The Ethics of Aerial Bombardment (Military History)

Introduction
Aerial bombardment as a weapon of war was born in the high-technology era at the start of the 20th century. Although the technology—aircraft—was new the idea was a continuation of the attack in depth and nested within the context of warfare as a whole. Thus, to begin the discussion of the ethics of aerial bombardment, some context is necessary. War, as a human interaction, was and remains controversial in and of itself. Ranging from local to global struggles, warfare in human history has been chronicled, studied, and analyzed. The critique of war, in a philosophical sense, has continued concurrently with the great tales of battle. As early as Homer and Thucydides, questions have been posed to stimulate thinking on the ethics of war as a display of human interaction. When aerial bombardment is considered, a more vociferous critique emerges. Aerial bombardment began in earnest during World War I, with the strategic bombing campaigns mounted by the Germans against the Allies and vice versa. This new form of war exposed populations, cities, and industry to the horrors of war to a greater extent than ever before. Once civilian populations were put at risk, philosophers, theorists, religious figures, diplomats, and a wide variety of thinkers began to ponder the ethics, legality, morals, and necessity of bombardment from the air.
The Ethics of War
In the literature on the ethics of war, a number of specifically “modern” interpretations are especially noteworthy. Building on the writings of Saint Augustine and Grotius, works such as Walzer 2006 have rekindled the debate on the ethics and legality—in an international legal sense—of warfare. Christopher 2004, and Nardin 1996, also broach the topic and provide excellent opinions. Johnson 2011 is also an important book on the ethical use of force. These books are important primers on the ethics of war and the discussion of current trends in the philosophy of war.
Christopher, Paul. The Ethics of War and Peace: An Introduction to Legal and Moral Issues. 3d ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall, 2004.
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Christopher presents a coherent argument on the ethics of war from a historical perspective. His cases are excellent, and his contribution to the field is important.
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Johnson, James Turner. Ethics and the Use of Force: Just War in Historical Perspective. Farnham, UK: Ashgate, 2011.
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A work by noted scholar James Turner Johnson on the subject of ethics and warfare. This collection of his essays is an important contribution to the subject.
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Nardin, Terry, ed. The Ethics of War and Peace: Religious and Secular Perspectives. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996.
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This edited volume draws on a number of recognized scholars and their contributions to the argument. Complements Christopher 2004 and provides additional information and in-depth analysis on the religious perspectives on warfare.
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Walzer, Michael. Just and Unjust Wars: A Moral Argument with Historical Illustrations. 4th ed. New York: Basic Books, 2006.
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Walzer presents the fundamental book on the topic. His study and style brilliantly encapsulate the background and argument on the ethics of warfare. His book is the starting place for the discussion. Originally published in 1977.
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Ethics and Bombing
Aviation technology led to a revolution in warfare. Aircraft could fly over land and sea, negating traditional geographical boundaries. They could also rain death from above. A consideration of the ethics of strategic bombing coincided with the introduction of the technology in war.
The Early Years (1900–1914)
Technological changes at the turn of the 20th century facilitated the expansion of the battlefield. Whereas up to this point battles were clashes of arms within sight of the enemy, the invention of aircraft allowed for attack in depth. In the first decade of the 1900s, many realized the benefits and threats of aviation and airpower; some even wrote about dangerous enemies attacking from the air. A few writers predicted aerial threats, presaging the war to come. When the Frenchman Louis Blériot flew across the English Channel in 1909, aviation immediately circumvented the insulation of the British Isles. In other examples, aviation was used specifically for bombing and military advantage. The question of ethics had not yet arisen, but concern and excitement were born. In the readings included here, each author introduces the earliest ideas about strategic bombing and its subsequent importance to civilian populations. Wells 2005 is a fictional account from the air exploring how aerial bombardment would change warfare and the public perceptions of bombing. Gollin 1984 discusses the British response to the advent of airpower in its earliest days and the immediate importance of airpower to Britain, previously protected by the English Channel and the Royal Navy. Syon 2002 recounts the earliest strategic bombing campaigns mounted by the Germans against the British in World War I.
Gollin, Alfred. No Longer an Island: Britain and the Wright Brothers, 1902–1909. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1984.
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Gollin’s book is an excellent overview of the competition for better aircraft in Europe and the United States in the first decade of the 20th century, as well as the national security implications and military threats they posed. While the United States was still safe for the time being, England came under threat from German and French aircraft. The Royal Navy was no longer sufficient protection for the UK’s home islands.
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Syon, Guillaume de. Zeppelin! Germany and the Airship, 1900–1939. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002.
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The first air threats came from lighter-than-air aircraft, German “Zeppelin” dirigibles. After the first Zeppelin flight in 1900, there was widespread concern about German Zeppelins, especially in Britain. This “Zeppelin scare” led to military changes to prevent German Zeppelins from threatening England. However, in the war to come, both airplanes (heavier than air) and Zeppelins brought strategic bombing to Britain.
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Wells, H. G. The War in the Air. Edited by Patrick Parrinder. London: Penguin, 2005.
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A prophetic book about aerial bombardment in a coming fictional war. Wells, always ahead of his time, and a splendid writer, introduced the book and aroused anxiety about foreign aircraft and the threat of aerial bombardment. Wells was also responsible for other fantastic tales of the future such as The Time Machine, The War of the Worlds, and The Shape of Things to Come. Originally published in 1907.
