Battle of Antietam

Introduction

The Battle of Antietam—or Sharpsburg, as it was known in the Confederacy—took place on 17 September 1862. On this single day, the bloodiest in US history, 23,000 men (10,500 Confederate and 12,500 Union), were killed, wounded, or reported missing. In addition to its tragic human cost, Antietam marked Confederate General Robert E. Lee and his Army of Northern Virginia’s first invasion of the North. While Union forces failed to destroy Lee’s army, they did manage to stop his invasion, which gave US President Abraham Lincoln enough of a victory to announce the Preliminary Emancipation Proclamation five days later. Lincoln’s decision made the abolition of slavery a primary wartime objective for the first time in the conflict, linking emancipation with the preservation of the Union. This, along with Lee’s defeat, also created enough concern in Europe to cause British and French diplomats to pause their plans to recognize the Confederacy. On the home front, the photographs taken in the days that followed the battle would shape civilian understandings of the war and become some of the most famous images in American military history. They captured the destruction wreaked in places that would be immortalized as The Cornfield, Bloody Lane, and Burnside’s Bridge, and underscored the overwhelming task faced by medical officials including then relatively unknown Clara Barton. Recognized by many scholars as one of the greatest turning points in the Civil War, Antietam and the larger Maryland Campaign of 1862 are essential to any understanding of America’s bloodiest conflict.

General Overviews

There are a number of studies that range from an analysis of the entire Maryland Campaign of 1862 to more narrowly focused examinations of the battle itself. Any research into Antietam must begin, though, with the standards by Murfin 2004 and Sears 2003. Interested readers planning to visit the site should consult Luvass and Nelson 1996, as well as Rafuse’s more recent guide (Rafuse 2008). While the Internet provides a wealth of material relating to Antietam, the best overview site is Antietam on the Web. Those hoping to analyze the campaign within a broader context, including its larger historical significance, must consider McPherson 2002.

Antietam on the Web.
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Created and maintained by Brian Downey, this is one of the best sites on the Internet for its exhaustive coverage of Antietam from official reports, to postwar essays by veterans, to maps, photographs, and contemporary discussions on the battle.
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Luvaas, Jay, and Harold W. Nelson, eds. The U.S. Army War College Guide to the Battle of Antietam: The Maryland Campaign of 1862. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1996.
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This remains one of the best guides for anyone who wants to walk the ground to study the campaign and battle in detail. Originally published in 1987 (Carlisle, PA: South Mountain).
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McPherson, James M. Crossroads of Freedom: Antietam. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002.
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Scholars have been arguing since the mid-1980s that Antietam is more than just a major battle. It is a turning point of the war, perhaps the turning point, due to its lasting social ramifications and its link with the Emancipation Proclamation, which would forever end slavery in the United States. Few scholars explain this so clearly and concisely as McPherson.
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Murfin, James V. The Gleam of Bayonets: The Battle of Antietam and Robert E. Lee’s Maryland Campaign, September, 1862. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2004.
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An abiding work of the Maryland campaign. It may be dated, but it is required reading for any serious student of the battle. Originally published in 1965.
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Rafuse, Ethan S. Antietam, South Mountain, and Harpers Ferry: A Battlefield Guide. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2008.
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Used along with Luvaas and Nelson 1996, this is an essential guide for anyone who wants to study the campaign in the field.
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Sears, Stephen. Landscape Turned Red: The Battle of Antietam. New York: Mariner Books, 2003.
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Along with Murfin’s work (Murfin 2004), this has become the standard study of the campaign for its broad strokes and engaging writing. Originally published in 1983 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin).
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Anthologies

There are several edited collections on the Maryland Campaign, but two of the best are the creation of Gary Gallagher (Gallagher 1989 and Gallagher 1999). Like the other collections in Gallagher’s series, the essays are authored by leading historians and include tactical analyses of the battle, broad discussions of how the campaign is studied today, and how contemporaries responded to Antietam nationally and internationally. His collection The Richmond Campaign of 1862 (Gallagher 2000) offers some excellent contextualization with discussion of the fighting that preceded Antietam.

