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Prophets (Biblical Studies)

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. “Prophets,” “prophecy,” and “prophetic” are the three words that form the core of this research area. Prophets interpret the present in light of a specific type of divination practices. Divination was and is a resource to provide a human client, individual, or group access to divine information about the present and the future. Prophets work within the institution and practices called prophecy. The artifacts left by the prophets are prophetic, whether literature or speech. The material described in this bibliography focuses on the prophetic books. These books are referred to as the Prophets in many circles but sometimes are referred to as the Latter Prophets (Judges through Kings have the designation the Former Prophets.).
  4.  
  5. Bible Dictionaries
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  7. Bible dictionaries and companions often provide introductory material suitable for the advanced undergraduate, ministerial student, or minister. Napier 1962 provides a substantial presentation from the perspective of mid-20th-century scholarship. Koch 2000, Petersen 2002, and Petersen 2009 provide the most extensive essays and bibliographies in this category. Buss 1976, Wilson 1996, and Wilson 1998 provide more brief discussions and bibliographies. Ramlot 1972 provides a thorough presentation with bibliographic data.
  8.  
  9. Buss, Martin J. “Prophecy in Ancient Israel.” In Interpreters Dictionary of the Bible: Supplementary Volume. Edited by Lloyd Richard Bailey, Victor Paul Furnish, and Emory Stevens Bucke, 694–697. Nashville: Abingdon, 1976.
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  11. Buss provides a form-critical examination of the topic with particular attention to sociological and anthropological readings of prophetic literature. Short essay with bibliography.
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  13. Koch, Klaus. “Propheten/Prophetie II: In Israel und seiner Umwelt.” In Theologische Realenzyklopädie. Vol. 27.3. Edited by Claus-Jürgen Thornton, 477–499. Studienausgabe 2. Berlin: de Gruyter, 2000.
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  15. Koch gives an extensive treatment of the phenomenon of prophecy as a type of religious sociology. He outlines the development of the phenomenon and its literary witness. There is also an extensive bibliography.
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  17. Napier, B. D. “Prophet, Prophetism.” In Interpreters Dictionary of the Bible. Vol. 3. Edited by George Arthur Buttrick, 896–919. Nashville: Abingdon, 1962.
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  19. This substantial essay with short bibliography provides an apt snapshot of American research on the topic during the middle of the 20th century. This material is provided for the advanced undergraduate, seminarian, or minister. However, the continuing consensus reconstructions in this article will be found in the more recent essays.
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  21. Petersen, David L. “Introduction to Prophetic Literature.” In New Interpreter’s Bible. Vol. 6. CD-ROM. Nashville: Abingdon, 2002.
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  23. This substantial essay covers definitions and origins of prophecy as well as the diverse roles, historical settings, and growth of prophetic literature.
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  25. Petersen, David L. “Prophet, Prophecy.” In New Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible. Vol. 4. Edited by Katherine Doob Sakenfeld, 622–648. Nashville: Abingdon, 2009.
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  27. Petersen provides a guide for the advanced undergraduate, seminarian, or minister. Substantial essay with a short bibliography.
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  29. Ramlot, L. “Prophétisme.” In Supplément au Dictionnaire de la Bible. Vol. 8. Edited by Henri Cazelles and André Feuillet, 811–1222. Paris: Letouzey & Ané, 1972.
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  31. Ramlot gives a description of the phenomenon of prophecy in Egyptian Mesopotamia, Canaan, and elsewhere and its cultural, theological, and literary manifestations in ancient Israel and Judea. Bibliographic resources are also provided.
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  33. Wilson, Robert R. “Prophet.” In HarperCollins Bible Dictionary. Rev. ed. Edited by Paul J. Achtemeier and Roger Boraas, 884–889. San Francisco: HarperCollins, 1996.
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  35. Wilson summarizes the issues in a short essay with a short bibliography. This is most helpful for the general reader, providing a more accessible version of the Cambridge Companion to the Bible (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1997).
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  37. Wilson, Robert R. “The Prophetic Books.” In The Cambridge Companion to Biblical Interpretation. Edited by John Barton, 212–225. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
  38. DOI: 10.1017/CCOL0521481449Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  39. Wilson gives this topic a more substantial treatment than that provided in the HarperCollins Bible Dictionary (Wilson 1996).
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  41. Introductions to Hebrew Bible or Old Testament
  42.  
  43. The introductions to the Hebrew Bible or Old Testament often help orient the advanced undergraduate, ministerial student, or minister to the field of prophetic studies. Brueggemann 2003 introduces the prophetic books with some reflection on the nature of prophetic literature. Childs 1979 reflects the author’s concern for the prophetic literature in the context of the canon. Collins 2004 describes the prophetic books in chronological order. Longman and Dillard 2006 likewise focuses on the canonical location in its structure and its reflection on the New Testament allusions to prophetic material. Gottwald 2009 introduces the prophets as an opponent to the counterrevolutionary monarchy and later the colonial structures. Sweeney 2008 approaches the prophetic books from a literary-theological perspective informed by the reality of the Shoah (Holocaust). Zenger, et al. 2006 is a technical introduction that follows the canonical order of the biblical prophets.
  44.  
  45. Brueggemann, Walter. An Introduction to the Old Testament: The Canon and Christian Imagination. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2003.
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  47. Brueggemann works ad seriatim through the prophetic books. He does include a helpful discussion of the Book of the Twelve as a unit (pp. 209–214). His section “Reprise on the Prophets” (pp. 263–270) frames the canonical issues in a felicitous way. See also pp. 159–270.
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  49. Childs, Brevard S. Introduction to the Old Testament as Scripture. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1979.
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  51. Childs begins with a brief “introduction to the latter prophets” that describes the change in perception of the prophetic books from Antiquity to 1979, then he moves through the material, treating each book in canonical order. Each entry describes historical-critical problems, the canonical shape of the book in question, and the theological and hermeneutical implications of the material. See also pp. 305–498.
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  53. Collins, John J. Introduction to the Hebrew Bible. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2004.
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  55. Collins follows a chronological order, beginning with Amos and Hosea and closing with Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi, and Joel. Each chapter describes the content of the book, reconstructs its process of becoming a book, and discusses the theological sensibilities of the book’s author. This introduction is effective for upper-level undergraduates and seminarians. See pp. 283–424 in particular.
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  57. Gottwald, Norman K. The Hebrew Bible: A Brief Socio-Literary Introduction. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2009.
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  59. Gottwald first offers a distinctive perspective that locates prophetic practice amid Israel’s counterrevolutionary establishment (pp. 304–308, 351–363, 374–386, and 408). He then describes prophecy and prophetic literature and speech among the traditions of colonial Israel (pp. 458–468, 482–512). This material is accessible to undergraduates as well as seminarians and clergy.
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  61. Longman, Tremper, III, and Raymond B. Dillard. An Introduction to the Old Testament. Rev. ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2006.
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  63. The writers examine each book individually without benefit of an overall introduction to prophecy or prophetic literature. Each section contains a short bibliography and discussion of the historical background, the literary structure, the theological message, and the connection to the New Testament. This book is appropriate for the ministerial student and the minister. Originally published in 1994. See pp. 267–442 in particular.
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  65. Sweeney, Marvin A. Reading the Hebrew Bible after the Shoah: Engaging Holocaust Theology. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2008.
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  67. Sweeney takes an Impressionistic theological look at the prophetic books. His discussion moves from Isaiah to the Book of the Twelve. He examines a number of the issues raised in a typical critical introduction but through a topical approach, such as “Isaiah’s Question to G-d,” “Jeremiah’s Struggle with His Divine Commission,” and “Ezekiel and the Holiness of G-d.” He ends with “The Twelve Prophets and the Question of Shoah.” See pp. 84–166 in particular.
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  69. Zenger, Erich, Christian Frevel, Heinz-Josef Fabry, Georg Braulik, and Herbert Niehr. Einleitung in das Alte Testament. 7th ed. Kohlhammer Studienbücher Theologie 1.1. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 2006.
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  71. Zenger introduces the Book of the Prophets with a discussion of the distinctiveness and significance of the prophets of Israel, the multifaceted nature of prophecy, the self-understanding and expression of the canonical prophets of Israel, and the significance of prophecy. This introduction is followed by descriptions of the relevant issues in particular books by other scholars. Zenger then writes the section on the Book of the Twelve. See pp. 417–586 in particular.
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  73. Introductory Works
  74.  
  75. These books are designed for the college and seminary classroom. The first type moves through the books in canonical order (popular and more advanced). The second type rehearses a reconstructed history of prophecy in the Hebrew Bible. The third type presents key themes in the prophets. This type is usually a supplemental reading to a course in biblical prophecy.
  76.  
  77. Popular Introductions
  78.  