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World War I (1914–1918)
The Great War (in the west) descended into stalemate and trench warfare within the first two months. With forces unable to move on land, the air weapon gradually emerged as a strategic alternative. Airplanes and airships, initially for observation, were quickly converted to weapons-carrying platforms to drop ordnance on the ground to gain a strategic advantage. However, it was not until the Germans attacked civilian populations in France and Britain that the question of ethics and morals arose. The early strategic campaigns ushered in a new form of warfare: psychological war against noncombatants. Although there was widespread anger, for the most part aerial bombardment was seen as part of the war at the time. German Zeppelins launched the first strategic campaigns in 1916 and 1917; the last raids on London and Paris were from German bomber airplanes in 1917 and 1918. The Allies responded with bombing against German industrial targets in the Ruhr; the German capital, Berlin, was simply too far from Allied territory for the technology of the time. Kennett 1991 provides an excellent overview of airpower in World War I and the impact of airpower on warfare. Lawson and Lawson 1996 offers another overview of the war in the air. Buttlar-Brandenfels 1932 is an excellent overview of the early German Zeppelin campaigns, and is complemented by the excellent research and writing on the German Air Force in World War I in Morrow 2009. Fredette 2007 recounts the effects that the German bombing campaigns had on British citizens and government. Morris 1968 outlines the official response to the German strategic attacks and recounts the birth of the independent Royal Air Force in response to German bombing.
Buttlar-Brandenfels, Horst Treusch von. Zeppelins over England. Translated by Huntley Paterson. New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1932.
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Written from the “enemy’s” perspective, this is the German account of the strategic Zeppelin campaign in World War I.
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Fredette, Raymond H. The Sky on Fire: The First Battle of Britain, 1917–1918 and the Birth of the Royal Air Force. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2007.
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An excellent overview of the first heavier-than-air strategic campaign with German bombers over London and the reactions to it. The Germans mounted a strategic campaign to get the British to quit; the British reciprocated by bolstering aerial defenses and attacking German bombers with British fighters. In the end, the British were more successful; the Germans were forced to break off the attacks.
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Kennett, Lee. The First Air War, 1914–1918. New York: Free Press, 1991.
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Kennett’s book offers an excellent overview of the air war in World War I. His analysis of the Zeppelin and later bomber raids is informative.
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Lawson, Eric, and Jane Lawson. The First Air Campaign: August 1914–November 1918. Conshohocken, PA: Combined Books, 1996.
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Another overview of the air war in the Great War, written by a husband-and-wife team. Very informative and easily read.
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Morris, Alan. First of the Many: The Story of Independence Force, RAF. Norfolk, UK: Jarrolds, 1968.
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Morris outlines the first Allied efforts at strategic bombing, with the Inter-Allied Independent Bombing Force commanded by Hugh Trenchard. This mostly British force focused on bombing German industrial and transportation targets in order to shorten the war. The practices, predictions, and personalities continued after the war, as the Royal Air Force (RAF) continued their quest for better strategic bombing.
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Morrow, John H., Jr. The Great War in the Air: Military Aviation from 1909 to 1921. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2009.
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A detailed scholarly account of World War I aviation. Morrow chronicles the history from extensive research in the German archives, and includes technical data on the belligerents.
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The Interwar Period (1919–1939)
Between the wars, the industrialized nations had the opportunity to think about and continue developing airpower. Whereas significant effort was put into the development of better aircraft and detailed doctrine, there was not much thought for ethics. During the interwar period, nations built up airpower for use in future war.
Theory
The interwar period was marked by both the development of theory and evolution of technology. In the aftermath of World War I, a number of military aviation theorists emerged, expanding on the accomplishments of the war and predicting the future of airpower. The theory was very similar in each of the industrialized countries, with minor variations in the margins. The master narrative that emerged was strategic bombing and how it would change warfare. The idea was that in the future, with the proper technology, aerial bombardment would be quick—relative to the last war—efficient, and effective. Bombing enemy cities and industry would lead populations to rise up and demand an end to the war, and industry would be destroyed, hindering military action. Aerial bombardment would circumvent geographical boundaries and battle lines, and in theory would be less costly in blood and treasure than battles on land. Additionally, it was a way to strike directly at the enemy—as opposed to naval blockade or siege—and coerce surrender. This theory, untested and unproven, carried the day as militaries prepared for the next conflict. Douhet 2009, by the Italian air prophet, was the first work to theorize about the uses and ethics of airpower in the immediate post–World War I period. Mitchell 2009 offers the first American ideas about strategic bombing and the importance of a strong aviation arm. Smith 1984 recounts the development of British strategy that came out of the war and the struggle for the creation and maintenance of the Royal Air Force. Historian Mark Clodfelter discusses American ideas and employment of airpower before and during World War II (Clodfelter 2010).
Clodfelter, Mark. Beneficial Bombing: The Progressive Foundations of American Air Power, 1917–1945. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2010.
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This work by a noted airpower historian offers a new perspective on the Progressive foundations of the American bombing campaigns of World War II. Clodfelter argues that strategic bombing offered a rational approach to warfare.
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Douhet, Giulio. The Command of the Air. Translated by Dino Ferrari; edited by Joseph Patrick Harahan and Richard H. Kohn. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2009.
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The original airpower theorist, Douhet published this work in Italian in 1922. His theory of bombing fleets destroying enemy cities and morale with bombs—including poisonous gas—is still referenced as the first airpower theory. His writing influenced every subsequent theorist.
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Mitchell, William “Billy.” Winged Defense: The Development and Possibilities of Modern Air Power; Economic and Military. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2009.
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A reprint of Mitchell’s work (first published in 1925), which continues to be the basis for the American theory of airpower. Mitchell, a veteran of World War I and crusader for airpower, worked tirelessly to convince American leadership of the importance of airpower. Unfortunately for his career and legacy, he made too many enemies, was court-martialed, and faded into obscurity. His ideas lived on in others, including Hap Arnold.
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Smith, Malcolm. British Air Strategy between the Wars. Oxford: Clarendon, 1984.
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Smith outlines the debates and progress of British air strategy in the interwar period, and incorporates works from Trenchard—commander of the Independent Bombing Force in World War I and later chief of the Air Staff—John Slessor, Arthur Tedder, and Arthur Harris. Each of these British RAF leaders was consistent in the theories of strategic bombing, and all tried to implement the ideas in prewar exercises and in war in World War II.