Gallagher, Gary W., ed. Antietam: Essays on the 1862 Maryland Campaign. Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1989.
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As with all of Gallagher’s essay collections, this brings together the best experts on Antietam and offers their insights into specific aspects of the campaign.
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Gallagher, Gary W., ed. The Antietam Campaign. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999.
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Building on his work on the same subject published a decade earlier (Gallagher 1989), Gallagher again gathers the experts to tackle the controversies and legacies of Antietam.
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Gallagher, Gary W., ed. The Richmond Campaign of 1862: The Peninsular and the Seven Days. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000.
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Various scholars and battlefield experts examine the fighting around Richmond in the spring and early summer of 1862. They set the context for why Lee embarked on the Maryland campaign later that year and the condition of the armies that met at Sharpsburg.
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Bibliographies

While a number of websites and some published sources list useful bibliographies on Antietam and its surrounding historical issues, the two best are by Scott Hartwig (Hartwig 1990) and the online and routinely updated bibliography at Antietam on the Web. Hartwig is a recognized authority on the Maryland Campaign of 1862 and his bibliography offers one of the most complete collections on the subject available through its publication in 1990. Site Bibliography—Antietam on the Web offers an exhaustive collection list of contemporary and secondary publications (mainly books and wartime news accounts), as well as websites that relate to the battle of Antietam. Constantly updated, this remains one of the best starting points for any research on Antietam.

Hartwig, D. Scott. The Battle of Antietam and the Maryland Campaign of 1862: A Bibliography. Westport, CT: Meckler, 1990.
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National Park Service Supervisory Historian at Gettysburg National Military Park, Hartwig also ranks among the top experts on the Antietam campaign. This is an exhaustive listing of books on Antietam published before 1990.
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Site Bibliography. Antietam on the Web.
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Constantly updated, this is an excellent starting point for anyone curious about the landmark studies and the latest works (in print and online) on the Maryland Campaign.
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Journals

There are several leading journals that publish works relating to the American Civil War and, in particular, to the Battle of Antietam. In the academic world, most of these articles focus on war’s impact on society rather than on traditional military history, but there are some exceptions to that rule. Civil War History offers excellent crossover studies that examine the significance of the battle as well as our evolving understanding of command decisions. The Journal of the Civil War Era, which began in 2011, has indicated an interest in publishing works on a similar theme and showcases some of the best Civil War historians on its board and among its authors. The Journal of Military History has published works on specific campaigns, but, like those listed above, it is more likely to focus on broader themes of the war. The trade magazines Civil War Times, America’s Civil War, MHQ: Quarterly Journal of Military History, and North & South publish some of the best studies of commanders, soldiers, and the major historical debates about the campaign, as well as primary accounts by participants. Blue & Gray Magazine remains a favorite of those who hike the battlefields.

America’s Civil War.
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This is a crossover magazine that appeals to scholars and buffs alike. It is especially useful for articles on focused issues, such as controversies over a particular commander or decision, but it also offers essays on broad themes by leading scholars.
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Blue & Gray Magazine.
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Tailored for lay readers, this publication is especially popular with those planning detailed battlefield explorations.
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Civil War History.
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This journal has stood for decades as the leading academic source for the latest scholarly work in the field.
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Civil War Times.
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Published by the Weider History Group, like America’s Civil War, this magazine blends scholarly discussions of the key issues of the war with topics that appeal to buffs and general enthusiasts.
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Journal of the Civil War Era.
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Launched in 2011, this journal quickly emerged as a leader, along with Civil War History, presenting the latest thoughts and theories in the field.
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Journal of Military History.
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This is the top publication for the field and the work of the Society for Military History. It traditionally addresses broad scholarly studies, but its articles and book reviews can pertain to specific issues like the Maryland Campaign.
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MHQ: Quarterly Journal of Military History.
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A trade magazine that appeals to and publishes work by scholars, this is a popular resource for reading well-researched, well-written accounts on military aspects of the war.
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North & South.
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This trade magazine offers a blend of social and military history, though more of the latter, and often publishes articles by leading scholars offering article-length accounts of their latest books.
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Biographies

Some of the best revisionist work on Antietam is found in biographies of commanders and other participants. Sears 1999 remains the starting point for one of the campaign’s most controversial commanders, though readers wanting to consider a more favorable, or at least balanced, judgment of George McClellan will want to read Rafuse 2005 as well as Hassler 1974. Studies of McClellan’s counterpoint, Confederate General Robert E. Lee, abound, but the starting point is the timeless, if somewhat glowing, biography Freeman 1934–1935. Excellent recent and more critical accounts include Thomas 1995 and a biographical anthology by Gallagher 1996 that offers contemporary and modern analysis of some of Lee’s decisions at Antietam, especially the essay by Hartwig and the 1868 account of a conversation with Lee about the campaign. Works on Lee and McClellan’s subordinates are also plentiful, including careful studies of Jackson (Robertson 1997) and Longstreet (Wert 1993) and William Marvell’s analysis of Ambrose Burnside (Marvell 1991).

