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- International Journal of Critical Pedagogy, Vol 3 (3) (2011) pp 54-70
- ©2011 International Journal of Critical Pedagogy
- White Fragility
- by
- Robin DiAngelo
- White people in North America live in a social environment that protects and insulates
- them from race-based stress. This insulated environment of racial protection
- builds white expectations for racial comfort while at the same time lowering
- the ability to tolerate racial stress, leading to what I refer to as White Fragility.
- White Fragility is a state in which even a minimum amount of racial stress becomes
- intolerable, triggering a range of defensive moves. These moves include
- the outward display of emotions such as anger, fear, and guilt, and behaviors such
- as argumentation, silence, and leaving the stress-inducing situation. These behaviors,
- in turn, function to reinstate white racial equilibrium. This paper explicates
- the dynamics of White Fragility.
- I am a white woman. I am standing beside a black woman. We are facing a group
- of white people who are seated in front of us. We are in their workplace, and have
- been hired by their employer to lead them in a dialogue about race. The room is
- filled with tension and charged with hostility. I have just presented a definition
- of racism that includes the acknowledgment that whites hold social and institutional
- power over people of color. A white man is pounding his fist on the table.
- His face is red and he is furious. As he pounds he yells, “White people have been
- discriminated against for 25 years! A white person can’t get a job anymore!” I
- look around the room and see 40 employed people, all white. There are no people
- White Fragility • 55
- of color in this workplace. Something is happening here, and it isn’t based in the
- racial reality of the workplace. I am feeling unnerved by this man’s disconnection
- with that reality, and his lack of sensitivity to the impact this is having on my cofacilitator,
- the only person of color in the room. Why is this white man so angry?
- Why is he being so careless about the impact of his anger? Why are all the other
- white people either sitting in silent agreement with him or tuning out? We have,
- after all, only articulated a definition of racism.
- White people in North America live in a social environment that protects
- and insulates them from race-based stress.1
- Fine (1997) identifies this insulation
- when she observes “… how Whiteness accrues privilege and status; gets itself
- surrounded by protective pillows of resources and/or benefits of the doubt; how
- Whiteness repels gossip and voyeurism and instead demands dignity” (p. 57).
- Whites are rarely without these “protective pillows,” and when they are, it is
- usually temporary and by choice. This insulated environment of racial privilege
- builds white expectations for racial comfort while at the same time lowering the
- ability to tolerate racial stress.
- For many white people, a single required multicultural education course
- taken in college, or required “cultural competency training” in their workplace, is
- the only time they may encounter a direct and sustained challenge to their racial
- understandings. But even in this arena, not all multicultural courses or training
- programs talk directly about racism, much less address white privilege. It is far
- more the norm for these courses and programs to use racially coded language such
- as “urban,” “inner city,” and “disadvantaged” but to rarely use “white” or “overadvantaged”
- or “privileged.” This racially coded language reproduces racist images
- and perspectives while it simultaneously reproduces the comfortable illusion
- that race and its problems are what “they” have, not us. Reasons why the
- facilitators of these courses and trainings may not directly name the dynamics and
- beneficiaries of racism range from the lack of a valid analysis of racism by white
- facilitators, personal and economic survival strategies for facilitators of color, and
- the overall pressure from management to keep the content comfortable and palatable
- for whites. However, if and when an educational program does directly
- address racism and the privileging of whites, common white responses include
- anger, withdrawal, emotional incapacitation, guilt, argumentation, and cognitive
- dissonance (all of which reinforce the pressure on facilitators to avoid directly
- addressing racism). So-called progressive whites may not respond with anger,
- but may still insulate themselves via claims that they are beyond the need for
- engaging with the content because they “already had a class on this” or “already
- know this.” These reactions are often seen in anti-racist education endeavors as
- 1. Although white racial insulation is somewhat mediated by social class (with
- poor and working class urban whites being generally less racially insulated
- than suburban or rural whites), the larger social environment insulates and
- protects whites as a group through institutions, cultural representations, media,
- school textbooks, movies, advertising, dominant discourses, etc.
- 56 • International Journal of Critical Pedagogy
- forms of resistance to the challenge of internalized dominance (Whitehead &
- Wittig, 2005; Horton & Scott, 2004; McGowan, 2000, O’Donnell, 1998). These
- reactions do indeed function as resistance, but it may be useful to also conceptualize
- them as the result of the reduced psychosocial stamina that racial insulation
- inculcates. I call this lack of racial stamina “White Fragility.”