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Interwar Aviation Evolution
Aviation technology evolved rapidly during the interwar period. The offensive capabilities of the strategic bomber initially outpaced fighter and other defensive technology. But overall, there was marked improvement in both offensive and defensive capabilities. From fuels to engines, aerodynamics to materials engineering, to electronic and communications advancements, aircraft improved substantially. Interestingly, the offensive capabilities of bomber aircraft seemed to evolve as the theory had predicted; it was a true marriage of technological evolution and theoretical prediction. In his famous quote in 1932, Lord Stanley Baldwin (in the British Parliament) stated that, “The bomber will always get through. The only defence is in offence.” The major technological improvements during the interwar period included all-metal construction, monoplane (instead of biplane) design, and more powerful engines. Bombs were loaded into internal bomb bays for aerodynamic reasons, and landing gears retracted. Biplane bombers that flew 100 mph and carried 2,000-lb bombs (Handley Page 0/400) in the last year of World War I evolved into more sophisticated machines that by 1939 flew at over 250 mph and could carry up to 8,000-lb bombs (Boeing B-17B). It seemed as if the technology would fulfill the predictions of the airpower theorists. At the same time, defensive capabilities improved. The British developed radar and point interceptor fighters (Hurricane, Spitfire) to counter enemy bombers, as well as an excellent communications network to tie the whole defensive system together. Other countries built stronger defenses to prevent the realization of Douhet’s vision (see Douhet 2009, cited under Theory). The battles between offensive and defensive would play out in the skies over Europe and in the Pacific in World War II. Murray and Millett 1996 is an edited volume that provides important research and writing on the interwar development of airpower theory, doctrine, and technology, mostly from the American perspective, but including the British and Germans. Homze 1976 gives an excellent overview of German technology, theory, and doctrine during the same time period. Sherry 1987 is an important contribution to the field and topic of the ethics of strategic bombing.
Homze, Edward L. Arming the Luftwaffe: The Reich Air Ministry and the German Aircraft Industry, 1919–39. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1976.
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Still the best academic analysis of the rise of the Luftwaffe in Nazi Germany. An excellent overview of the decisions made by Germany as they rearmed and began thinking about future warfare in the 1930s.
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Murray, Williamson, and Allan R. Millett, eds. Military Innovation in the Interwar Period. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511601019Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Still the best single volume of collected essays on the technological advances in the interwar period. The chapters on strategic bombing and the development of radar are especially germane.
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Sherry, Michael S. The Rise of American Air Power: The Creation of Armageddon. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1987.
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Sherry’s book is a classic scholarly analysis of the development of American airpower in the interwar period and its use in World War II. He adds his own opinions on the ethics of the American bombing campaigns.
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Interwar Bombing in Practice
The interwar period saw a few examples of aerial bombardment. The theory and technology were put into practice against indigenous populations in Arabia in the 1920s, in Abyssinia (1935–1936), and during the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939). In the first instance, called “air policing” the (British) Royal Air Force was used as a cheap alternative to an occupying force in Iraq. The Italians used airpower extensively in their quest for a colonial empire in Africa. In the first two examples, there was not much backlash (international or otherwise) to European powers using high technology against non-Europeans. However, in the Spanish Civil War, when the Germans bombed Spanish civilians at Guernica, the world began to take note of the horrors of aerial bombing. Outrage was expressed in writing and in art, including Pablo Picasso’s famous painting Guernica. Omissi 1990 details Britain’s use and abuse of airpower in the colonies in the interwar period. Hallion 1989 outlines the relationships between technology and doctrine in the development of airpower for combat. Beevor 2006 is an excellent book on the use of airpower in the Spanish Civil War and the ethical and theoretical implications of airpower in warfare in the late 1930s. Patterson 2007 and Martin 2002 supplement Beevor 2006 with additional information on the use of airpower in Spain.
Beevor, Antony. The Battle for Spain: The Spanish Civil War, 1936–1939. Rev. ed. New York: Penguin, 2006.
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An excellent overview from a noted historian and author, Beevor’s book is a great starting place for the discussion of the war and the evolution of strategic bombing during the interwar period.
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Hallion, Richard P. Strike from the Sky: The History of Battlefield Attack, 1911–1945. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1989.
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Hallion writes about aerial attack, including bombing, and an overview of the evolution of the use of airpower. His chapters on Abyssinia, Spain, the British colonies, and Asia are especially pertinent.
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Martin, Russell. Picasso’s War: The Destruction of Guernica and the Masterpiece that Changed the World. New York: Dutton, 2002.
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Martin presents an account of the war and Picasso’s painting, incorporating a variety of sources including some of Picasso’s own notes and writing. The book is an engaging tale of the war, the art, and the aftermath of the bombing of Guernica.
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Omissi, David E. Air Power and Colonial Control: The Royal Air Force, 1919–1939. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1990.
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Omissi presents the best single-volume history on RAF air policing in the Middle East in the 1920s and 1930s.
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Patterson, Ian. Guernica and Total War. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007.
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Patterson provides not only a rich account of the events but also a strong moral and ethical critique of aerial bombardment.
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World War II (1939–1945)
World War II saw the evolution of strategic bombing on an industrial scale. The war began and ended with strategic campaigns, which have been thoroughly studied and critiqued. From the initial Axis campaigns to the final Allied campaigns, including the introduction of the atomic bomb, strategic bombing was an integral component of the war. Following the tenets of Douhet (see Douhet 2009, cited under Theory), nearly all of the belligerents considered and adopted strategic bombing. The Axis focused more on tactical successes and fell short of the classic ideas of strategic bombing. The Allies, on the other hand, carried out defined strategic campaigns with varying degrees of success. By the end of the war, strategic bombing was seen as the absolute demonstration of airpower, and continued to be the mantra of airpower advocates. During the war there was little ethical consideration, but in the decades since there has been increasingly more scholarship on not only the effect but also the ethical dilemmas of strategic bombing in practice.
