison Faupel. 2010. Gender and cultural consecration in popular music. Social Forces 89:685–707.
  470. DOI: 10.1353/sof.2010.0098Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  471. Study of Rolling Stone magazine’s “greatest albums of all time.” Albums by female musicians are less likely to be consecrated. Shows that legitimating discourse differs for men and women. Men are described as more historically important, autonomous, and artistic; women are described as more dependent and emotionally authentic.
  472. Find this resource:
  473.  
  474. Stokes, Allyson. 2015. The glass runway: How gender and sexuality shape the spotlight in fashion design. Gender and Society 29:219–243.
  475. DOI: 10.1177/0891243214563327Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  476. Shows that gay men outnumber women in prestigious awards and lists of canonical fashion designers, despite the preponderance of women in the field. Analysis of fashion media indicates that artistic discourse is used to construct a masculine image of the ideal designer, which perpetuates their advantages in consecration.
  477. Find this resource:
  478.  
  479. Transnational Processes
  480.  
  481. The globalization of culture industries, which has intensified in recent decades, has led scholars to consider how processes of cultural production and circulation increasingly transcend national boundaries. Indeed, some scholars have focused on documenting the extent to which a variety of cultural products reach an international audience and how that has changed over time (Janssen, et al. 2008), while others trace how specific cultural products (e.g., TV shows) travel with varying levels of success in the global cultural marketplace (Bielby and Harrington 2008). Griswold 1987 demonstrates that transnational processes of evaluation contribute to the production of literary meaning and Corse 1997 uses cross-national comparison to highlight how processes of consecration are symbolically linked to the production of national literary traditions. Notable recent studies (e.g., Regev 2013, Kuipers 2015) build on the work of scholars (e.g., Crane, et al. 2002; Bielby 2010) who have highlighted the need for empirical work across diverse contexts that addresses the role of cultural policy, national institutions, and media organizations in the production, legitimation, and circulation of culture.
  482.  
  483. Bielby, Denise D. 2010. Globalization and cultural production. In Handbook of cultural sociology. Edited by John R. Hall, Laura Grindstaff, and Ming-Cheng Lo, 588–597. London: Routledge.
  484. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  485. This essay builds on Bielby’s work on global television distribution and provides a call for empirical work on globalization, cultural production, and political economy. In particular, she offer ideas for linking organizational and globalization theories to provide fuller accounts of transnational and interorganizational dependencies in cultural production.
  486. Find this resource:
  487.  
  488. Bielby, Denise D., and C. Lee Harrington. 2008. Global TV: Exporting television and culture in the world market. New York: New York Univ. Press.
  489. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  490. A detailed examination of the global television market with a focus on the distribution processes that shape cultural exports as they travel to diverse audiences. The work of television buyers and sellers in various countries is foregrounded and the factors that influence the success or failure of shows in new cultural contexts are addressed.
  491. Find this resource:
  492.  
  493. Corse, Sarah. 1997. Nationalism and literature: The politics of culture in Canada and the United States. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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  495. Based on an analysis of two hundred American and Canadian novels, Corse reveals how elites produce national literary traditions by consecrating high-culture novels, while bestseller novels are less distinctive across countries. Contrary to the reflection model of literature, she shows that canonical novels are used in the formation and maintenance of national identity although literary tastes are quite similar in the commercial markets of both countries.
  496. Find this resource:
  497.  
  498. Crane, Diana, Nobuko Kawashima, and Ken’ichi Kawasaki, eds. 2002. Global culture: Media, arts, policy, and globalization. London: Routledge.
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  500. Crane’s introductory essay identifies several theoretical models relevant to the globalization of culture industries. Other chapters provide empirical insights from artistic fields across several continents, including South America and Asia, to illustrate the relationship between cultural policy, organizational strategies, and transnational processes of cultural production and reception.
  501. Find this resource:
  502.  
  503. Griswold, Wendy. 1987. The fabrication of meaning: Literary interpretation in the United States, Great Britain, and the West Indies. American Journal of Sociology 97:1077–1117.
  504. DOI: 10.1086/228628Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  505. Griswold analyzes reviews of Barbadian novelist George Lamming’s work in the United States, Great Britain, and the West Indies to show that literary meaning is fabricated through a dynamic, interactive process. American reviewers most often focused on race as a theme in the novels, British critics were most likely to ignore issues of colonialism, while West Indian reviewers most often focused on issues of identity. The multivocality of a literary text, Griswold argues, is an indicator of its cultural power.
  506. Find this resource:
  507.  
  508. Janssen, Susanne, Giselinde Kuipers, and Marc Verboord. 2008. Cultural globalization and arts journalism: The international orientation of arts and culture coverage in American, Dutch, French and German newspapers, 1955–2005. American Sociological Review 73:719–740.
  509. DOI: 10.1177/000312240807300502Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  510. Detailed content analysis of eight newspapers in four countries across a fifty-year time span documents the increasingly international orientation of arts and culture journalism in Europe. The study highlights variation across countries and disciplines in international orientiation, pointing to the dynamics and limits of cultural globalization.
  511. Find this resource:
  512.  
  513. Kuipers, Giselinde. 2015. How national institutions mediate the global: Screen translation, institutional interdependencies, and the production of national difference in four European countries. American Sociological Review 80:985–1013.
  514. DOI: 10.1177/0003122415599155Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  515. Based on extensive research on screen translation in France, Italy, the Netherlands, and Poland, Kuipers proposes a model of cultural production that links technology as well as organizational, national, and transnational fields through feedback loops and interdependencies at each level. She shows how national, institutional contexts, including translation norms and practices, uphold distinctive national systems in the face of heightened cultural globalization.
  516. Find this resource:
  517.  
  518. Regev, Motti. 2013. Pop-rock music: Aesthetic cosmopolitanism in late modernity. Cambridge, UK: Polity.
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  520. Building on the notion of aesthetic cosmopolitanism, which refers to the increasingly shared cultural tastes and practices that correspond with the globalization of cultural production, Regev describes the emergence and diffusion of “pop-rock” music across world regions. Institutional processes in cultural industries like music contribute to an expressive isomorphism that is evident across diverse groups that are linked through an interconnected world culture.
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