- Although mainstream definitions of racism are typically some variation of individual
- “race prejudice”, which anyone of any race can have, Whiteness scholars
- define racism as encompassing economic, political, social, and cultural structures,
- actions, and beliefs that systematize and perpetuate an unequal distribution of
- privileges, resources and power between white people and people of color (Hilliard,
- 1992). This unequal distribution benefits whites and disadvantages people
- of color overall and as a group. Racism is not fluid in the U.S.; it does not flow
- back and forth, one day benefiting whites and another day (or even era) benefiting
- people of color. The direction of power between whites and people of color is historic,
- traditional, normalized, and deeply embedded in the fabric of U.S. society
- (Mills, 1999; Feagin, 2006). Whiteness itself refers to the specific dimensions
- of racism that serve to elevate white people over people of color. This definition
- counters the dominant representation of racism in mainstream education as isolated
- in discrete behaviors that some individuals may or may not demonstrate, and
- goes beyond naming specific privileges (McIntosh, 1988). Whites are theorized
- as actively shaped, affected, defined, and elevated through their racialization and
- the individual and collective consciousness’ formed within it (Frankenberg, 1997;
- Morrison, 1992; Tatum, 1997). Recognizing that the terms I am using are not
- “theory neutral ‘descriptors’ but theory-laden constructs inseparable from systems
- of injustice” (Allen, 1996, p.95), I use the terms white and Whiteness to describe a
- social process. Frankenberg (1993) defines Whiteness as multi-dimensional:
- Whiteness is a location of structural advantage, of race privilege. Second, it is a
- ‘standpoint,’ a place from which White people look at ourselves, at others, and
- at society. Third, ‘Whiteness’ refers to a set of cultural practices that are usually
- unmarked and unnamed. (p.1)
- Frankenberg and other theorists (Fine, 1997; Dyer, 1997; Sleeter, 1993; Van
- Dijk, 1993) use Whiteness to signify a set of locations that are historically, socially,
- politically and culturally produced, and which are intrinsically linked to
- dynamic relations of domination. Whiteness is thus conceptualized as a constellation
- of processes and practices rather than as a discrete entity (i.e. skin color
- alone). Whiteness is dynamic, relational, and operating at all times and on myriad
- levels. These processes and practices include basic rights, values, beliefs, perspectives
- and experiences purported to be commonly shared by all but which are
- actually only consistently afforded to white people. Whiteness Studies begin with
- the premise that racism and white privilege exist in both traditional and modern
- forms, and rather than work to prove its existence, work to reveal it. This article
- White Fragility • 57
- will explore the dynamics of one aspect of Whiteness and its effects, White Fragility.
- Triggers
- White Fragility is a state in which even a minimum amount of racial stress becomes
- intolerable, triggering a range of defensive moves. These moves include
- the outward display of emotions such as anger, fear, and guilt, and behaviors such
- as argumentation, silence, and leaving the stress-inducing situation. These behaviors,
- in turn, function to reinstate white racial equilibrium. Racial stress results
- from an interruption to what is racially familiar. These interruptions can take a
- variety of forms and come from a range of sources, including:
- • Suggesting that a white person’s viewpoint comes from a racialized
- frame of reference (challenge to objectivity);
- • People of color talking directly about their racial perspectives (challenge
- to white racial codes);
- • People of color choosing not to protect the racial feelings of white people
- in regards to race (challenge to white racial expectations and need/entitlement
- to racial comfort);
- • People of color not being willing to tell their stories or answer questions
- about their racial experiences (challenge to colonialist relations);
- • A fellow white not providing agreement with one’s interpretations (challenge
- to white solidarity);
- • Receiving feedback that one’s behavior had a racist impact (challenge to
- white liberalism);
- • Suggesting that group membership is significant (challenge to individualism);
- • An acknowledgment that access is unequal between racial groups (challenge
- to meritocracy);
- • Being presented with a person of color in a position of leadership (challenge
- to white authority);
- • Being presented with information about other racial groups through, for
- example, movies in which people of color drive the action but are not in
- stereotypical roles, or multicultural education (challenge to white centrality).
- In a white dominant environment, each of these challenges becomes exceptional.