  79. Two popular Jewish treatments dominate the horizon of prophetic studies. These books can be used in the college classroom, but they have endured because of their accessibility to general readers as well. Buber 1960, a classic, represents a blend of exegetical and philosophical reflections. Heschel 1962 likewise demonstrates a rabbinic wisdom that makes it a classic. These books work in beginning undergraduate courses and are also appropriate for general readers. McConville 2008 describes the material in canonical order from an evangelical perspective. Newsome 1984 gives the reader a short historical critical analysis of the prophetic books. Sawyer 1993, in a very succinct treatment, outlines a history of prophecy from Moses to Malachi.
  80.  
  81. Buber, Martin. The Prophetic Faith. Translated by Carlyle Witton-Davies. Harper Torchbooks 73. New York: Harper and Row, 1960.
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  83. This book describes the reconfiguration of the broad narrative of salvation after the exile. The metaphor of prophetic faith grows out of the relational nature of prophetic speech and hearing. Originally published in Hebrew.
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  85. Heschel, Abraham J. The Prophets: An Introduction. 2 vols. New York: Harper, 1962.
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  87. Classic treatment of the biblical books as well as themes such as history, chastisement, and justice by a noted Jewish scholar. The book is accessible to the general reader as well as undergraduates.
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  89. McConville, J. Gordon. Exploring the Old Testament: A Guide to the Prophets. Vol. 4. Exploring the Old Testament. Downers Grove, IL: Intervarsity Academic, 2008.
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  91. Written from an evangelical perspective, this book is appropriate for beginning students. It is divided into seventeen chapters, one for each of the prophetic books. The chapters vary in length depending on the book the chapter describes.
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  93. Newsome, James D., Jr. The Hebrew Prophets. Atlanta: John Knox, 1984.
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  95. Newsome provides a concise treatment of each of the prophetic books with discussion of the historical context, the literary structure, and the theological implications. This book is accessible to undergraduates, but it could be used in seminary classes and possibly by some general readers.
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  97. Sawyer, John F. A. Prophecy and the Biblical Prophets. Rev. ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993.
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  99. This short, accessible introduction begins with topics such as the phenomenon of prophecy, prophetic literature, and the message of the prophets. Then Sawyer provides a history of prophecy from Moses to Huldah; the writing prophets Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel; Daniel; and the Book of the Twelve. He concludes with a discussion of the legacy of prophecy in Judaism and early Christianity and the history of religions. This book is suitable for general readers or undergraduate students.
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  101. Advanced Introductions
  102.  
  103. These books are designed for advanced undergraduate or masters-level students. Petersen 2002 emphasizes the prophetic literature rather than extensive reconstruction of an original speech event. Redditt 2008 describes the prophetic books in canonical order. Rofé 1997 outlines the development of the prophetic books. Ward 1991 introduces the prophetic message in context and leads the reader through each of the prophetic books in canonical order.
  104.  
  105. Petersen, David L. The Prophetic Literature: An Introduction. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2002.
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  107. Petersen provides the reader with an extensive introduction, a discussion of prophetic literature outside the prophetic books, and a treatment of the biblical prophetic books with select bibliographies. His emphasis is on literary features and historical contexts. This book is suitable for advanced undergraduates and ministerial students and pastors.
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  109. Redditt, Paul L. Introduction to the Prophets. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2008.
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  111. A short introduction is followed by a chapter that defines a prophet, addressing topics such as prophetic conflict. Chapters on the biblical prophetic books follow.
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  113. Rofé, A. Introduction to the Prophetic Literature. Translated by Judith H. Seeligmann. Biblical Seminar 21. Sheffield, UK: Sheffield Academic Press, 1997.
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  115. This introduction focuses on big-picture questions without a systematic discussion of the content and structure of the prophetic books. Instead, the author examines five key issues in prophetic research: the nature and the arrangement of the prophetic books, the genres of prophetic speech, the social functions of the prophets, the prophets in the light of historical-literary criticism, and apocalyptic material and prophecy. Originally published in Hebrew (Jerusalem: Akademon, 1992).
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  117. Sweeney, Marvin A. The Prophetic Literature. Interpreting Biblical Texts. Nashville: Abingdon, 2005.
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  119. The focus of this book (and the series it is in) is on the world arising from the reading of the text instead of the historical context or the world behind the text. The book has a concise literary and form-critical analysis of the biblical prophetic books. Each chapter contains a short list of books for further reading.
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  121. Ward, James M. Thus Says the Lord: The Message of the Prophets. Nashville: Abingdon, 1991.
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  123. The work begins with a short introduction that places the prophetic message in context. The following chapters provide a concise treatment of the biblical prophetic books. Each chapter also contains a select bibliography. The conclusion, “The God of the Prophets,” provides a theological postscript.
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  125. Historical Introductions
  126.  
  127. These introductions to the development of prophecy in ancient Israel are designed for the masters-level classroom. They are more focused on the chronological development than the canonical order of the prophetic books. Blenkinsopp 1996 outlines the history of the prophecy. Clements 1996 writes from a historical perspective with a focus on the canon as a process and a context. Cook 2005 examines the history of prophecy. Steck 2000 provides an examination of the prophetic books from a traditional historical perspective with a focus on the development of the canon.
  128.  
  129. Blenkinsopp, Joseph. A History of Prophecy in Israel. 2d ed. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1996.
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  131. Blenkinsopp begins by defining the object of study: the social roles and location(s) of Israelite prophecy. Then he outlines the history from the beginnings to Amos, the shifts in prophecy with the Assyrian expansion, and the end of the two kingdoms’ independence. He next describes the period of prophecy between the old order and the new (“neocolonial”) model. Finally he describes the prophets and prophecy in the Second Commonwealth. This is well written but still more appropriate for the seminary and graduate classroom than for others less advanced. Originally published in 1983.
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  133. Clements, Ronald E. Old Testament Prophecy: From Oracles to Canon. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1996.
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  135. Collection of loosely related essays written between 1965 and 1995 on the interpretation of Old Testament prophecy; the roles of prophet, king, and messiah; Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel; the rise of the apocalyptic; and the prophetic canon.
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  137. Cook, Joan E. Hear O Heavens and Listen O Earth: An Introduction to the Prophets. Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 2005.
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  139. Cook provides a chronological treatment of the prophets that is informed by Catholic teaching and interfaith conversation. Each chapter contains suggestions for further reading. She includes the depictions of prophets in earlier narratives. This book is suitable for undergraduates or seminarians.
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  141. Steck, Odil Hannes. The Prophetic Books and Their Theological Witness. Translated by James D. Nogalski. St. Louis: Chalice, 2000.
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  143. The first part of the book outlines a method to recover the transmission of the prophetic books. The second part proposes an outline of the development of the text. For Steck, the development of the canonical text is more than additions, it also involves another hearing of the earlier words. This introduction is for seminarians and graduate students.
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  145. Thematic Introductions
  146.  
  147. These books introduce the prophets through a different set of rubrics. Brenner 1995 provides a feminist companion to reading the prophets. Conrad 2003 proposes a new methodological model for the introduction to the prophets. Dempsey 2000 adds a liberationist perspective, and Meier 2009 takes a thematic approach in this undergraduate introduction.
  148.  
  149. Brenner, Athalya, ed. A Feminist Companion to the Latter Prophets. Sheffield, UK: Sheffield Academic Press, 1995.
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  151. This collection of essays examines the case of Hosea in Part 1, with eleven essays. Part 2 contains essays that explore the pornoprophetics of sexual violence in the prophetic books in four essays. The third part “Should We Trust the God of the Prophets?” discusses that theological question. The book also contains a substantial bibliography. It is written for graduate-level students and scholars.
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  153. Conrad, Edgar W. Reading the Latter Prophets: Toward a New Canonical Criticism. Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 376. London: T&T Clark, 2003.
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  155. The book consists of eight chapters. The first chapter outlines a semiotics of reading based on the work of Umberto Eco. Chapter 2 explores texts and history. Chapter 3 examines the ordering of prophetic books. Chapters 5 through 8 are experiments reading prophetic books in tandem: Amos and Jeremiah, Jonah and Ezekiel, Isaiah and a group of interlocutors, and finally the Book of the Twelve in dialogue with the Major Prophets. The book is written for graduate-level students as well as scholars.
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  157. Dempsey, Carol J. The Prophets: A Liberation-Critical Reading. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2000.
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  159. This introduction to the prophets begins with a rubric common to liberation critical analysis. Power and domination frame an examination of Amos, Micah, Jeremiah, Baruch, and Lamentations; Habakkuk and Zephaniah; and Ezekiel. The second section describes the shift from power and domination to power and liberation, all of which frame the analysis of the books of Daniel, Jonah, Haggai and Zechariah, Obadiah and Malachi, and Nahum and Joel. The third section outlines the shift from one power over to another with the books of Hosea and Isaiah as the core texts. The book includes notes and bibliography and is designed for an undergraduate or masters-level classroom.
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  161. Meier, Samuel A. Themes and Transformations in Old Testament Prophecy. Downers Grove, IL: Intervarsity Academic, 2009.