The Germans
The Germans were the first to launch strategic bombing campaigns in World War II. Beginning with the bombing of Warsaw at the start of the war and culminating with the London Blitz, the German strategic campaign was roundly criticized and only marginally effective. German land forces defeated the Poles; the British prevailed because of a superior defense. There was no analysis of the ethics of bombing during the war, but later scholarship has considered the topic. Neufeld and Berenbaum 2003 discusses the theory, technology, and ethics of strategic bombing in the controversial consideration of the use of airpower to stop the Holocaust. Overy 2001 is a well-researched book on the Battle of Britain and, along with Gardiner 2010, the British response to German strategic bombing in the early days of World War II. In Neufeld 1996, the author outlines German missile development and the ethics of strategic bombing using intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs).
Gardiner, Juliet. The Blitz: The British under Attack. London: HarperPress, 2010.
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Gardiner’s book provides an excellent overview of the German bombing campaigns on London during the larger Battle of Britain. This phase of the war ended with the onset of winter, with Britain prevailing and Germany refocusing on other targets, specifically the Soviet Union.
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Neufeld, Michael J. The Rocket and the Reich: Peenemünde and the Coming of the Ballistic Missile Era. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996.
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This book is a scholarly overview of the last German strategic campaign of the war, using ballistic missiles against London and Antwerp. The V-2 rockets were frightening during the war, but also presaged missile development and deployment in the postwar period.
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Neufeld, Michael J., and Michael Berenbaum, eds. The Bombing of Auschwitz: Should the Allies Have Attempted It? Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2003.
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While this book does not address the 1939 Poland campaign directly, it considers options available to the Allies concerning the Holocaust. One theme in the book is whether the ethics of strategic bombing outweighed the ethics of genocide.
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Overy, Richard. The Battle of Britain: The Myth and the Reality. New York: W. W. Norton, 2001.
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Overy, a noted World War II historian, revisits the Battle of Britain in this well-researched book. He chronicles British successes in defeating the German strategic campaign.
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The Allies in Europe
The British and later the Americans retaliated against Germany from the air. Initially unable to launch a ground campaign, the western Allies used strategic bombing to degrade German capabilities before launching a cross-channel invasion. In the minds of the air planners in both Britain and the United States, if the bombing made Germany quit, all the better! The strategic bombing campaign against Germany was very costly for both sides, and it is still researched, debated, and evaluated to this day. Most recently, the question of ethics has been examined with the benefit of historical hindsight and archival research. LeMay 1965 and Harris 2005, by American and British commanders, respectively, discuss the authors’ roles as bomber commanders in World War II and their decisions to carry out strategic bombing campaigns against the Axis powers. Both were responsible for the massive devastation wrought against Germany, and, in LeMay’s case, Japan. Hansen 2008, Grayling 2006, and Friedrich 2006 present arguments years after the fact, questioning the effectiveness of the bombing campaigns as well as the ethics involved in strategic bombing. Overy 2005 provides an excellent overview of the entire air war, focusing more on the events, but including consideration for the ethics involved.
Friedrich, Jörg. The Fire: The Bombing of Germany, 1940–1945. Translated by Allison Brown. New York: Columbia University Press, 2006.
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Friedrich’s book, written from the German perspective, is a critique of the strategic bombing of Germany from the point of view of the vanquished. It is very controversial and will encourage debate for years to come.
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Grayling, A. C. Among the Dead Cities: The History and Moral Legacy of the WWII Bombing of Civilians in Germany and Japan. New York: Walker, 2006.
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The British philosopher Grayling presents a scathing ethical and moral critique of the Allied bombing campaigns in World War II. Especially thought provoking is his chapter on the Dresden bombing in February 1945.
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Hansen, Randall. The Fire and the Fury: The Allied Bombing of Germany, 1942–1945. New York: New American Library, 2008.
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Hansen’s book provides an overview of the strategic bombing campaign over Germany during the war and the devastation it wrought on the Germans, as well as the toll to the Allied bomber crews.
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Harris, Arthur. Bomber Offensive. Barnsley, UK: Leo Cooper, 2005.
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This reprint of Sir Arthur “Bomber” Harris’s memoirs chronicles his role as the commander of the RAF’s Bomber Command. While he is still a questionable figure for his part in the destruction of German cities and area bombing at night, this book offers his argument for his actions.
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LeMay, Curtis E. Mission with LeMay: My Story. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1965.
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LeMay, an American bomber pilot and commander in Europe and later in the Pacific, outlines his role in the war and his use of airpower against the Axis. He was responsible for some of the most effective, and most controversial, bombing against Germany and Japan, including the two atomic bombs on Japan in August 1945.
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Overy, Richard. The Air War, 1939–1945. Washington, DC: Potomac, 2005.
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Overy’s excellent scholarship provides an outstanding overview of the air war during World War II and its actual accomplishments. Although he does admit that airpower was only one component of the war, he argues that it was invaluable in the eventual Allied victory.
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The Air War in the Pacific
For the Americans, the Pacific campaign began when the Japanese attacked at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. It ended with the atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The Pacific War continues to be studied and debated, especially the morality of the atomic attacks in the final days of the war. Prange 1981 offers an excellent analysis of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor; the ethics component is in the American response to the attacks in the immediate aftermath. Frank 1999 and Tillman 2010 describe the bombing campaigns against the Japanese and the ethics of firebombing as well as the atomic attacks that helped end the war. Schaffer 1988 and Hastings 2008 touch on the ethics of the bombings specifically and the American decision to burn Japan to the ground. For a number of reasons, the Americans felt justified in their strategy by the end of the war. Harwit 1996 is a contemporary analysis of the ongoing ethical and moral discussion of the atomic bombs and the Smithsonian Museum’s Enola Gay display.