- In turn, whites are often at a loss for how to respond in constructive
- ways. Whites have not had to build the cognitive or affective skills or develop
- the stamina that would allow for constructive engagement across racial divides.
- Bourdieu’s concept of habitus (1993) may be useful here. According to Bourdieu,
- habitus is a socialized subjectivity; a set of dispositions which generate practi-
- 58 • International Journal of Critical Pedagogy
- ces and perceptions. As such, habitus only exists in, through and because of the
- practices of actors and their interaction with each other and with the rest of their
- environment. Based on the previous conditions and experiences that produce it,
- habitus produces and reproduces thoughts, perceptions, expressions and actions.
- Strategies of response to “disequilibrium” in the habitus are not based on conscious
- intentionality but rather result from unconscious dispositions towards practice,
- and depend on the power position the agent occupies in the social structure.
- White Fragility may be conceptualized as a product of the habitus, a response or
- “condition” produced and reproduced by the continual social and material advantages
- of the white structural position.
- Omi & Winant posit the U.S. racial order as an “unstable equilibrium,” kept
- equilibrated by the State, but still unstable due to continual conflicts of interests
- and challenges to the racial order (pp. 78-9). Using Omi & Winant’s concept of
- unstable racial equilibrium, white privilege can be thought of as unstable racial
- equilibrium at the level of habitus. When any of the above triggers (challenges
- in the habitus) occur, the resulting disequilibrium becomes intolerable. Because
- White Fragility finds its support in and is a function of white privilege, fragility
- and privilege result in responses that function to restore equilibrium and return the
- resources “lost” via the challenge - resistance towards the trigger, shutting down
- and/or tuning out, indulgence in emotional incapacitation such as guilt or “hurt
- feelings”, exiting, or a combination of these responses.
- Factors that inculcate White Fragility
- Segregation
- The first factor leading to White Fragility is the segregated lives which most white
- people live (Frankenberg, Lee & Orfield, 2003). Even if whites live in physical
- proximity to people of color (and this would be exceptional outside of an urban
- or temporarily mixed class neighborhood), segregation occurs on multiple levels,
- including representational and informational. Because whites live primarily
- segregated lives in a white-dominated society, they receive little or no authentic
- information about racism and are thus unprepared to think about it critically or
- with complexity. Growing up in segregated environments (schools, workplaces,
- neighborhoods, media images and historical perspectives), white interests and
- perspectives are almost always central. An inability to see or consider significance
- in the perspectives of people of color results (Collins, 2000).
- Further, white people are taught not to feel any loss over the absence of
- people of color in their lives and in fact, this absence is what defines their schools
- and neighborhoods as “good;” whites come to understand that a “good school” or
- “good neighborhood” is coded language for “white” (Johnson & Shapiro, 2003).
- The quality of white space being in large part measured via the absence of people
- of color (and Blacks in particular) is a profound message indeed, one that is deeply
- internalized and reinforced daily through normalized discourses about good
- White Fragility • 59
- schools and neighborhoods. This dynamic of gain rather than loss via racial segregation
- may be the most profound aspect of white racial socialization of all. Yet,
- while discourses about what makes a space good are tacitly understood as racially
- coded, this coding is explicitly denied by whites.
- Universalism & Individualism
- Whites are taught to see their perspectives as objective and representative of reality
- (McIntosh, 1988). The belief in objectivity, coupled with positioning white
- people as outside of culture (and thus the norm for humanity), allows whites to
- view themselves as universal humans who can represent all of human experience.
- This is evidenced through an unracialized identity or location, which functions
- as a kind of blindness; an inability to think about Whiteness as an identity or as a
- “state” of being that would or could have an impact on one’s life. In this position,
- Whiteness is not recognized or named by white people, and a universal reference
- point is assumed. White people are just people. Within this construction, whites
- can represent humanity, while people of color, who are never just people but always
- most particularly black people, Asian people, etc., can only represent their
- own racialized experiences (Dyer, 1992).
- The discourse of universalism functions similarly to the discourse of individualism
- but instead of declaring that we all need to see each other as individuals
- (everyone is different), the person declares that we all need to see each other as
- human beings (everyone is the same). Of course we are all humans, and I do not
- critique universalism in general, but when applied to racism, universalism functions
- to deny the significance of race and the advantages of being white. Further,
- universalism assumes that whites and people of color have the same realities, the
- same experiences in the same contexts (i.e. I feel comfortable in this majority
- white classroom, so you must too), the same responses from others, and assumes
- that the same doors are open to all. Acknowledging racism as a system of privilege
- conferred on whites challenges claims to universalism.