Freeman, Douglas Southall. R. E. Lee: A Biography. New York: Scribner’s, 1934–1935.
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While Freeman suffered from a clear bias toward Lee, his glowing Pulitzer prize–winning biography of the Confederacy’s commander at Antietam remains a classic.
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Gallagher, Gary W. Lee the Soldier. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1996.
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This collection offers contemporaries’ views of Lee as well as modern scholars’ interpretations of the famous commander.
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Hassler, Warren W. General George B. McClellan, Shield of the Union. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1974.
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One of the early biographies of McClellan, this work offers a fairly balanced assessment of the campaign’s most controversial commander. Originally published in 1957 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press).
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Marvell, William. Burnside. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991.
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A balanced, thoughtful biography of the Union corps commander who would rise to army command just weeks after Antietam, Marvel’s study remains an essential tool for those curious about leaders at Sharpsburg.
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Rafuse, Ethan S. McClellan’s War: The Failure of Moderation in the Struggle for the Union. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2005.
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The best modern biography of Antietam’s most controversial general due to Rafuse’s superb research and his insistence on offering a balanced examination of McClellan.
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Robertson, James I. Stonewall Jackson: The Man, the Soldier, the Legend. New York: Macmillan, 1997.
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While there are numerous biographies of this famous Confederate commander, Robertson’s is one of the best researched and most balanced studies in print.
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Sears, Stephen W. George B. McClellan: The Young Napoleon. New York: Da Capo, 1999.
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Like anything by Sears, this is an engagingly written book. It does, however, suffer from some anti-McClellan bias and should be read in conjunction with Rafuse’s biography (Rafuse 2005). Originally published in 1988 (New York : Ticknor & Fields).
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Thomas, Emory M. Robert E. Lee: A Biography. New York: W. W. Norton, 1995.
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This is one of the best, most balanced biographies of the Confederacy’s top general. Thomas steers clear of Freeman’s bias towards Lee (see Freeman 1934–1935) and Thomas Connelly’s bias against Lee to reveal one of America’s most complex and brilliant commanders.
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Wert, Jeffry D. General James Longstreet: The Confederacy’s Most Controversial Soldier—A Biography. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1993.
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Until the last thirty years, history had not treated James Longstreet kindly due to his public criticisms of the South’s favorite son, Robert E. Lee, and other Confederate commanders. Wert’s biography considers all of this and has quickly become the starting point for any serious examination of Lee’s Old Warhorse.
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Slavery/Emancipation

The book Crossroads of Freedom (McPherson 2002) does the best job of highlighting the link between emancipation and the battle of Antietam, which forever changed the course of American history. Other works to carefully research how Lincoln came to this decision and its sweeping impact include Trefousse 1975 and Franklin 1963. African American and white responses to Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation are gathered with insightful commentary in Berlin, et al. 1982, a documentary collection, while Slaves No More (Berlin, et al. 1992) focuses specifically on the history and historiography of emancipation. Vorenberg 2001 takes the issue well beyond Antietam and places it within the larger context of the 13th Amendment to the US Constitution, which abolished slavery in the United States.

Berlin, Ira, Barbara J. Fields, Steven F. Miller, Joseph P. Reidy, and Leslie S. Rowland. Slaves No More: Three Essays on Emancipation and the Civil War. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
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This book presents some of the best summaries of the historiography of emancipation. Linked closely to their Documentary History of Emancipation (Berlin, et al. 1982), this is an essential work for any study of emancipation, which is one of the most significant results of the Antietam campaign.
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Berlin, Ira, Thavolia Glymph, Steven F. Miller, Joseph P. Reidy, and Julie Saville, eds. Freedom: A Documentary History of Emancipation, 1861–1867. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1982.
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This multivolume collection of key documents outlines the process of emancipation. Each primary source is buttressed with thoughtful editorial commentary, showing the centrality of emancipation to the Civil War and the centrality of Antietam to the end of slavery.
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Franklin, John Hope. The Emancipation Proclamation. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1963.
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This is one of the early studies of the origins of the Emancipation Proclamation by one of the most respected scholars of race and the American South.
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McPherson, James M. Crossroads of Freedom: Antietam. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002.
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McPherson’s study is the best work in print that focuses on how the battle influenced Lincoln’s decision to make the abolition of slavery one of the key goals of the Union war effort.
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Trefousse, Hans L. Lincoln’s Decision for Emancipation. Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1975.
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This respected study examines how Lincoln, who in 1861 agreed to tolerate slavery to protect the Union and uphold the Constitution, came to see it as an irrefutable threat to any lasting reunion of the nation.
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Vorenberg, Michael. Final Freedom: The Civil War, the Abolition of Slavery, and the Thirteenth Amendment. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001.
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511511691Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Vorenberg’s work is one of the most recent, best, and comprehensive studies to examine the links between the Civil War and the abolition of slavery, including the influence of the Antietam campaign in that process.
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Strategy and Command