Frank, Richard B. Downfall: The End of the Imperial Japanese Empire. New York: Random House, 1999.
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Frank’s book, an exhaustive study of the destruction of Japan during World War II, describes the strategic bombing campaign against Japan. The industrial might of the United States was brought to bear and overwhelmed Japan by 1945.
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Harwit, Martin. An Exhibit Denied: Lobbying the History of Enola Gay. New York: Copernicus, 1996.
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At the fiftieth anniversary of the atomic bombs, the Smithsonian Institution planned to present a display featuring the Enola Gay, the aircraft that dropped the first atomic bomb. Harwit chronicles the argument against the display for political and ethical reasons. Even fifty years after the fact, the use of atomic weapons still stirs controversy.
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Hastings, Max. Retribution: The Battle for Japan, 1944–45. New York: Knopf, 2008.
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Hasting’s work is on the destruction of Japan. As is obvious from the title, his opinion is that the final destruction of Japan was based on American retribution for Pearl Harbor as well as Japan’s actions in Asia.
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Prange, Gordon W. At Dawn We Slept: The Untold Story of Pearl Harbor. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1981.
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Still the classic on the analysis of the Pearl Harbor attack, this book chronicles the Japanese strategic attack aimed at the US Navy fleet stationed at Hawaii. The Japanese thought they could knock the United States out of the war; instead, the Americans reacted with increasing belligerence.
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Schaffer, Ronald. Wings of Judgment: American Bombing in World War II. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988.
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Schaffer’s book is an overview of the American bombing campaigns in World War II and fits with the analysis of both Europe and the Pacific. It is an excellent overview of the ethics of strategic bombing and the decisions made during wartime.
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Tillman, Barrett. Whirlwind: The Air War against Japan, 1942–1945. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2010.
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This book on the air war over Japan is a great addition to the historiography of the war. Tillman chronicles the American response to Japanese aggression and the strategic bombing campaign that eventually brought Japan to her knees.
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Aerial Bombardment in the Post–World War II Era
After World War II, the new US Air Force (USAF, independent of the Army with the National Security Act of 1947) was determined to continue the narrative and tradition of strategic bombing. The USAF leadership, mostly due to the efforts of General Curtis LeMay, was convinced that bombing had won the war, and worked tirelessly to maintain the USAF’s strategic bombing advantage after the war. The primary focus of the Air Force became the development and continuation of strategic bombing as its main mission.
The Cold War
The end of World War II ushered in a new era of strategic bombardment. First, there was the traditional method of delivering bombs from aircraft, which was a mainstay of air forces around the world; second, there was the nuclear arms race and the threat of nuclear bombardment. Fortunately for the world and the human race, the latter never happened. Interestingly, nuclear weaponry became a distinct ethical issue all its own, and the scholarship is rife with the analysis, critique, and fright over the threat of nuclear bombardment. To date, they have not been used in anger since 1945, which opens additional lines of questioning such as: Are nuclear weapons inherently political, ethical, or moral? Do they represent a return to Douhet’s purest arguments (see Douhet 2009, cited under Theory)? Will they ever be used? How dangerous is proliferation? Below are some sources that wrestle with these and other questions concerning nuclear weapons. Brodie 2007 and Freedman 2003 offer analysis on the development of nuclear strategy from the international relations perspective, without going into much detail about the ethics but giving an overall view of the history and decisions. Nye 1986; Sterba 1985; and Hardin, et al. 1985 offer excellent insight into the ethics of nuclear weapons and the political decisions that have kept that sword sheathed since 1945. Tannenwald 2007 goes into further detail about nuclear weapons and the specifics of why they have not (yet) been used.
Brodie, Bernard. Strategy in the Missile Age. Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 2007.
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Brodie sets out to define military strategy with the advent of nuclear weapons. This book, first published in 1959, is still fundamental to understanding the role of nuclear weapons in national security and their place in global politics.
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Freedman, Lawrence. The Evolution of Nuclear Strategy. 3d ed. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.
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With Brodie 2007, this is a fundamental text on the evolution and development of US nuclear strategy. Freedman discusses at length the political and ethical ramifications of the weapon and its potential uses during the Cold War.
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Hardin, Russell, John J. Mearsheimer, Gerald Dworkin, and Robert E. Goodin, eds. Nuclear Deterrence: Ethics and Strategy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985.
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This group of eminent political scientists compiled an edited work on the history of nuclear ethics and the influence on politics, national security studies, and military strategy.
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Nye, Joseph S., Jr. Nuclear Ethics. New York: Free Press, 1986.
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Nye goes beyond the fundamental readings (Brodie 2007, Freedman 2003) and tackles the ethics behind the development and potential use of nuclear weapons.
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Sterba, James P. The Ethics of War and Nuclear Deterrence. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1985.
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Sterba discusses war and nuclear deterrence and the implications of nuclear weapons for national security policy.
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Tannenwald, Nina. The Nuclear Taboo: The United States and the Non-use of Nuclear Weapons since 1945. Cambridge Studies in International Relations 87. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511491726Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Tannenwald provides a lucid account of the reasons against nuclear weapons, including the ethical consideration, throughout her analysis.
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Korea (1950–1953)
The Korean conflict began when North Korea invaded South Korea in June 1950. The United States, backed by the United Nations, decided to support the South, fight the North, and preserve the balance of power between communists and capitalists around the world. The USAF assumed that strategic bombing would once again be important. However, it was less successful than in the last war (World War II) simply because there were fewer targets in North Korea, China was placed off-limits by politicians, and nuclear weapons were denied. The strategic effort against North Korea was only one small part of the conflict, which eventually ended in a draw for both sides, albeit at very high cost. Crane 2000, by a historian who works for the US Army, analyzes American airpower strategy in Korea and why the nuclear option was not exercised in that conflict. Millett 2002 is also an excellent addition to the historiography of the Korean conflict.