- At the same time that whites are taught to see their interests and perspectives
- as universal, they are also taught to value the individual and to see themselves as
- individuals rather than as part of a racially socialized group. Individualism erases
- history and hides the ways in which wealth has been distributed and accumulated
- over generations to benefit whites today. It allows whites to view themselves as
- unique and original, outside of socialization and unaffected by the relentless racial
- messages in the culture. Individualism also allows whites to distance themselves
- from the actions of their racial group and demand to be granted the benefit of the
- doubt, as individuals, in all cases. A corollary to this unracialized identity is the
- ability to recognize Whiteness as something that is significant and that operates in
- society, but to not see how it relates to one’s own life. In this form, a white person
- recognizes Whiteness as real, but as the individual problem of other “bad” white
- people (DiAngelo, 2010a).
- 60 • International Journal of Critical Pedagogy
- Given the ideology of individualism, whites often respond defensively when
- linked to other whites as a group or “accused” of collectively benefiting from
- racism, because as individuals, each white person is “different” from any other
- white person and expects to be seen as such. This narcissism is not necessarily
- the result of a consciously held belief that whites are superior to others (although
- that may play a role), but a result of the white racial insulation ubiquitous in
- dominant culture (Dawkins, 2004; Frankenberg, Lee & Orfield, 2003); a general
- white inability to see non-white perspectives as significant, except in sporadic
- and impotent reflexes, which have little or no long-term momentum or political
- usefulness (Rich, 1979).
- Whites invoke these seemingly contradictory discourses—we are either all
- unique or we are all the same—interchangeably. Both discourses work to deny
- white privilege and the significance of race. Further, on the cultural level, being an
- individual or being a human outside of a racial group is a privilege only afforded
- to white people. In other words, people of color are almost always seen as “having
- a race” and described in racial terms (“the black man”) but whites rarely are
- (“the man”), allowing whites to see themselves as objective and non-racialized. In
- turn, being seen (and seeing ourselves) as individuals outside of race frees whites
- from the psychic burden of race in a wholly racialized society. Race and racism
- become their problems, not ours. Challenging these frameworks becomes a kind
- of unwelcome shock to the system.
- The disavowal of race as an organizing factor, both of individual white consciousness
- and the institutions of society at large, is necessary to support current
- structures of capitalism and domination, for without it, the correlation between
- the distribution of social resources and unearned white privilege would be evident
- (Flax, 1998). The existence of structural inequality undermines the claim that
- privilege is simply a reflection of hard work and virtue. Therefore, inequality must
- be hidden or justified as resulting from lack of effort (Mills, 1997; Ryan, 2001).
- Individualism accomplishes both of these tasks. At the same time, the individual
- presented as outside these relations cannot exist without its disavowed other.
- Thus, an essential dichotomy is formed between specifically raced others and the
- unracialized individual. Whites have deep investments in race, for the abstract
- depends on the particular (Flax, 1998); they need raced others as the backdrop
- against which they may rise (Morrison, 1992). Exposing this dichotomy destabilizes
- white identity.
- Entitlement to racial comfort
- In the dominant position, whites are almost always racially comfortable and thus
- have developed unchallenged expectations to remain so (DiAngelo, 2006b).
- Whites have not had to build tolerance for racial discomfort and thus when racial
- discomfort arises, whites typically respond as if something is “wrong,” and
- blame the person or event that triggered the discomfort (usually a person of color).
- White Fragility • 61
- This blame results in a socially-sanctioned array of counter-moves against the
- perceived source of the discomfort, including: penalization; retaliation; isolation;
- ostracization; and refusal to continue engagement. White insistence on racial
- comfort ensures that racism will not be faced. This insistence also functions to
- punish those who break white codes of comfort. Whites often confuse comfort
- with safety and state that we don’t feel safe when what we really mean is that we
- don’t feel comfortable. This trivializes our history of brutality towards people of
- color and perverts the reality of that history. Because we don’t think complexly
- about racism, we don’t ask ourselves what safety means from a position of societal
- dominance, or the impact on people of color, given our history, for whites to
- complain about our safety when we are merely talking about racism.