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  163. The organizing principles of this introduction are fourteen aspects of the Hebrew prophets, such as the idea of the divine council, the manner of revelation, and miracles. Meier’s historical reconstruction consistently points to the importance of the exile as a watershed. The book is designed for the undergraduate classroom but would be effective in a masters-level class as well.
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  165. Congresses and Festschriften
  166.  
  167. Congresses and Festschriften are resources for cutting-edge research in prophetic studies and for reprints of classic articles. There are numerous collections; the following selection is a good place to start. Ahn and Cook 2009; Kelle and Moore 2006; Coggins, et al. 1982; Kaiser, et al. 1989; Watts and House 1996; and Ben Zvi and Floyd 2000 bring together cutting-edge scholarship for graduate students and scholars. Grabbe and Haak 2001 covers urbanism and prophecy. Only one volume of collected essays, Gordon 1995, is designed as a supplementary textbook.
  168.  
  169. Ahn, John, and Stephen L. Cook, eds. Thus Says the Lord: Essays on the Former and Latter Prophets in Honor of Robert R. Wilson. Library of Hebrew Bible/Old Testament 502. New York: T&T Clark, 2009.
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  171. This volume collects a wide range of articles on prophetic material and the historical books (former prophets).
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  173. Ben Zvi, Ehud, and Michael H. Floyd, eds. Writings and Speech in Israelite and Ancient Near Eastern Prophecy. Society of Biblical Literature 10. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2000.
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  175. This collection of ten essays grew out of the 1997 Society of Biblical Literature proceedings “The Prophetic Texts and Their Ancient Contexts Consultation.” Each article addresses the topic of speech and writing in prophetic literature.
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  177. Coggins, Richard, Anthony Phillips, and Michael Knibb, eds. Israel’s Prophetic Tradition: Essays in Honour of Peter R. Ackroyd. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1982.
  178. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511557422Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  179. Wide-ranging collection of essays from established scholars of the mid-20th century.
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  181. Gordon, Robert P. “The Place Is Too Small for Us”: The Israelite Prophets in Recent Scholarship. Sources for Biblical and Theological Study 5. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1995.
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  183. This volume is a reader in prophetic studies. The articles cover topics such as the Near Eastern background, the message of the prophets, and the art of prophecy. This could be used as a textbook for an upper-level undergraduate or masters-level course in biblical prophecy.
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  185. Grabbe, Lester L., and Robert D. Haak, eds. “Every City Shall Be Forsaken”: Urbanism and Prophecy in Ancient Israel and the Near East. Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 330. Sheffield, UK: Sheffield Academic Press, 2001.
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  187. This collection, which grew out of the Society of Biblical Literature group Prophetic Texts and Their Ancient Contexts, explores the influence of urbanism on the shape and growth of prophetic literature.
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  189. Kaiser, Otto, Volkmar Fritz, Karl-Friedrich Pohlmann, and Hans-Christoph Schmitt, eds. Prophet Und Prophetenbuch: Festschrift für Otto Kaiser Zum 65. Geburtstag. Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 185. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1989.
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  191. This is a broad collection of essays on the prophets and prophetic literature.
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  193. Kelle, Brad E., and Megan Bishop Moore, eds. Israel’s Prophets and Israel’s Past: Essays on the Relationship of Prophetic Texts and Israelite History in Honor of John H. Hayes. Library of Hebrew Bible/Old Testament Studies 446. London: T&T Clark, 2006.
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  195. The theme for this collection of essays is the role of history in prophetic speech and practice.
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  197. Watts, James W., and Paul House. Forming Prophetic Literature: Essays on Isaiah and the Twelve in Honor of John D. W. Watts. Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 235. Sheffield, UK: Sheffield Academic Press, 1996.
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  199. A number of these articles come out of the Society of Biblical Literature consultation on the Formation of the Book of the Twelve in 1994 and 1995.
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  201. Text of (Latter) Prophets
  202.  
  203. A wide range of resources facilitates the reading of the prophets in the ancient and more original languages of Hebrew and Greek. The textual base for prophetic studies is the Hebrew Masoretic text, the Greek Septuagint, and the manuscript evidenced by the Qumran material. Based on these resources, contemporary translations have emerged in English and other modern languages.
  204.  
  205. Hebrew and Greek Texts
  206.  
  207. The basis for the study of the prophets is the Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia. However, the Hebrew text can be found in electronic forms as well as print. The foundation text for research on the Latter Prophets is the Westminster Leningrad Codex. The Hebrew text of the book of Latter Prophets and ancient- and modern-language translations of the entire Bible are in Online Translations of the Bible. The text of the Latter Prophets is in the Greek and Hebrew Reader’s Bible as well. The German site Online-Bibeln is organized and subject to the Deutschen Bibelgesellschaft. The Blue Letter Bible provides the Hebrew, the Greek, and a number of other translations.
  208.  
  209. Blue Letter Bible.
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  211. The online Blue Letter Bible displays the Hebrew text in the Westminster Leningrad Codex, a digital version of the Leningrad Codex (the electronic version of this same text is also available in a more scholar-friendly form). The Hebrew text of any given verse of the Latter Prophets and the standard Septuagint text is provided. The site also cross-references the verse with The Treasury of Christian Knowledge, concordance and Hebrew/Greek lexicon, Christian hymns that accompany any Psalm, versions and translations, and dictionaries available in the public domain. The use of these resources indicates that this site will not interest professional scholars of the Bible, but it may be helpful to college students, seminarians, and the general reader.
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  213. Greek and Hebrew Reader’s Bible.
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  215. This online resource has the Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia text of the Hebrew Bible. The site includes interactive lexical information based on the standard Brown, Driver, Briggs Hebrew lexicon. It provides a lexicon and morphology of words appearing anywhere from ten to one hundred times in the Hebrew Bible. The Brown, Driver, Briggs Hebrew lexicon is also available in pdf form to help with less frequent words.
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  217. Online-Bibeln.
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  219. Das wissenschaftliche Bibelportal der Deutschen Bibelgesellschaft provides this German website that offers the Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia text, the Greek Septuagint (LXX) text, and the Latin Vulgate. All versions are readable online free of charge. The interface is fairly easy to navigate with minimal German fluency.
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  221. Online Translations of the Bible.
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  223. An aggregate site that brings together links to online Bible translations of the Hebrew text. Most of these sites are English translations, though there is a link to the Latin Vulgate.
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  225. Westminster Leningrad Codex.
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  227. The Westminster Leningrad Codex online uses a font that can be sometimes difficult to read.
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  229. Modern-Language Texts
  230.  
  231. The comparison of modern-language translations can provide a clue to multivalent terms and syntactical issues. Bible Study Tools, BibleGateway, and Bible Database Advanced Bible Search provide a number of modern-language translations.
  232.  
  233. Bible Database Advanced Bible Search.
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  235. This site provides a range of modern-language translations from Afrikaans, Finnish, French, German, Haitian Creole, Indonesian dialects, Italian, and Spanish. Ancient Greek, Septuagint, and Hebrew transliterations are also available at this site.
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  237. BibleGateway.
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  239. This website provides access to a number of English translations as well as modern-language translations in Arabic, Bulgarian, Haitian Creole, and more.
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  241. Bible Study Tools.
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  243. This website allows access to translations in English, Spanish, French, German, Italian, and Dutch. The English translations include the popular New Revised Standard, the Message (paraphrase), the New International Version, and more.
  244. Find this resource:
  245. Contemporary English Translations
  246.  
  247. Four contemporary English translations are available in print and online: US Conference of Catholic Bishops 2011, the New American Standard Version, the New Revised Standard Version, and the New International Version.
  248.  
  249. Jewish Publication Society. A New Translation of the Holy Scriptures according to the Masoretic Text. 3 vols. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1962–1982.
  250. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  251. This revision of the 1917 translation brought together Jewish scholars from different denominations.
  252. Find this resource:
  253. New American Standard Bible. 26th ed. Washington, DC: Catholic Biblical Association, 1995.
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  255. The New American Standard Bible is a revision of the American Standard Version (1901) sponsored by the Lockman Foundation, a nonprofit, interdenominational Christian foundation.
  256. Find this resource:
  257. New International Version. Colorado Springs, CO: Biblica, 2011.
  258. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  259. This is a revision of the New International Version (1984).
  260. Find this resource:
  261. New Revised Standard Version. New York: National Council of Churches, 1995.
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  263. First published in 1989 and rereleased in 1995, the New Revised Standard Version is available in hard copy as well as online through the Oremus Bible Browser.
  264. Find this resource:
  265. US Conference of Catholic Bishops. The New American Bible. Rev. ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011.
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  267. The complete revised translation of the prophets.
  268. Find this resource:
  269. German Bibles
  270.  
  271. Three of the major German translations of the prophets are available in print and online from the Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft. They include the Luther Bible (Die Bibel, oder, Die Heilige Schrift des Alten und Neuen Testaments Martin Luther), Gute Nachricht Bible, and Menge 2005. The Catholic Einheitsubersetzung (Die Bibel: Altes und Neues Testament) is bundled with Bible concordances, such as BibleWorks, as well as online. Menge 2005 and Gute Nachricht Bible are both available through Bible software packages, such as Accordance 9 and BibleWorks 9.