Crane, Conrad C. American Airpower Strategy in Korea, 1950–1953. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2000.
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Crane’s contribution to the historiography of the Korean War includes a detailed analysis of the strategic campaign, its accomplishments, and its limitations.
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Millett, Allan R. Their War for Korea: American, Asian, and European Combatants and Civilians, 1945–1953. Washington, DC: Brassey’s, 2002.
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Millett’s analysis includes a detailed account of the strategic bombing campaign as well as an overview of the effects on the ground in the North and the influence of the bombing campaign on the final peace efforts.
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Vietnam (1954–1973)
A conflict emerged in Southeast Asia as the French tried to maintain their colonial possessions in the post–World War II era. The French lost in French Indochina (Vietnam) for a number of reasons, including insufficient airpower; the United States stepped in to help defend the “democratic” south from North Vietnamese incursion and a growing insurgency. Strategic bombing was one method used by the USAF to combat the North’s influence in the South. An extended war, incorporating multiple bombing campaigns, exposed both the abilities and limitations of strategic bombing in combating both regular and irregular forces. By 1972, with the Linebacker campaigns (I and II), the United States was able to extricate itself from the conflict and ultimately decided that strategic bombing was justified and decisive. However, once again, bombing was only one variable in the Paris Peace accords in 1973; the North reattacked in 1975 and defeated South Vietnam while the United States withheld support. Davidson 1991 is an excellent overview of the war as a whole, while Smith 1994 and Michel 2001 offer in-depth information on specific bombing campaigns. Small 2002 discusses the issues in the United States and dilemma that faced American planners with the public’s reaction to bombing in Vietnam. Clodfelter 2006 offers a critical analysis of the US bombing campaigns and an interpretation of the limits of airpower from political leaders as well as the technology of the time.
Clodfelter, Mark. The Limits of Air Power: The American Bombing of North Vietnam. Rev. ed. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2006.
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Airpower historian Clodfelter provides a critique of the bombing campaigns over Vietnam and the incorrect lessons that the USAF took away from that conflict. Based on extensive research, this is a wonderful corrective to the reigning USAF narrative.
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Davidson, Phillip. Vietnam at War: The History, 1946–1975. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991.
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Still the best overview of the war in its entirety; Davidson presents the history of the Vietnamese war(s) from the end of World War II to the final victories of the North in 1975.
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Michel, Marshall L., III. The 11 Days of Christmas: America’s Last Vietnam Battle. San Francisco: Encounter, 2001.
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Using sources from the United States as well as Vietnam, Michel recounts the Linebacker II raids that brought the North Vietnamese to the peace table in Paris. Michel attempts to show that, while successful in bombing the enemy capital, the Linebacker campaigns were only one variable that convinced North Vietnam to stop fighting against the United States.
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Small, Melvin. Antiwarriors: The Vietnam War and the Battle for America’s Hearts and Minds. Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 2002.
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Although not specifically focused on American bombing campaigns during the Vietnam War, this book charts the discord in the United States over the war as a whole. It is an excellent analysis of the antiwar movement and the unpopularity of the war on the home front. It highlights the ethics discussions that were taking place among the American polity at the time.
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Smith, John T. Rolling Thunder: The Strategic Bombing Campaign against North Vietnam, 1965–68. Walton-on-Thames, UK: Air Research, 1994.
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Smith presents an overview of the Rolling Thunder bombing campaign, designed to block North Vietnam’s support to the insurgency in the South. Although the campaign was limited for a number of reasons—including political, geographic, and technological ones—the USAF attempted to disrupt North Vietnamese logistics.
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The Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)
Concurrent with the Vietnam War, and just before heavy US involvement in South East Asia, a potential problem flared up over Cuba. Following the Cuban Revolution (1959), the Soviets sponsored the Cuban government and Fidel Castro in open anti-American rhetoric. The issue came to a head in October 1962 when the United States discovered Soviet missiles in Cuba. Although the threat was diffused, the potential of strategic bombing and nuclear warfare was a real threat for thirteen ominous days. The ethical question that emerged included both traditional strategic bombing as well as the nuclear threat. Stern 2005 provides an excellent overview of the events, while Allison and Zelikow 1999 delves into the decision-making processes in favor of and against strategic bombing at the time.
Allison, Graham, and Philip Zelikow. Essence of Decision: Explaining the Cuban Missile Crisis. 2d ed. New York: Longman, 1999.
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A classic in the international relations field; Allison and Zelikow discuss the crisis from a scholarly political science perspective and the events and implications of the Cuban Missile Crisis.
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Stern, Sheldon M. The Week the World Stood Still: Inside the Secret Cuban Missile Crisis. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2005.
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Stern’s scholarly contribution to the historiography includes a detailed analysis of the crisis and the decisions made at the time.
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The First Gulf War (1990–1991)
The USAF did not participate in any significant strategic bombing campaigns—nor did anyone else—in the years between the end of Vietnam and the First Gulf War (the war for the liberation of Kuwait). As the Soviet Union imploded, Saddam Hussein and his Iraqi forces occupied Kuwait over a territorial dispute. Almost immediately, the United Nations, with strong support from the United States, began preparations to expel Iraqi forces from Kuwait. Part of the plan was a massive air campaign against Iraqi nerve centers in Baghdad in addition to attacks against their fielded forces. By 1990 the United States benefited from substantial technological evolution. Laser-guided bombs and GPS- (global positioning satellite) guided munitions meant that strategic strikes could be more precise. As compared to previous conflicts where “dumb” bombs were dropped by the thousands, guided munitions promised lethality, efficiency, effectiveness, and precision. The United States was committed—on the surface—to strike only militarily important targets, without collateral damage (the term for casualties among noncombatants or unintended targets). Technological evolution was equated with specific targeting; the expectation was that the USAF could hit whatever it wanted to without hitting what it did not want to. Strategic bombing came to be considered more ethical and moral as only military-specific and intended targets would be struck from the air. Although precision-guided munitions did not always work as prophesied, and there was in fact collateral damage, the USAF (and allies) began to think in terms of precise strategic bombardment. Malfunctioning equipment, missed targets, and collateral damage in the precision environment became ethical issues for an increasingly vocal antiwar movement. Mann 1995 looks specifically at the planning process and the decisions the USAF made in prosecuting the war against Iraq. The underlying theme of the book is the connection between precision and ethics in bombing by 1990. Olsen 2003 and Hallion 1992 also analyze the planning, prosecution, and outcomes of the air war. Keaney and Cohen 1993 is the official government analysis of the campaign and offers insight into the decision-making process and the lessons learned.