- Racial Arrogance
- Ideological racism includes strongly positive images of the white self as well as
- strongly negative images of racial “others” (Feagin, 2000, p. 33). This self-image
- engenders a self-perpetuating sense of entitlement because many whites believe
- their financial and professional successes are the result of their own efforts while
- ignoring the fact of white privilege. Because most whites have not been trained
- to think complexly about racism in schools (Derman-Sparks, Ramsey & Olsen
- Edwards, 2006; Sleeter, 1993) or mainstream discourse, and because it benefits
- white dominance not to do so, we have a very limited understanding of racism.
- Yet dominance leads to racial arrogance, and in this racial arrogance, whites have
- no compunction about debating the knowledge of people who have thought complexly
- about race. Whites generally feel free to dismiss these informed perspectives
- rather than have the humility to acknowledge that they are unfamiliar, reflect
- on them further, or seek more information. This intelligence and expertise are
- often trivialized and countered with simplistic platitudes (i.e. “People just need
- to…”).
- Because of white social, economic and political power within a white dominant
- culture, whites are positioned to legitimize people of color’s assertions of racism.
- Yet whites are the least likely to see, understand, or be invested in validating
- those assertions and being honest about their consequences, which leads whites to
- claim that they disagree with perspectives that challenge their worldview, when in
- fact, they don’t understand the perspective.Thus, theyconfuse not understanding
- with not agreeing. This racial arrogance, coupled with the need for racial comfort,
- also has whites insisting that people of color explain white racism in the “right”
- way. The right way is generally politely and rationally, without any show of emotional
- upset. When explained in a way that white people can see and understand,
- racism’s validity may be granted (references to dynamics of racism that white
- people do not understand are usually rejected out of hand). However, whites are
- usually more receptive to validating white racism if that racism is constructed as
- residing in individual white people other than themselves.
- 62 • International Journal of Critical Pedagogy
- Racial Belonging
- White people enjoy a deeply internalized, largely unconscious sense of racial belonging
- in U.S. society (DiAngelo, 2006b; McIntosh, 1988). This racial belonging
- is instilled via the whiteness embedded in the culture at large. Everywhere we
- look, we see our own racial image reflected back to us – in our heroes and heroines,
- in standards of beauty, in our role-models and teachers, in our textbooks and
- historical memory, in the media, in religious iconography including the image of
- god himself, etc. In virtually any situation or image deemed valuable in dominant
- society, whites belong. Indeed, it is rare for most whites to experience a sense of
- not belonging, and such experiences are usually very temporary, easily avoidable
- situations. Racial belonging becomes deeply internalized and taken for granted.
- In dominant society, interruption of racial belonging is rare and thus destabilizing
- and frightening to whites.
- Whites consistently choose and enjoy racial segregation. Living, working,
- and playing in racial segregation is unremarkable as long as it is not named or
- made explicitly intentional. For example, in many anti-racist endeavors, a common
- exercise is to separate into caucus groups by race in order to discuss issues
- specific to your racial group, and without the pressure or stress of other groups’
- presence. Generally, people of color appreciate this opportunity for racial fellowship,
- but white people typically become very uncomfortable, agitated and upset
- - even though this temporary separation is in the service of addressing racism.
- Responses include a disorienting sense of themselves as not just people, but most
- particularly white people; a curious sense of loss about this contrived and temporary
- separation which they don’t feel about the real and on-going segregation in
- their daily lives; and anxiety about not knowing what is going on in the groups
- of color. The irony, again, is that most whites live in racial segregation every day,
- and in fact, are the group most likely to intentionally choose that segregation
- (albeit obscured in racially coded language such as seeking “good schools” and
- “good neighborhoods”). This segregation is unremarkable until it is named as
- deliberate – i.e. “We are now going to separate by race for a short exercise.”I posit
- that it is the intentionality that is so disquieting – as long as we don’t mean to separate,
- as long as it “just happens” that we live segregated lives, we can maintain a
- (fragile) identity of racial innocence.