  272.  
  273. Die Bibel: Altes und Neues Testament. Einheitsubersetzung. Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany: Herder, 2005.
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  275. The unity translation (Einheitsubersetzung) was to provide the Catholic parishes in the German-speaking world with a single translation for liturgical use. This Roman Catholic translation of the Bible was published from 1962 to 1980. It replaced the Latin Bible previously used for liturgical life in Germany. A revision was made in 2005.
  276. Find this resource:
  277. Die Bibel, oder, Die Heilige Schrift des Alten und Neuen Testaments Martin Luther. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 1984.
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  279. This translation (1534) functioned for the German community as the King James (Authorized) Version. The current version of the Luther Bible was translated in 1984. The language is rather archaic.
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Gute Nachricht Bible. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 2000.
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  283. (GNB; Today’s German Bible, Good news Bible).The GNB project began as a cooperation between the Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft (German Bible Association) (Protestant), the Katholischen Bibelwerks (Catholic Bible Works) in Stuttgart, and the evangelical and Catholic Bibelgesellschaften (Bible associations) in Austria. The product was Bibel in heutigem Deutsch (Today’s German Bible, Stuttgart, 1983). The revision of the Bibel in heutigem Deutsch began in 1997. The complete revision appeared in 2000.
  284. Find this resource:
  285. Menge, Hermann, trans. Menge Bible. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 2005.
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  287. This translation, by the Hebrew and classics scholar Hermann Menge, appeared in the 1900s. It is marked by a word-for-word translation with a linguistically modern rendering. This translation is available in hard copy, in Bible software, and for download for the iPhone, Blackberry, and Android.
  288. Find this resource:
  289. Surveys
  290.  
  291. These surveys of interpretations of the prophets focus on scholarly opinions and interpretations. Baker 1999 surveys three decades of research. Hayes 1999 describes interpretations of the prophets from biblical times to the 20th century. Mays, et al. 1995 addresses research from the 19th century to the late 20th century. Neumann 1979 describes the changes in German scholarship from Heinrich Ewald’s work in 1840 to the work of Klaus Koch published in 1971. Schmidt 1984 provides a snapshot of the author’s prophetic studies. Tucker 1985 and Wilson 2004 emphasize the 19th and 20th centuries as they frame the current debate in prophetic studies. Hauser and Kaufman 2008 provides surveys of various prophetic books.
  292.  
  293. Baker, David W. “Israelite Prophets and Prophecy.” In The Face of Old Testament Studies: A Survey of Contemporary Approaches. Edited by D. W. Baker and Bill T. Arnold, 266–294. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 1999.
  294. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  295. This survey covers the last three decades of the 20th century. An extensive presentation examines the issues of oral tradition (precomposition), composition, redaction and transmission, and application. The footnotes provide substantial bibliographic data for further research. This resource is helpful for graduate and undergraduate students.
  296. Find this resource:
  297. Hauser, Alan J., and Schuyler Kaufman. Recent Research on the Major Prophets. Sheffield, UK: Sheffield Academic Press, 2008.
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  299. This collection of eleven articles with extensive bibliographies presents current research on the prophets.
  300. Find this resource:
  301. Hayes, John H. “Prophecy and Prophets, Hebrew Bible.” In Dictionary of Biblical Interpretation. Vol. 2. Edited by John H. Hayes, 310–317. Nashville: Abingdon, 1999.
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  303. Hayes begins with the description of prophecy in Hebrew narrative and continues with the transformation of the interpretation of the prophets in early Judaism and Christianity. He ultimately encompasses interpretations through the ages until the late 20th century. He also includes a significant bibliography.
  304. Find this resource:
  305. Mays, James L., David L. Petersen, and Kent H. Richards, eds. Old Testament Interpretation: Past, Present, and Future; Essays in Honor of Gene M. Tucker. Nashville: Abingdon, 1995.
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  307. Four of the essays in this collection outline different aspects of the recent scholarship on prophecy and prophetic literature. Robert R. Wilson’s essay “The Former Prophets: Reading the Books of Kings,” Patrick D. Miller Jr.’s essay “The World and Message of the Prophets: Biblical Prophecy in Its Context,” Marvin A. Sweeney’s essay “Formation and Form in the Prophetic Literature,” and Katheryn Pfisterer Darr’s essay “Literary Perspectives on Prophetic Literature” all begin with a relevant survey of prophetic research.
  308. Find this resource:
  309. Neumann, Peter H. A. Das Prophetenverständnis in der Deutschsprachigen Forschung seit Heinrich Ewald. Wege der Forschung 307. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1979.
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  311. This essay introduces a selection of classic articles from the work of Heinrich Ewald (b. 1903–d. 1875) until 1971. The writers include Heinrich Ewald, Bernhard Duhm, Signumd Mowinckel, Hermann Gunkel, and others who shaped studies of Hebrew prophecy in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
  312. Find this resource:
  313. Schmidt, Werner H. “The Form of Prophecy.” In Old Testament Introduction. By Werner H. Schmidt, 173–190. Translated by M. J. O’Connell. New York: Crossroad, 1984.
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  315. This essay is an opportunity for Schmidt to describe the horizon of issues in prophetic studies in 1979. Five questions dominate: (1) the use of earlier traditions, (2) the role of prophecy in the interpretation of the future, (3) the relationship between the pronouncements of the future and the analysis of the then present, (4) the appearance of new interpretations as prophetic speech became prophetic literature over the ages, and (5) the greater complexity of prophetic announcements than that of ongoing announcements of disaster. Reprinted in The Place Is Too Small for Us: The Israelite Prophets in Recent Scholarship, edited by R. P. Gordon (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1995), pp. 579–581. Originally published as Einführung in das Alte Testament (Berlin: de Gruyter, 1979).
  316. Find this resource:
  317. Tucker, Gene M. “Prophecy and the Prophetic Literature.” In The Hebrew Bible and Its Modern Interpreters. Edited by Douglas A. Knight and Gene M. Tucker, 325–368. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1985.
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  319. Tucker’s article accents the emergence of form-criticism and traditional-historical analysis as the major methodological elements of prophetic studies in the 20th century.
  320. Find this resource:
  321. Wilson, Robert R. “Current Issues in the Study of Old Testament Prophecy.” In Inspired Speech: Prophecy in the Ancient Near East; Essays in Honor of Herbert B. Huffmon.Edited by J. Kaltner and L. Stulman, 38–46. Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 378. London: T&T Clark, 2004.
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  323. Three issues dominate this treatment of recent scholarship. First, the biblical prophets borrow from ancient Near Eastern traditions. This article explores the implications of that borrowing theologically and otherwise. Second, it examines the history of scholarship on the issue of the movement from oral tradition to manuscript. Finally, the article outlines the way social settings shaped the original prophetic speech events.
  324. Find this resource:
  325. Form, Redaction, and Genre Criticism
  326.  
  327. Form and genre criticism dominated prophetic studies in the 20th century. Gunkel 1987 claims that speech precedes written material. Mowinckel 2002 illustrates the core emphases of early form criticism. Niditch 1983 and Behrens 2002 examine the vision report genre. Nielsen 1979 defines the genre of the covenant lawsuit. Rofé 1970 gives a guide to prophetic narratives. Westermann 1967 and Westermann 1991 isolate the core genres of prophetic speech. Sweeney and Ben Zvi 2003 outlines the migration of form criticism from Hermann Gunkel and Sigmund Mowinckel to Claus Westermann to the early 21st century.
  328.  
  329. Behrens, Achim. Prophetische Visionsschilderungen im Alten Testament: Sprachliche Eigenarten, Funktion und Geschichte einer Gattung. Alter Orient und Altes Testament 292. Münster, Germany: Ugarit-Verlag, 2002.
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  331. Behrens emphasizes the distinctiveness of the vision report in the Hebrew Bible or Old Testament. After summarizing previous research, he outlines the literary type, history, and characteristic features of the vision report.
  332. Find this resource:
  333. Gunkel, Hermann. “The Prophets as Writers and Poets.” In Prophecy in Israel: Search for an Identity. Translated by J. L. Schaaf. Edited by D. L. Petersen, 22–73. Issues in Religion and Theology 10. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1987.
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  335. Gunkel traces the development from oral forms of prophetic speech to written texts and claims that the prophets were more speaker poets than writers. Originally published as “Die Propheten als Schriftsteller und Dichter” in Gunkel’s Die Propheten (Göttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1923), pp. 34–70.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. Habel, Norman. “The Form and Significance of the Call Narratives.” Zeitschrift für Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 77 (1965): 297–323.
  338. DOI: 10.1515/zatw.1965.77.3.297Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  339. Habel’s classic article provides a basic foundation for the analysis of the call genre in prophetic literature and compares it to the parallels in Hebrew narrative.