Hallion, Richard P. Storm over Iraq: Air Power and the Gulf War. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1992.
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Airpower historian Hallion offers this well-researched book on the planning and conduct of the air war during the First Gulf War.
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Keaney, Thomas A., and Eliot A. Cohen. Gulf War Air Power Survey: Summary Report. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1993.
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The official US government study and analysis of the First Gulf War. Written by academics and military officers, it is an attempt to describe the planning and operations of airpower in the conflict from government documents and oral interviews.
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Mann, Edward C., III. Thunder and Lightning: Desert Storm and the Airpower Debates. Maxwell Air Force Base, AL: Air University Press, 1995.
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In this Air Force–sponsored and published book, Mann outlines the planning and execution of the air plan for the First Gulf War. Although it has little on the ethical discussion, the book is a good overview of the Allied and US air campaigns against Iraq.
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Olsen, John Andreas. Strategic Air Power in Desert Storm. London: Frank Cass, 2003.
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Olsen provides an excellent overview of the strategic bombing campaign in Operation Desert Storm.
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Kosovo (1999)
Kosovo is often regarded as the perfect example of the use of airpower. NATO and US airpower secured the surrender of Slobodan Milošević and his Serbian forces without ground forces. However, there were limitations to the NATO campaign, which took longer than expected and still permitted the murder of many Kosovars. That said, the air campaign was effective in gaining political settlement after seventy-eight days, and mitigated the strife between Serbia and Kosovo. Lambeth 2001 discusses the air campaign and its effects on the enemy as well as the lessons the USAF and American leadership took away from the war. Clark 2001 discusses the changing character of war in the midst of technological evolution. Daalder and O’Hanlon 2000 offers a critical analysis of the air campaign and the ethics of the bombing campaigns.
Clark, Wesley K. Waging Modern War: Bosnia, Kosovo, and the Future of Combat. New York: Public Affairs, 2001.
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The US commander in the conflict, Clark discusses the role of airpower in the modern age and its role and place in modern combat and contemporary military history.
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Daalder, Ivo H., and Michael E. O’Hanlon. Winning Ugly: NATO’s War to Save Kosovo. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 2000.
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In a critical analysis, the authors provide an excellent account of the operations and outcomes of the Kosovo War.
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Lambeth, Benjamin S. NATO’s Air War for Kosovo: A Strategic and Operational Assessment. Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 2001.
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Lambeth’s book chronicles the air war over Kosovo from the planning to the execution to the final settlement. He also provides an excellent critique of the air campaign and its successes and limitations.
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Operation Enduring Freedom (2002–)
Airpower is used extensively in American and Allied efforts in Afghanistan. Following the 9/11 attacks on the United States, the American military went to war to oust the Taliban and bring terrorists in Afghanistan to justice. However, it was not with overwhelming force; instead, the United States opted for a small ground footprint combined with an overwhelming airpower effort. To date, airpower has been very effective in killing terrorists and destroying safe havens, but the United States has not yet found a political solution to the conflict. Tripp, et al. 2004, with analysis from multiple authors, provides an interesting account of early 21st-century capabilities including air, space, and cyber power. Ripley 2011 is an overview of the air campaigns and their influence on the battlefields in Afghanistan. Benjamin and Ehrenreich 2012 touches on the ethical considerations of using drones and unmanned aerial vehicles for bombing.
Benjamin, Medea, and Barbara Ehrenreich. Drone Warfare: Killing by Remote Control. New York: OR Books, 2012.
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New technology is producing new weapons for warfare. Nowhere is this more obvious than in the air war over Afghanistan. Benjamin and Ehrenreich provide a critical analysis of unmanned aerial vehicles in Afghanistan, their use there, and the dangerous precedent they present to the future of aerial warfare.
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Ripley, Tim. Air War Afghanistan: NATO Air Operations from 2001. Barnsley, UK: Pen and Sword Aviation, 2011.
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Ripley offers an overview of air operations in the war in Afghanistan.
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Tripp, Robert S., Kirstin F. Lynch, John G. Drew, and Edward W. Chan. Supporting Air and Space Expeditionary Forces: Lessons from Operation Enduring Freedom. Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 2004.
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An analysis of the conflict in Afghanistan, as provided by the Rand Corporation.
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Operation Iraqi Freedom (2003–2011)
Concurrent with the war in Afghanistan was the American and Allied effort in Iraq. In order to oust Saddam Hussein once and for all and bring democracy to the troubled country, the US-led coalition invaded and conquered Iraq. The quick conventional fight (the first sixty days) was followed with a counterinsurgency campaign on the ground and from the air. Although the final analysis is still forthcoming, here are some titles for consideration. Lynch, et al. 2005 details the interconnectedness of the various technologies that contribute to airpower and strategic bombing in the 21st century, while Gordon and Trainor 2006 provides a critical analysis of the first few months of the war, including the bombing campaigns to cripple Hussein’s command and control.
Gordon, Michael R., and Bernard E. Trainor. Cobra II: The Inside Story of the Invasion and Occupation of Iraq. New York: Pantheon, 2006.
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An overview of the Second Iraq War, this book provides an overview including analysis of the air campaigns.