- Psychic freedom
- Because race is constructed as residing in people of color, whites don’t bear the
- social burden of race. We move easily through our society without a sense of ourselves
- as racialized subjects (Dyer, 1997). We see race as operating when people
- of color are present, but all-white spaces as “pure” spaces – untainted by race vis á
- vis the absence of the carriers of race (and thereby the racial polluters) – people of
- color. This perspective is perfectly captured in a familiar white statement, “I was
- lucky. I grew up in an all-white neighborhood so I didn’t learn anything about ra-
- White Fragility • 63
- cism.” In this discursive move, whiteness gains its meaning through its purported
- lack of encounter with non-whiteness (Nakayama & Martin, 1999). Because racial
- segregation is deemed socially valuable while simultaneously unracial and
- unremarkable, we rarely, if ever, have to think about race and racism, and receive
- no penalty for not thinking about it. In fact, whites are more likely to be penalized
- (primarily by other whites) for bringing race up in a social justice context than
- for ignoring it (however, it is acceptable to bring race up indirectly and in ways
- that reinforce racist attitudes, i.e. warning other whites to stay away from certain
- neighborhoods, etc.). This frees whites from carrying the psychic burden of race.
- Race is for people of color to think about – it is what happens to “them” – they
- can bring it up if it is an issue for them (although if they do, we can dismiss it as
- a personal problem, the “race card”, or the reason for their problems). This allows
- whites to devote much more psychological energy to other issues, and prevents
- us from developing the stamina to sustain attention on an issue as charged and
- uncomfortable as race.
- Constant messages that we are more valuable – through representation in
- everything
- Living in a white dominant context, we receive constant messages that we are better
- and more important than people of color. These messages operate on multiple
- levels and are conveyed in a range of ways. For example: our centrality in history
- textbooks, historical representations and perspectives; our centrality in media
- and advertising (for example, a recent Vogue magazine cover boldly stated, “The
- World’s Next Top Models” and every woman on the front cover was white); our
- teachers, role-models, heroes and heroines; everyday discourse on “good” neighborhoods
- and schools and who is in them; popular TV shows centered around
- friendship circles that are all white; religious iconography that depicts god, Adam
- and Eve, and other key figures as white, commentary on new stories about how
- shocking any crime is that occurs in white suburbs; and, the lack of a sense of loss
- about the absence of people of color in most white people’s lives. While one may
- explicitly reject the notion that one is inherently better than another, one cannot
- avoid internalizing the message of white superiority, as it is ubiquitous in mainstream
- culture (Tatum, 1997; Doane, 1997).
- What does White Fragility look like?
- A large body of research about children and race demonstrates that children start
- to construct ideas about race very early; a sense of white superiority and knowledge
- of racial power codes appears to develop as early as pre-school (Clark,
- 1963; Derman-Sparks, Ramsey, & Olsen Edwards, 2006). Marty (1999) states,
- As in other Western nations, white children born in the United States inherit the
- moral predicament of living in a white supremacist society. Raised to experience
- 64 • International Journal of Critical Pedagogy
- their racially based advantages as fair and normal, white children receive little
- if any instruction regarding the predicament they face, let alone any guidance in
- how to resolve it. Therefore, they experience or learn about racial tension without
- understanding Euro-Americans’ historical responsibility for it and knowing
- virtually nothing about their contemporary roles in perpetuating it (p. 51).
- At the same time that it is ubiquitous, white superiority also remains unnamed
- and explicitly denied by most whites. If white children become adults who
- explicitly oppose racism, as do many, they often organize their identity around a
- denial of the racially based privileges they hold that reinforce racist disadvantage
- for others. What is particularly problematic about this contradiction is that white
- moral objection to racism increases white resistance to acknowledging complicity
- with it. In a white supremacist context, white identity in large part rests upon a
- foundation of (superficial) racial toleration and acceptance. Whites who position
- themselves as liberal often opt to protect what they perceive as their moral reputations,
- rather than recognize or change their participation in systems of inequity
- and domination. In so responding, whites invoke the power to choose when, how,
- and how much to address or challenge racism. Thus, pointing out white advantage
- will often trigger patterns of confusion, defensiveness and righteous indignation.
- When confronted with a challenge to white racial codes, many white liberals use
- the speech of self-defense (Van Dijk, 1992). This discourse enables defenders to
- protect their moral character against what they perceive as accusation and attack
- while deflecting any recognition of culpability or need of accountability. Focusing
- on restoring their moral standing through these tactics, whites are able to avoid the
- question of white privilege (Marty, 1999, Van Dijk, 1992).