  340. Find this resource:
  341. Mowinckel, Sigmund. The Spirit and the Word: Prophecy and Tradition in Ancient Israel. Edited by K. C. Hanson. Fortress Classics in Biblical Studies. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2002.
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  343. This is a collection of Mowinckel’s articles published between 1922 and 1946 that demonstrate his early use of emerging form criticism in prophetic texts. He accents four constructs of early form criticism: (1) emphasis on the religious experience of the prophets, (2) the primacy of orality behind the written forms, (3) the role of editors in shaping the written forms, and (4) the role of the Israelite cult.
  344. Find this resource:
  345. Niditch, Susan. The Symbolic Vision in Biblical Tradition. Harvard Semitic Monographs 30. Chico, CA: Scholars Press, 1983.
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  347. Niditch traces the development of the “vision report” genre. Amos and Jeremiah represent the early form. The form becomes increasingly baroque in Daniel, 2 Baruch, and 4 Ezra. Originally published in 1980.
  348. Find this resource:
  349. Nielsen, Kirsten. Yahweh as Prosecutor and Judge: An Investigation of the Prophetic Lawsuit (rîb-Pattern). Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 9. Sheffield, UK: JSOT Press, 1979.
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  351. This monograph is a revised and expanded dissertation, a form-critical examination of the prophetic lawsuit. Nielsen argues that the genre might have originated in persuasion strategies in the face of the annual New Year’s festival.
  352. Find this resource:
  353. Rofé, A. “The Classification of the Prophetical Stories.” Journal of Biblical Literature 89 (1970): 427–440.
  354. DOI: 10.2307/3263449Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  355. Prophetic speech dominates prophetic literature, often eclipsing prophetic stories. This classic article provided the foundation for analysis of prophetic stories in early-21st-century scholarship.
  356. Find this resource:
  357. Sweeney, Marvin A., and Ehud Ben Zvi, eds. The Changing Face of Form Criticism for the Twenty-First Century. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2003.
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  359. Four articles in this volume describe the transition from Hermann Gunkel, Sigmund Mowinckel, and even Claus Westermann to early-21st-century form critics. The articles by David L. Petersen, Ben Zvi, Michael H. Floyd, Martin J. Buss, Patricia K. Tull, and Sweeney are of the most interest for prophetic studies. See pp. 269–350 in particular.
  360. Find this resource:
  361. Westermann, Claus. Basic Forms of Prophetic Speech. Translated by Hugh C. White. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1967.
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  363. The first part of the monograph recounts the history of research. Westermann focuses on three subjects in the second section: (1) the judgment speech as the basic form of prophetic speech, (2) the historical setting, and (3) the development of the speeches. Originally published as Grundformen prophetischer Rede (Munich: C. Kaiser Verlag, 1960).
  364. Find this resource:
  365. Westermann, Claus. Prophetic Oracles of Salvation in the Old Testament. Translated by Keith Crim. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1991.
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  367. This book compliments the earlier monograph Basic Forms of Prophetic Speech (Westermann 1967). It proposes different kinds of prophetic oracles, such as salvation oracles—unconditional for the elect community and conditional for foreign nations. Originally published as Prophetische Heilsworte in Alten Testament (Göttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1987).
  368. Find this resource:
  369. Social Location
  370.  
  371. Prophetic literature grew out of a group of religious functionaries in ancient Israel and Judah. The prophets and those practitioners of wisdom and divination provide overlapping social roles. Berchman 1998 examines strategies of religious functionaries in Mediterranean Antiquity. Grabbe and Bellis 2004 examines the overlap and boundaries of these specialists in prophetic literature. McKay and Clines 2009 concentrates on the boundaries and intersections of wisdom and prophetic traditions.
  372.  
  373. Berchman, Robert M. Mediators of the Divine: Horizons of Prophecy, Divination, Dreams, and Theurgy in Mediterranean Antiquity. South Florida Studies in the History of Judaism 163. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1998.
  374. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  375. This volume of nine essays of extensive scope on the strategic role of types of wisdom uses a wide range of sources for comparative data.
  376. Find this resource:
  377. Grabbe, Lester L., and Alice Ogden Bellis. The Priests in the Prophets: The Portrayal of Priests, Prophets, and Other Religious Specialists in the Latter Prophets. Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 408. London: T&T Clark, 2004.
  378. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  379. This collection of essays examines the interrelation of prophets and other religious functionaries.
  380. Find this resource:
  381. McKay, Heather A., and David J. A. Clines, eds. Of Prophets’ Visions and the Wisdom of Sages: Essays in Honour of R. Norman Whybray on His Seventieth Birthday. Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 162. Sheffield, UK: Sheffield Academic Press, 2009.
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  383. The essays in this volume explore the intersection of wisdom and prophetic traditions.
  384. Find this resource:
  385. Bibliography
  386.  
  387. Small bibliographies are part of most of the articles described in Bible Dictionaries. The introductions to the prophets in Introductory Works also include small bibliographies. Sandy and O’Hare 2007 provides a thorough annotated bibliography.
  388.  
  389. Sandy, D. Brent, and Daniel M. O’Hare. Prophecy and Apocalyptic: An Annotated Bibliography. Institute for Biblical Research Bibliographies 4. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2007.
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  391. This select bibliography provides the authors’ assessment of the core books and articles on prophecy and apocalyptic published earlier than 2005. Each entry contains bibliographic data and a short annotation. This collection describes the foundational prophetic topics as well as sections of each prophetic book. See pp. 21–113 in particular.
  392. Find this resource:
  393. Comparative Studies
  394.  
  395. Prophetic scholarship compares the biblical prophets and the institution of biblical prophecy. These comparative studies fall into two categories. One group understands prophecy as an anthropological phenomenon across cultures not only in the ancient Near East but also in Africa, Asia, Europe, and the Americas. Another group of scholars, using comparative history, focuses on the prophetic institutions and practices in the ancient Near East.
  396.  
  397. Global Context
  398.  
  399. The books in this section study prophecy from an anthropological perspective. Therefore analogies are drawn from all over the world. Cryer 1994 uses African parallels to determine the distinction between the roles of priests and prophets. Grabbe 1993 and Grabbe 2000 compare various cultures and explore the advantage and disadvantages of this comparative method. Lindblom 1962 pioneers comparative work on prophetic stories. Overholt 1986, Overholt 1989, and Overholt 1996 use comparative data from Africa and Native American tribes to examine the phenomenon of prophetic speech. Wilson 1980 uses comparative data to determine the role of social location in prophetic practice.
  400.  
  401. Cryer, Frederick H. Divination in Ancient Israel and Its Near Eastern Environment: A Socio-Historical Investigation. Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 142. Sheffield, UK: JSOT Press, 1994.
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  403. Cryer compares the divination of the ancient Near East, the Azande of Sudan, and ancient Israel. He proposes that magic as a form of divination found a home in popular religion. He surmises that prophecy likewise represents popular religion in ancient Israel. Further, he claims that the distinction between the priest and the prophets was not as pronounced as the Hebrew Bible or Old Testament might indicate.
  404. Find this resource:
  405. Grabbe, Lester. “Prophets, Priests, Diviners, and Sages in Ancient Israel.” In Of Prophets’ Visions and the Wisdom of Sages: Essays in Honour of R. Norman Whybray on His Seventieth Birthday. Edited by H. A. McKay and D. J. A. Clines, 43–62. Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 162. Sheffield, UK: Sheffield University Press, 1993.
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  407. This article compares and contrasts the prophets of ancient Israel with religious specialists among North American Indian and African tribes. The contrast indicates that prophecy is a cross-cultural and multiregional phenomenon.
  408. Find this resource:
  409. Grabbe, Lester. “Ancient Near Eastern Prophecy from an Anthropological Perspective.” In Prophecy in Its Ancient Near Eastern Context: Mesopotamian, Biblical, and Arabian Perspectives. Edited by Martti Nissinen, 13–32. Society of Biblical Literature Symposium Series 13. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2000.
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  411. This article discusses the values and limits of cultural anthropology. It also offers examples of anthropological methods for comparative studies of prophecy.
  412. Find this resource:
  413. Lindblom, J. Prophecy in Ancient Israel. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1962.
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  415. This early comparative examination of prophecy includes parallels from the ancient Near East and from Europe.
  416. Find this resource:
  417. Overholt, Thomas W. Prophecy in Cross-Cultural Perspective: A Sourcebook for Biblical Researchers. Sources for Biblical Study 17. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1986.
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  419. This sourcebook provides readers with prophet-like figures from diverse cultures, including those based in the Arctic Circle, Africa, India, the Pacific, and the Americas (focus there is on Native Americans). Concluding chapters discuss oral transmission and methodology.
  420. Find this resource:
  421. Overholt, Thomas W. Channels of Prophecy: The Social Dynamics of Prophetic Activity. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1989.
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  423. Overholt characterizes prophecy as a form of divination. He argues that this type of divination did not end with the exile. He uses as part of his comparative data Native American prophetic tradition and contemporary Christian “prophecy.”