Any study of Confederate strategy and the Maryland Campaign must begin with Taken at the Flood (Harsh 1999), which remains one of the best books on Confederate strategy in late 1862. Readers should also consult Sounding the Shallows (Harsh 2000), a research companion to Taken. Williams 1952 remains an excellent place to start any examination of the Union high command, though the author’s frustration with McClellan is evident and should be tempered with the more balanced study offered in Goss 2003. Clemens’s edition of Antietam veteran and battlefield historian Ezra Carman’s study of the Maryland Campaign (Carman 2010) is a masterpiece. While this first of a multivolume set focuses on Antietam’s immediate precursor (the Battle of South Mountain), it proves that the entire collection will be essential for any study of strategy, operations, tactics, and memory of the Maryland Campaign. Additional works that place Antietam in its military context include Hennessy 1999 and Priest 1996. For inquiries into some of the long-standing controversies of Antietam, including the famous “Lost Order,” see Rafuse 2008 and Dew 2004.

Carman, Ezra A. The Maryland Campaign of September 1862. Edited by Thomas G. Clemens. New York: Savas Beatie, 2010.
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Tom Clemens is a recognized authority on Antietam and its most famous veteran and park historian, Ezra Carman. Any student of the Maryland campaign must consult this work. Clemens’s next volume, on the battle itself, will also be an immediate standard for the campaign. Includes annotations by the editor.
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Dew, Charles B. “How Samuel E. Pittman Validated Lee’s ‘Lost Orders’ Prior to Antietam: A Historical Note.” Journal of Southern History 70.4 (November 2004): 865–870.
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A well-researched article on how federal officers were able to verify the authenticity of Lee’s invasion plans, found in his famous “Special Order 191,” which fell into Union hands.
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Goss, Thomas J. The War within the Union High Command: Politics and Generalship during the Civil War. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2003.
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A respected study that challenges the stereotype of political generals, noting that some showed talent in the field while also fulfilling genuine political needs. It is a superb work on the complex relationship between politics and war.
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Harsh, Joseph L. Sounding the Shallows: A Confederate Companion for the Maryland Campaign of 1862. Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 2000.
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This book offers a wealth of statistical information on the Confederate forces involved in the Maryland Campaign, which Harsh gathered for his larger monograph on that subject. It is an invaluable research tool for any student of Antietam.
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Harsh, Joseph L. Taken at the Flood: Robert E. Lee and Confederate Strategy in the Maryland Campaign of 1862. Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1999.
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This is a superbly researched narrative of the Maryland Campaign by one of the recognized authorities on the subject.
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Hennessy, John J. Return to Bull Run: The Campaign and Battle of Second Manassas. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1999.
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Hennessy’s book is the best study of this battle fought just a few weeks before Antietam, offering excellent context for the Maryland Campaign. Originally published in 1993 (New York: Simon & Schuster).
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Priest, John M. Before Antietam: The Battle for South Mountain. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.
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Priest’s study of South Mountain, part of the Maryland Campaign, provides immediate context for the bloody fight that followed at Sharpsburg. Originally published in 1992 (Shippensburg, PA: White Mane).
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Rafuse, Ethan S. “‘Poor Burn?’ The Antietam Conspiracy That Wasn’t.” Civil War History 54.2 (June 2008): 146–175.
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Rafuse reexamines the well-known theory that Union generals Fitz John Porter, Joseph Hooker, and George B. McClellan conspired against fellow General Ambrose Burnside to limit his command responsibilities at Antietam. Rafuse challenges this, arguing that it was sound reason and military need, not intrigue, which influenced this decision. An excellent discussion of one of the most famous conspiracies of Antietam.
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Williams, T. Harry. Lincoln and His Generals. New York: Knopf, 1952.
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More recent authors, including Gross and Rafuse, have challenged Williams’s portrayal of the Union high command. This work remains, however, a superbly written study by one of the most respected historians of the Civil War and it is a recognized starting point for any examination of the subject.
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Experience of Battle

Too numerous to list, but worth mentioning to inspire further consideration, are a few of the studies of the junior officers and common soldiers at Antietam. These include Priest 1993, Alexander 2006, Armstrong 2008, and Clemens 2010. Their studies analyze the experience of battle at Antietam, how those who lived through it struggled with their memories for years to come, and how historians have worked to accurately interpret their stories.