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Lynch, Kristin F., John G. Drew, Robert S. Tripp, and Charles Robert Roll. Supporting Air and Space Expeditionary Forces: Lessons from Operation Iraqi Freedom. Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 2005.
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Like Tripp, et al. 2004 (cited under Operation Enduring Freedom (2002–)), another Rand analysis, this time on the Second Iraq war and initial lessons learned from that campaign.
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The Future of Airpower and Strategic Bombardment
Strategic bombardment is still a useful tool for the military planner. Using air forces against an opponent is relatively economical—it costs less than troops on the ground—and relatively efficient—it seems to have political effect, depending on the situation. In 21st-century cases like Libya and Syria it was or is being considered. It is a way for the United States in particular to have an effect while putting few Americans directly in harm’s way, yet still maintaining presence and influence. Technology will continue to make strategic bombing an attractive option to planners and politicians. This section includes titles that consider the future of air and space power, and how they will be used in the near future. Springer 2013, on robots and drones, includes an important section on the ethics and morality of future combat systems in warfare, while Singer 2009 provides interesting speculation on what technologies will be emergent in the near future. Moltz 2011 and Dolman 2002 discuss the future of space, and include sections on the ethics and morality of weapons in space. Gray 2012 is a work on airpower theory, including analysis on the ethics of bombing.
Dolman, Everett C. Astropolitik: Classical Geopolitics in the Space Age. London: Frank Cass, 2002.
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Dolman is the leading space theorist from the realist camp, and is for the weaponization of space.
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Gray, Colin S. Airpower for Strategic Effect. Maxwell Air Force Base, AL: Air University Press, 2012.
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Military historian and theorist Gray offers his thoughts and insight on the future of airpower and its near-future procurement and application.
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Moltz, James Clay. The Politics of Space Security: Strategic Restraint and the Pursuit of National Interests. 2d ed. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2011.
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Moltz is the leading theorist of the internationalist perspective on space as a sanctuary, free from weapons.
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Singer, P. W. Wired for War: The Robotics Revolution and Conflict in the 21st Century. New York: Penguin, 2009.
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A book on future systems, their uses, and their dangers.
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Springer, Paul J. Military Robots and Drones: A Reference Handbook. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2013.
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Springer, a noted historian, provides a survey of unmanned vehicles of all types and speculates about their future uses and employment. He also deals with some of the thorny ethical issues surrounding the technology.
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Studies in Ethics and Morals in Aerial Bombing
There are a number of titles, not easily categorized, that deal specifically with the ethics and morals of aerial bombardment. While this is not an exhaustive list, the books listed in this section are some of the most controversial, while at the same time making the best arguments for and against strategic bombing across the history of aviation. Each of the following works gives important insight into the topic at hand, discussing ethics and morals using specific case studies as examples. Werrell 2009 gives an overview of strategic bombing, including excellent information on the continuing ethical debate. Gentile 2001 uses cases from World War II through Kosovo to analyze the effectiveness of bombing, including the important ethical discussion. Knell 2003 dives deeper into the ethical argument with the author’s discussions of the ethics of bombing in World War II, while Crane 1993 offers analysis of the American strategy in World War II as defined by ethical considerations. Garrett 1993 discusses the same issues using the British example. Buckley 1999 analyzes strategic bombing across the entire history, giving insight into the changing ethical considerations. Thomas 2001 provides analysis across the entire spectrum of force, including strategic bombing, while Hickey 2012 predicts future bombing technology and ethical considerations to come. Finally, Grosscup 2006 offers an extremely liberal viewpoint, arguing that aerial bombing is unethical and should be avoided at all costs.
Buckley, John. Air Power in the Age of Total War. London: UCL Press, 1999.
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Another excellent overview of the history and evolution of strategic bombing; Buckley provides a scholarly critique of the use of bombing and its effects during wartime. The analysis is centered on World War II but both reaches back to and projects past World War II in its analysis.
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Crane, Conrad. Bombs, Cities, and Civilians: American Airpower Strategy in World War II. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1993.
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Crane, a professor at the Army War College, provides an outstanding overview of the strategic bombing campaign in World War II as well as an excellent academic critique of the ethics of strategic bombing.
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Garrett, Stephen A. Ethics and Airpower in World War II: The British Bombing of German Cities. New York: St. Martin’s, 1993.
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Garrett concentrates on the British bombing campaigns of World War II, and considers the ethics in that war.
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Gentile, Gian P. How Effective Is Strategic Bombing? Lessons Learned from World War II to Kosovo. New York: New York University Press, 2001.
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Gentile, a US Army colonel and professor at West Point, considers the effectiveness of strategic bombing. A well-researched and critical analysis, this book provides food for thought for the ethics question.
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Grosscup, Beau. Strategic Terror: The Politics and Ethics of Aerial Bombardment. London: Zed Books, 2006.
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A very controversial book on the ethics of aerial bombardment; Grosscup offers an extreme liberal view against bombing.
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Hickey, James. Precision-Guided Munitions and Human Suffering in War. Farnham, UK: Ashgate, 2012.
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Hickey’s book centers on the debate surrounding precision-guided munitions and whether they make war more or less ethical.
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Knell, Hermann. To Destroy a City: Strategic Bombing and Its Human Consequences in World War II. Cambridge, MA: Da Capo, 2003.
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Knell provides an excellent critique of strategic bombing in World War II in a first-person account and his recollections living in Germany during World War II. This is a very strong account from the perspective of the bombed.
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Thomas, Ward. The Ethics of Destruction: Norms and Force in International Relations. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2001.
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Although a broad analysis of war in general, its application to strategic bombardment is obvious and appropriate.
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Werrell, Kenneth P. Death from the Heavens: The History of Strategic Bombing. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 2009.
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A noted aviation historian, Werrell considers the ethical and moral implications of strategic bombing across the history of the technology.