  424. Find this resource:
  425. Overholt, Thomas W. Cultural Anthropology and the Old Testament. Guides to Biblical Scholarship. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1996.
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  427. The series guide to biblical scholarship is designed to introduce undergraduates to interpretive methods. The book uses as the example the Elijah-Elisha cycle, which illustrates four distinctive elements: resuscitation, blaming the prophets, blaming God, and the prophet as healer. These elements indicate a shamanistic source at odds with the Deuteronomistic theology.
  428. Find this resource:
  429. Wilson, Robert R. Prophecy and Society in Ancient Israel. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1980.
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  431. Wilson uses the work of I. M. Lewis in Ecstatic Religion (London: Routledge, 2003; originally 1971) and the idea of the prophet as intermediary. He focuses on Israelite prophecy as distinct from Judean prophecy. He questions the basis for labeling prophets as “central” and “peripheral”—their social location and affiliations.
  432. Find this resource:
  433. Ancient Near Eastern Context
  434.  
  435. Several resources effectively compare prophecy in Israel to other ancient Near Eastern parallels. Berchman 1998 places prophecy in the broader rubric of divination and then compares divination strategies. Durand 1988 publishes some of the best Mari parallels. Huffmon 1992 is an introductory survey of prophecy in the ancient Near East. Malamat 1998 outlines the relevant texts and issues for prophetic studies. Nissinen 2000 contains seven essays on the methods and sources for comparative anthropological analysis of prophetic studies. Nissinen, et al. 2003 has accompanying representative documents and sources from other ancient Near Eastern contexts. Parker 2000 compares the use of prophecy in the ancient Near East as a tool of central government to the use in ancient Israel. Parpola 1997 compares Assyrian prophecies to those of ancient Israel and then the accompanying concepts of the respective deities. Sparks 2005 reviews prophetic and mantic texts of the ancient Near East.
  436.  
  437. Berchman, Robert M. Mediators of the Divine: Horizons of Prophecy, Divination, Dreams, and Theurgy in Mediterranean Antiquity. South Florida Studies in the History of Judaism 163. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1998.
  438. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  439. The nine essays in this book explore the intersection of divination, dreams, and theurgy, and the working of a divine or supernatural agency in human affairs.
  440. Find this resource:
  441. Durand, J.-M. Archives épistolaires de Mari I/1. Archives Royales de Mari 26. Paris: Recherches sur les Civilizations, 1988.
  442. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  443. Durand provides a comprehensive view of prophecy at Mari. He designates that prophecy as a subset of divination.
  444. Find this resource:
  445. Huffmon, Herbert B. “Prophecy, Ancient Near Eastern.” In The Anchor Bible Dictionary. Vol. 5. Edited by David Noel Freedman, 477–482. New York: Doubleday, 1992.
  446. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  447. This geographical treatment examines Syria-Palestine (North Syria: Ebla and Emar, Ugarit, Phoenicia, Aram, and Ammon), Anatolia, Mesopotamia (Uruk, Mari, Ishchali, and Assyria), and Egypt.
  448. Find this resource:
  449. Malamat, A. Mari and the Bible. Studies in the History and Culture of the Ancient Near East 12. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1998.
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  451. This is a collection of twenty-one previously published and revised articles. Ten of these articles have direct relevance to the phenomenon of prophecy at Mari.
  452. Find this resource:
  453. Nissinen, Marti, ed. Prophecy in Its Ancient Near Eastern Context: Mesopotamian, Biblical, and Arabian Perspectives. Society of Biblical Literature Symposium Series 13. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2000.
  454. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  455. This collection has two parts, one on methods and the other on sources. The seven annotated essays describe both of these subjects.
  456. Find this resource:
  457. Nissinen, Marti, Peter Machinist, and C. L. Seow. Prophets and Prophecy in the Ancient Near East. Edited by Peter Machinist. Writings from the Ancient World 12. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2003.
  458. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  459. This is a guide to the study of ancient Near Eastern prophecy. The book has accompanying representative documents and sources from other ancient Near Eastern contexts.
  460. Find this resource:
  461. Parker, Simon B. “Official Attitudes towards Prophecy at Mari and in Israel.” In Prophecy in the Hebrew Bible: Selected Studies from Vetus Testamentum. Edited by David E. Orton, 245–264. Brill’s Readers in Biblical Studies 5. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2000.
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  463. Parker compares the role of prophecy in the power structures of Mari and Israel. Ultimately, he maintains that a cautious use of parallels culled from prophecies at Mari might be instructive for analysis of Hebrew prophecy. Originally published in Vetus Testamentum 43 (1993): 50–68.
  464. Find this resource:
  465. Parpola, Simo. Assyrian Prophecies. State Archives of Assyria 9. Helsinki: Helsinki University Press, 1997.
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  467. This volume publishes a new text with transliteration and translation of a 7th-century BCE corpus of prophecies addressed to Assyrian kings. These share affinities with prophetic texts from ancient Israel and Judah. The illustrations edited by the author and Julian Reade refer to points of affinity.
  468. Find this resource:
  469. Sparks, Kenton L. “Intermediary Texts: Omens and Prophecies.” In Ancient Texts for the Study of the Hebrew Bible: A Guide to the Background Literature. By Kenton L. Sparks, 216–239. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2005.
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  471. Sparks has carefully produced a dense volume that introduces the reader to the concepts in and genres of biblical Hebrew in light of ancient Near Eastern (Egyptian, Mesopotamian, Anatolian, Syro-Palestinian, Persian, and historiographic Greek) languages. He focuses on the material on prophecy and divination.
  472. Find this resource:
  473. Canon
  474.  
  475. These resources compare prophetic texts with other canonical texts. Blenkinsopp 1977 is one of the first that framed the debate about prophecy and canon. Chapman 2000, Seitz 2007, and Seitz 2009 argue that the canonical entities law and prophets cohere and provide a hermeneutical key for understanding prophetic material.
  476.  
  477. Blenkinsopp, Joseph. Prophecy and Canon: A Contribution to the Study of Jewish Origins. Center for the Study of Judaism and Christianity in Antiquity 3. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame, 1977.
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  479. Blenkinsopp proposes that Moses be represented as the prototype and ideal prophet and anticipates the prophet of the future according to the language of Deuteronomy 34:10–12 and Malachi 3:22–24. On the basis of these connections, the author suggests that prophetic literature is in some sense an interpretation of Torah traditions.
  480. Find this resource:
  481. Chapman, Stephen B. The Law and the Prophets: A Study in Old Testament Canon Formation. Forschungen zum Alten Testament 27. Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck, 2000.
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  483. This revision of a Yale University dissertation argues for canon as a theological grammar. Like Joseph Blenkinsopp, Chapman reviews the end of the Pentateuch and the end of the prophetic corpus as bookends that accent Moses as prototype. Chapman agrees with Blenkinsopp and Christopher R. Seitz on the preeminence of the Torah and the twin authority of the law and the prophets.
  484. Find this resource:
  485. Seitz, Christopher R. Prophecy and Hermeneutics: Toward a New Introduction to the Prophets. Studies in Theological Interpretation. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2007.
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  487. Seitz outlines a prolegomena to a new introduction to the Prophets, beginning with hermeneutical reflections on how one might approach Isaiah and the Twelve as unities.
  488. Find this resource:
  489. Seitz, Christopher R. The Goodly Fellowship of the Prophet: The Achievement of Association in Canon Formation. Acadia Studies in Bible and Theology. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2009.
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  491. In these revised lectures to the Acadia Divinity College and Golden Gate Baptist Seminary Seitz argues that canonical connections indicate that the law and the prophets work together to effect the development of the canon.
  492. Find this resource:
  493. Preexilic and Exilic Prophets
  494.  
  495. The development of prophecy as it moves into its classical era coincides with the events of the monarchy and the Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian Empires. Haran 2000 recounts the continuity and change in these developments. Koch 1983 and Koch 1984 outline the corps of individual prophets during this period of monarchy and the bureaucratic empires of Assyria, Babylonia, and Persia. Schmitt 1992 describes the emerging vocabulary and prophetic practices. Wilson 1987 examines the various and sometimes competing voices in the preexilic and exilic periods.
  496.  
  497. Haran, M. “From Early to Classical Prophecy: Continuity and Change.” In Prophecy in the Hebrew Bible: Selected Studies from Vetus Testamentum. Edited by David E. Orten, 102–114. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2000.
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  499. Haran describes early prophecy as a band of prophets given to collective ecstasy, frequenting special places of oracular activity, and attracted to permanent institutions of oracular activity. The shift to classical prophecy includes written texts that accompany oral prophecy and a move away from ecstatic prophecy. Originally published in Vetus Testamentum 27 (1977): 385–397.
  500. Find this resource:
  501. Koch, Klaus. The Prophets. Vol. 1, The Assyrian Period. Translated by Margaret Kohl. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1983.