- Those who lead whites in discussions of race may find the discourse of selfdefense
- familiar. Via this discourse, whites position themselves as victimized,
- slammed, blamed, attacked, and being used as “punching bag[s]” (DiAngelo,
- 2006c). Whites who describe interactions in this way are responding to the articulation
- of counter narratives; nothing physically out of the ordinary has ever
- occurred in any inter-racial discussion that I am aware of. These self-defense
- claims work on multiple levels to: position the speakers as morally superior while
- obscuring the true power of their social locations; blame others with less social
- power for their discomfort; falsely position that discomfort as dangerous; and
- reinscribe racist imagery. This discourse of victimization also enables whites to
- avoid responsibility for the racial power and privilege they wield. By positioning
- themselves as victims of anti-racist efforts, they cannot be the beneficiaries of
- white privilege. Claiming that they have been treated unfairly via a challenge to
- their position or an expectation that they listen to the perspectives and experiences
- of people of color, they are able to demand that more social resources (such as
- time and attention) be channeled in their direction to help them cope with this
- mistreatment.
- A cogent example of White Fragility occurred recently during a workplace
- anti-racism training I co-facilitated with an inter-racial team. One of the white
- White Fragility • 65
- participants left the session and went back to her desk, upset at receiving (what
- appeared to the training team as) sensitive and diplomatic feedback on how some
- of her statements had impacted several people of color in the room. At break,
- several other white participants approached us (the trainers) and reported that they
- had talked to the woman at her desk, and she was very upset that her statements
- had been challenged. They wanted to alert us to the fact that she literally “might
- be having a heart-attack.” Upon questioning from us, they clarified that they
- meant this literally. These co-workers were sincere in their fear that the young
- woman might actually physically die as a result of the feedback. Of course, when
- news of the woman’s potentially fatal condition reached the rest of the participant
- group, all attention was immediately focused back onto her and away from the
- impact she had had on the people of color. As Vodde (2001) states, “If privilege is
- defined as a legitimization of one’s entitlement to resources, it can also be defined
- as permission to escape or avoid any challenges to this entitlement” (p. 3).
- The language of violence that many whites use to describe anti-racist endeavors
- is not without significance, as it is another example of the way that White
- Fragility distorts and perverts reality. By employing terms that connote physical
- abuse, whites tap into the classic discourse of people of color (particularly African
- Americans) as dangerous and violent. This discourse perverts the actual direction
- of danger that exists between whites and others. The history of brutal, extensive,
- institutionalized and ongoing violence perpetrated by whites against people of
- color—slavery, genocide, lynching, whipping, forced sterilization and medical
- experimentation to mention a few—becomes profoundly trivialized when whites
- claim they don’t feel safe or are under attack when in the rare situation of merely
- talking about race with people of color. The use of this discourse illustrates how
- fragile and ill-equipped most white people are to confront racial tensions, and
- their subsequent projection of this tension onto people of color (Morrison, 1992).
- Goldberg (1993) argues that the questions surrounding racial discourse should not
- focus so much on how true stereotypes are, but how the truth claims they offer are
- a part of a larger worldview that authorizes and normalizes forms of domination
- and control. Further, it is relevant to ask: Under what conditions are those truthclaims
- clung to most tenaciously?
- Bonilla-Silva (2006) documents a manifestation of White Fragility in his
- study of color-blind white racism. He states, “Because the new racial climate in
- America forbids the open expression of racially based feelings, views, and positions,
- when whites discuss issues that make them uncomfortable, they become almost
- incomprehensible – I, I, I, I don’t mean, you know, but…- ” (p. 68). Probing
- forbidden racial issues results in verbal incoherence - digressions, long pauses,
- repetition, and self-corrections. He suggests that this incoherent talk is a function
- of talking about race in a world that insists race does not matter. This incoherence
- is one demonstration that many white people are unprepared to engage, even on
- a preliminary level, in an exploration of their racial perspectives that could lead
- to a shift in their understanding of racism. This lack of preparedness results in the
- 66 • International Journal of Critical Pedagogy
- maintenance of white power because the ability to determine which narratives
- are authorized and which are suppressed is the foundation of cultural domination
- (Banks, 1996; Said, 1994; Spivak, 1990). Further, this lack of preparedness has
- further implications, for if whites cannot engage with an exploration of alternate
- racial perspectives, they can only reinscribe white perspectives as universal.