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  503. Koch proposes, sometimes in a speculative manner, the historical context of the prophets, which he sees as the rise of prophecy as practiced by Amos, Hosea, Micah, proto-Isaiah, Joel, Nahum, and Zephaniah. Typical of 20th-century scholars, Koch refers to the prophets as individual thinkers. Originally published as Die Propheten I: Assyrische Zeit (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1978).
  504. Find this resource:
  505. Koch, Klaus. The Prophets. Vol. 2, The Babylonian and Persian Periods. Translated by Margaret Kohl. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1984.
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  507. This volume continues the imaginative reconstructions of the individual prophets in Koch 1983. Koch examines the prophets Jeremiah to Jonah and provides his understanding of them in the section “Retrospect and Prospect” (pp. 189–203). Originally published as Die Propheten II: Babylonisch-persische Zeit (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1980).
  508. Find this resource:
  509. Schmitt, John J. “Prophecy, Preexilic Hebrew Prophecy.” In The Anchor Bible Dictionary. Vol. 5. Edited by David Noel Freedman, 482–489. New York: Doubleday, 1992.
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  511. Topics include vocabulary of the prophets, general ideas and descriptions, prophets in biblical books, the language of the prophets, psychological considerations, themes (God, Israel, the relationship between God and Israel, the future), prophets and the institutions of Israel (monarchy, cultus, wisdom), reception of the prophets, study of the prophets, and a short bibliography. This can be an introduction for undergraduate students but is more suitable for graduate students.
  512. Find this resource:
  513. Wilson, Robert R. “Early Israelite Prophecy.” In Interpreting the Prophets. Edited by James Luther Mays and Paul J. Achtemeier, 1–13. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1987.
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  515. Wilson notes the lack of scholarly consensus concerning the social role of prophecy before the 8th century BCE. He contends that the difference between early Israelite prophecy and so-called classical prophecy has been exaggerated. He also discusses the differences between the Elohist and Deuteronomistic prophetic sources. Originally published in Interpretation 32.1 (1978): 3–16.
  516. Find this resource:
  517. Postexilic Prophets
  518.  
  519. The prophetic institutions were substantially changed in the transition from the exile to the Achaemenid period. Barton 1992 outlines the trajectories of themes in the postexilic prophets. Bedford 2001 investigates how the prophetic circle participated in the rebuilding of the temple in Jerusalem. Blenkinsopp 2001 examines the shift in the nature of the prophetic institutions. Eskenazi and Richards 2009 includes four articles on the transitions. Petersen 1977 describes the prophetic activity in the Persian period as “deutero-prophetic.” Schniedewind 1995 describes the transition of the prophetic office into an interpretative art.
  520.  
  521. Barton, John. “Prophecy, Postexilic Hebrew Prophecy.” In The Anchor Bible Dictionary. Vol. 5. Edited by David Noel Freedman, 489–495. New York: Doubleday, 1992.
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  523. Topics include the message of postexilic prophets (from doom to hope, call to repentance, prophets and the cult, oracles against the foreign nations, and eschatology), the role of prophecy in the postexilic age, prophetic experience, prophetic genres, editing of the prophetic books, and bibliography.
  524. Find this resource:
  525. Barton, John. Oracles of God: Perceptions of Ancient Prophecy in Israel after the Exile. Rev. ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.
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  527. This is not an introduction as much as it is a collection of topics on biblical prophecy, including the prophets in the canon, the law and the prophets, the modes of reading the prophets, prophecy as ethical instruction, prophetic foreknowledge of the present day, prophecy and the divine plan for history, and the prophet as theologian and mystic. The book is appropriate for advanced readers—graduate students and scholars. Originally published in 1986 (London: Darton, Longman, and Todd).
  528. Find this resource:
  529. Bedford, Peter R. Temple Restoration in Early Achaemenid Judah. Supplements to the Journal for the Study of Judaism 65. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2001.
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  531. Bedford investigates the issues surrounding the rebuilding of the temple in Jerusalem, examining passages such as Ezra 1–6 and Haggai and Zechariah 1–8.
  532. Find this resource:
  533. Blenkinsopp, Joseph. “The Social Roles of Prophets in Early Achaemenid Judah.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 93 (2001): 39–58.
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  535. Blenkinsopp’s examination of terms for “prophets” indicates that there is a shift from prophecy to preaching. The fractious nature of the province of Judah politically, religiously, and economically possibly gave rise to sectarianism.
  536. Find this resource:
  537. Eskenazi, Tamara Cohn, and Kent H. Richards, eds. Second Temple Studies. Vol. 2, Temple and Community in the Persian Period. Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 175. Sheffield, UK: Sheffield Academic Press, 2009.
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  539. Four articles in this collection relate to the prophets in the Persian period. Robert P. Carroll examines the question of the relationship between the temple and the prophets. Klaus R. Baltzer explores 2 Isaiah’s conception of the New Jerusalem. David J. A. Clines envisions Haggai’s temple using deconstructive strategies. Peter Marinkovic investigates Zechariah 1–8 as a resource for an accurate description of the Second Temple.
  540. Find this resource:
  541. Petersen, David L. Late Israelite Prophecy: Studies in Deutero-Prophetic Literature and in Chronicles. Society of Biblical Literature Monographs 23. Missoula, MT: Scholars Press, 1977.
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  543. Petersen has uncovered evidence of power struggles and an anachronistic conception of First Temple Levites, who seem to be performing the functions of the Second Temple Levites, which include a strong prophetic role.
  544. Find this resource:
  545. Schniedewind, William M., ed. The Word of God in Transition: From Prophet to Exegete in the Second Temple Period. Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 197. Sheffield, UK: Sheffield Academic Press, 1995.
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  547. This revised dissertation argues that the preexilic prophets received the word of God while the postexilic prophets interpreted the word. Schniedewind outlines the implications of this proposal for the shifting identity and role of the prophet and the development of Judaism and Christianity.
  548. Find this resource:
  549. Major Prophets
  550.  
  551. The category “Major Prophets,” also known as the writing prophets, derives from the matter of size. The Major Prophets is a heurist rubric that helps bracket the historical context for books that span preexilic and postexilic periods. Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel are the Major Prophets. The literature on these biblical books is substantial, and here we can give a very limited number of the key commentaries. Hauser 2008 presents a history of recent scholarship. Koch 2001 and Sweeney 1998 describe the historical contexts, contents, and themes of Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel. Most good commentaries treat each of the Major Prophets as an individual volume. Keck 1994 provides commentary on each of the Major Prophets.
  552.  
  553. Hauser, Alan J., and Schuyler Kaufman, eds. Recent Research on the Major Prophets. Sheffield, UK: Sheffield Academic Press, 2008.
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  555. Hauser has collected eleven articles with extensive bibliographies outlining the contours of research on the Major Prophets.
  556. Find this resource:
  557. Keck, Leander, ed. New Interpreters Bible Commentary. Vol. 6. Nashville: Abingdon, 1994.
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  559. This volume functions as a commentary on the Major Prophets. However, each book receives the equivalent of a short commentary on each book as well. Selections include Gene M. Tucker, “The Book of Isaiah,” pp. 25–306; Christopher R. Seitz, “The Book of Isaiah 40–66, ” pp. 307–552; Patrick D. Miller, “The Book of Jeremiah,” pp. 553–926; and Katheryn Pfisterer Darr, “The Book of Ezekiel,” pp. 1073–1607.
  560. Find this resource:
  561. Koch, Klaus. “Latter Prophets: The Major Prophets.” In The Blackwell Companion to the Hebrew Bible. Edited by Leo Perdue, 353–368. Oxford: Blackwell, 2001.
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  563. Koch provides a description of the development of the Major Prophets, Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel. He includes a brief bibliography. This article is suitable for advanced undergraduate ministerial students as well as ministers.
  564. Find this resource:
  565. Sweeney, Marvin. “The Latter Prophets: Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel.” In The Hebrew Bible Today: An Introduction to Critical Issues. Edited by Steven L. McKenzie and Mat P. Graham, 69–94. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1998.
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  567. Sweeney outlines the history of the relevant scholarship. Then on this basis he analyzes content and themes, referring only to recent scholarship.
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  569. Minor Prophets (Book of the Twelve)
  570.  
  571. The texts of the minor prophets are also known as the Book of the Twelve. Crenshaw 2001 introduces readers to the contents and the process of development. The other entries all posit the editorial unity of the Book of the Twelve. Ben Zvi 1996 questions whether the twelve Minor Prophets are in fact a “book.” Bosshard 1987 argues through comparison with the book of Isaiah. House 1990 argues for the unity of the Book of the Twelve on the basis of the plot and the argumentative structure of the whole. Jones 1995 focuses on the formation of the Book of the Twelve through an examination of the manuscript transmission history. Nogalski 1993a and Nogalski 1993b describe the literary precursors to the Book of the Twelve and the redactional process that gave rise to the book as we presently encounter it. Schart 1998 outlines a more detailed history of the redactional process. Redditt and Schart 2003 is a collection of essays on the Book of the Twelve.
  572.  
  573. Ben Zvi, Ehud. “Twelve Prophetic Books or ‘The Twelve’: A Few Preliminary Considerations.” In Forming Prophetic Literature: Essays on Isaiah and the Twelve in Honor of John D. W. Watts. Edited by James W. Watts and Paul R. House, 125–156. Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 235. Sheffield, UK: Sheffield Academic Press, 1996.
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  575. Ben Zvi explores the diversity of ideas, metaphors, and theologies in these twelve books. He concludes that if they are in fact a “book,” then the significant diversity must somehow be explained.
  576. Find this resource:
  577. Bosshard, Erich. “Beobachtungen zum Zwölfprophetenbuch.” Biblische Notizen 40 (1987): 30–62.
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  579. This article, based on a comparison of Isaiah and the Book of the Twelve, concludes that the same group of tradents edited both volumes. However, these tradents had a different and probably earlier version of the Book of the Twelve than the one presently found in the Masoretic text.
  580. Find this resource:
  581. Crenshaw, James L. “Latter Prophets: The Minor Prophets.” In The Blackwell Companion to the Hebrew Bible. Edited by Leo Perdue, 369–381. Oxford: Blackwell, 2001.
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  583. Crenshaw explores the nature of the collection, social roles, and religious views. His format invites the reader to work with the larger picture while still providing a treatment of all twelve books. This article is suitable for advanced undergraduates, ministerial students, and ministers.
  584. Find this resource:
  585. House, Paul R. The Unity of the Twelve. Bible and Literature Series 27. Sheffield, UK: Sheffield Academic Press, 1990.
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  587. House uses an Aristotelian approach to genre and Northrop Frye’s understanding of comic action to plot the Book of the Twelve as a rhetorical unity. His reconstruction, while provocative, remains controversial. This work is for graduate students and scholars.
  588. Find this resource:
  589. Jones, Barry Alan. The Formation of the Book of the Twelve: A Study in Text and Canon. Dissertation Series, Society of Biblical Literature 149. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1995.
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  591. This revised 1994 dissertation provides a reappraisal of Greek translations of the evidence from the Septuagint, the Masoretic text, and the Qumran used to outline the stages of development of the Book of the Twelve. The author posits three versions of the Book of the Twelve. This book is a technical resource for graduate students and scholars.
  592. Find this resource:
  593. Nogalski, James. Literary Precursors to the Book of the Twelve. Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 217. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1993a.
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  595. The opening chapter outlines ancient evidence of the unity of the Book of the Twelve, argues in support of its unity, and adds methodological considerations. The second chapter discusses the catchword phenomenon in the Book of the Twelve. Nogalski argues that there was a multivolume corpus prior to the Book of the Twelve and describes its editorial expansion.
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  597. Nogalski, James. Redactional Processes in the Book of the Twelve. Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 218. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1993b.
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  599. Nogalski proposes preexisting multivolume corpora that provided the foundation for a Joel-related layer with some subsequent addition. The final chapter sets out an argument for the provenance of the Book of the Twelve.
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  601. Redditt, Paul L., and Aaron Schart, eds. Thematic Threads in the Book of the Twelve. Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 325. Berlin: de Gruyter, 2003.
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  603. These essays describe thematic resonances in the Book of the Twelve. The audience for this book is scholarly.
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  605. Schart, Aaron. Die Entstehung Des Zwölfprophetenbuchs: Neubearbeitungen von Amos im Rahmen Schriftenübergreifender Redaktionsprozesse. Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 260. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1998.
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  607. Originally presented as the author’s Habilitationschrift at the University of Marburg in 1995–1996, this work outlines six successive stages of the development of Book of the Twelve. The redactional process begins with the Words of Amos collection. This is a technical work addressed to scholars.
  608. Find this resource:
  609. Theology and Ideology
  610.  
  611. The resources listed in this section, an assortment of comprehensive Old Testament theologies, offer material on the prophets and Old Testament theology, or the theology of the prophets. Brueggemann 2001 argues for the provocative poet, that is, the speaker and writer of intensified language. Gowan 1998 finds the watershed historical events that background the emerging theology of the prophets. Gottwald 1996 suggests that the prophets convey ideology that should be tested. Koenen 1994, through an examination of the motif of salvation for the righteous and disaster for the wicked, draws a historical-theological painting of the development of the theology of the prophets. O’Brien 2008 challenges the prophetic metaphors as the author proposes another way of doing theology. Rendtorff 1993 (published in German in 1991) finds the canon itself a helpful rubric in constructing a theology of the prophets. Von Rad 1965 provides an existential exegetical analysis of the prophets that has shaped the debate in the late 20th and early 21st centuries.
  612.  
  613. Brueggemann, Walter. The Prophetic Imagination. 2d ed. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2001.
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  615. This is a collection of essays that explore the prophetic experience from the perspective of imagination. Brueggemann argues that the function of the prophet from Moses to Jesus is to provoke a new consciousness.
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  617. Gottwald, Norman K. “Ideology and Ideologies in Israelite Prophecy.” In Prophets and Paradigms: Essays in Honor of Gene M. Tucker. Edited by Stephen Breck Reid, 136–149. Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 229. Sheffield, UK: Sheffield Academic Press, 1996.
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  619. Gottwad argues that prophecy can be considered ideological. Further prophetic ideas reside in a particular social context, a particular group of people. Prophetic ideas can be true or false. The prophetic ideas may range from impractical or fanatical to utopian.
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  621. Gowan, Donald E. Theology of the Prophetic Book: Death and Resurrection of Israel. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1998.
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  623. Gowan summarizes in historical context each of the prophetic books. He discerns three key events that shape their emerging theology: the fall of Samaria, the fall of Jerusalem, and the return of the exiles. These core events provide the foundation for Gowan’s historical-biblical theology.
  624. Find this resource:
  625. Koenen, Klaus. Heil den Gerechten, Unheil den Sündern! Ein Beitrag zur Theologie der Prophetenbücher. Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 229. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1994.
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  627. Koenen examines the theme of the salvation of the righteous and the condemnation of the wicked in the prophetic books. He takes a redactional critical approach, uncovering subtle differences in the treatment of this topic by various prophetic authors. Habakkuk, Ezekiel, and Nahum first use this distinction between the righteous and the wicked among the people as a way to understand specific actions in concrete historical situations. During the postexilic period, the motif became the basis for redactional expansion of prophetic books as they were applied to conflict within the Judean community.
  628. Find this resource:
  629. Miller, Patrick D., Jr. Sin and Judgment in the Prophets: A Stylistic and Theological Analysis. Society of Biblical Literature Monograph Series 27. Chico, CA: Scholars, 1982.
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  631. Sin and judgment are ubiquitous in prophetic literature and practice. Miller examines judgment in Hosea, Amos, Micah, Isaiah, and other prophetic texts.
  632. Find this resource:
  633. O’Brien, Julia M. Challenging Prophetic Metaphor: Theology and Ideology in the Prophets. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2008.
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  635. O’Brien opens with a brief review of the history of interpretation. She explains the challenge of feminist criticism of the prophets and proposes an alternative way of studying theology. She examines squarely the troublesome metaphors in the prophetic books, of God as an abusing husband, an authoritarian father, and an angry warrior. On the other hand, Jerusalem is described as the defenseless daughter and Edom as the selfish brother.
  636. Find this resource:
  637. Rendtorff, Rolf. “The Place of Prophecy in a Theology of the Old Testament.” In Canon and Theology: Overtures to Old Testament Theology. Translated and edited by M. Kohl, 57–65. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1993.
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  639. Rendtorff reviews the role of the prophets in the theologies of Bernhard Duhm, Gerhard von Rad, and Joseph Blenkinsopp before proposing his own canon-conscious model. Originally published as Kanon und Theologie: Vorarbeiten zu einer Theologie des Alten Testament (Neukirchener-Vluyn, Germany: Neukirchener, 1991).
  640. Find this resource:
  641. von Rad, Gerhard. The Message of the Prophets. Translated by D. M. G. Stalker. New York: Harper and Row, 1965.
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  643. The German Theologie des Alten Testament by von Rad describes the historical traditions of Israel in the first volume (1957, English translation 1962) and the prophetic traditions in the second volume (1960, English translation 1965). The sections of Theologie des Alten Testament that describe the prophets were culled out, in some places there were additions, for instance, the section on the apocalyptic was completely rewritten. The book was also simplified by von Rad and his assistant Eduard Haller for a popular audience in Die Botschaft der Propheten (1967, English translation 1967). The almost simultaneous appearance of the German and the English was made possible by using the already existing translation for von Rad’s Volume 2 and securing the same translator to include the additions and rewritten material. Von Rad continues his existentialist project in this volume, which replaced Bernhard Duhm’s Die Theologie der Propheten als Grundlage für die Innere Entwicklungsgeschichte der Israelitischen Religion (Bonn, Germany, 1875) as the most influential theological interpretation of the prophets. Originally published as Die Botschaft der Propheten.
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