- However, an assertion that whites do not engage with dynamics of racial
- discourse is somewhat misleading. White people do notice the racial locations
- of racial others and discuss this freely among themselves, albeit often in coded
- ways. Their refusal to directly acknowledge this race talk results in a kind of
- split consciousness that leads to the incoherence Bonilla-Silva documents above
- (Feagin, 2000; Flax, 1998; hooks, 1992; Morrison, 1992). This denial also guarantees
- that the racial misinformation that circulates in the culture and frames their
- perspectives will be left unexamined. The continual retreat from the discomfort
- of authentic racial engagement in a culture infused withracial disparity limits the
- ability to form authentic connections across racial lines, and results in a perpetual
- cycle that works to hold racism in place.
- Conclusion
- White people often believe that multicultural / anti-racist education is only necessary
- for those who interact with “minorities” or in “diverse” environments.
- However, the dynamics discussed here suggest that it is critical that all white
- people build the stamina to sustain conscious and explicit engagement with race.
- When whites posit race as non-operative because there are few, if any, people of
- color in their immediate environments, Whiteness is reinscribed ever more deeply
- (Derman-Sparks & Ramsey, 2006). When whites only notice “raced others,”
- we reinscribe Whiteness by continuing to posit Whiteness as universal and nonWhiteness
- as other. Further, if we can’t listen to or comprehend the perspectives
- of people of color, we cannot bridge cross-racial divides. A continual retreat from
- the discomfort of authentic racial engagement results in a perpetual cycle that
- works to hold racism in place.
- While anti-racist efforts ultimately seek to transform institutionalized racism,
- anti-racist education may be most effective by starting at the micro level. The goal
- is to generate the development of perspectives and skills that enable all people,
- regardless of racial location, to be active initiators of change. Since all individuals
- who live within a racist system are enmeshed in its relations, this means that all
- are responsible for either perpetuating or transforming that system. However, although
- all individuals play a role in keeping the system active, the responsibility
- for change is not equally shared. White racism is ultimately a white problem and
- the burden for interrupting it belongs to white people (Derman-Sparks & Phillips,
- 1997; hooks, 1995; Wise, 2003). Conversations about Whiteness might best happen
- within the context of a larger conversation about racism. It is useful to start at
- the micro level of analysis, and move to the macro, from the individual out to the
- White Fragility • 67
- interpersonal, societal and institutional. Starting with the individual and moving
- outward to the ultimate framework for racism – Whiteness – allows for the pacing
- that is necessary for many white people for approaching the challenging study of
- race. In this way, a discourse on Whiteness becomes part of a process rather than
- an event (Zúñiga, Nagda, & Sevig, 2002).
- Many white people have never been given direct or complex information
- about racism before, and often cannot explicitly see, feel, or understand it (Trepagnier,
- 2006; Weber, 2001). People of color are generally much more aware of
- racism on a personal level, but due to the wider society’s silence and denial of it,
- often do not have a macro-level framework from which to analyze their experiences
- (Sue, 2003; Bonilla-Silva, 2006). Further, dominant society “assigns” different
- roles to different groups of color (Smith, 2005), and a critical consciousness
- about racism varies not only between individuals within groups, but also between
- groups. For example, many African Americans relate having been “prepared” by
- parents to live in a racist society, while many Asian heritage people say that racism
- was never directly discussed in their homes (hooks, 1989; Lee, 1996). A
- macro-level analysis may offer a framework to understand different interpretations
- and performances across and between racial groups. In this way, all parties
- benefit and efforts are not solely focused on whites (which works to re-center
- Whiteness).
- Talking directly about white power and privilege, in addition to providing
- much needed information and shared definitions, is also in itself a powerful interruption
- of common (and oppressive) discursive patterns around race. At the same
- time, white people often need to reflect upon racial information and be allowed
- to make connections between the information and their own lives. Educators can
- encourage and support white participants in making their engagement a point of
- analysis. White Fragility doesn’t always manifest in overt ways; silence and withdrawal
- are also functions of fragility. Who speaks, who doesn’t speak, when, for
- how long, and with what emotional valence are all keys to understanding the relational
- patterns that hold oppression in place (Gee, 1999; Powell, 1997). Viewing
- white anger, defensiveness, silence, and withdrawal in response to issues of race
- through the framework of White Fragility may help frame the problem as an issue
- of stamina-building, and thereby guide our interventions accordingly.
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