Alexander, Ted. “Two Great American Armies: The Opposing Forces at Antietam.” Civil War Times 45 (2006): 22–31.
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Chief historian of Antietam National Battlefield, Alexander understands the campaign with a subtlety matched by few scholars. This is one of the best of the brief studies of the armies that clashed in Sharpsburg.
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Armstrong, Marion V., Jr. Unfurl Those Colors! McClellan, Sumner, and the Second Corps in the Antietam Campaign. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2008.
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There are a number of books of the army commanders at Antietam, but Armstrong’s is one of the best works to examine the battle through the lens of General George McClellan’s orders and how the officers and men of the Army of the Potomac’s Second Corps executed those commands.
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Clemens, Thomas G. “Memories of America’s Bloodiest Day.” Civil War Times 49 (2010): 52–57.
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This is a collection of carefully selected firsthand accounts of veterans who shared their memories of Antietam with fellow veteran and first Antietam National Battlefield historian Ezra Carman. Clemens is a recognized authority on Carman and Antietam, and his essay offers powerful insights into the battle.
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Priest, John M. Antietam: The Soldier’s Battle. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993.
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Priest is a long-time expert of the battle and this study offers a view of the campaign from the bottom up. Originally published in 1989 (Shippensburg, PA: White Mane).
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European Response

There are several broad studies on Europe’s response to America’s defining conflict, with the best known and respected being two works by Howard Jones (Jones 1997, Jones 2010) as well as the classic Monahagn 1997. For Europe’s more specific response to the Battle of Antietam and the Emancipation Proclamation that quickly followed it, see McPherson’s essay “The Saratoga That Wasn’t” in Gordon and Inscoe 2005 as well as Jones 1999, a study on Lincoln, emancipation, and diplomacy, which captures the complexity of how closely Lincoln’s Proclamation came to entangling the British in America’s war, despite Lincoln’s effort to avoid just that. Most scholars of diplomacy in the US Civil War agree, however, that work remains to be done to properly assess Lincoln’s goals with the Emancipation Proclamation in terms of foreign affairs and his involvement in this arena.

Gordon, Lesley J., and John C. Inscoe, eds. Inside the Confederate Nation: Essays in Honor of Emory M. Thomas. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2005.
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James McPherson’s essay in this collection (“The Saratoga That Wasn’t”) highlights Lee’s failure to win strong foreign support through a Confederate victory on northern soil with his Maryland Campaign.
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Jones, Howard. Union in Peril: The Crisis over British Intervention in the Civil War. Lincoln: The University of Nebraska Press, 1997.
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This is a detailed examination of Anglo-American relations during the Civil War by a recognized authority on American diplomatic history. Originally published in 1992 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press).
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Jones, Howard. Abraham Lincoln and a New Birth of Freedom: The Union and Slavery in the Diplomacy of the Civil War. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1999.
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This is a detailed examination of the results of the Emancipation Proclamation, explaining the flaws in the popular assumption that Antietam prevented foreign involvement in the Civil War. Heavily based in Jones’s previous publications, but a standard due to his expertise on this subject.
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Jones, Howard. Blue & Gray Diplomacy: A History of Union and Confederate Foreign Relations. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010.
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This is a sweeping study of diplomacy and the American Civil War by one of the leading scholars on the subject.
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Monaghan, Jay. Diplomat in Carpet Slippers: Abraham Lincoln Deals with Foreign Affairs. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1997.
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In this respected standard on Lincoln as diplomat, Monaghan argues that the president had innate skills in foreign policy that proved key to preserving the Union. Originally published in 1945 (Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill).
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Medical Care/Casualties

Two of the earliest and best studies on Civil War medicine are Adams 1996 and Cunningham 1993, while the memoir Letterman 1866 offers priceless insights into the experiences of a renowned Civil War surgeon. More recent studies like Freemon’s complex yet accessible book (Freemon 2001) have emerged to join them. See also Nelson 2007 on the overwhelming number of casualties suffered at Antietam, as well as Zeller 1996 highlighting the events in a hospital on the battlefield. For the sweeping death toll of the Civil War, seen most profoundly in Antietam’s single day, see Faust 2008. For more on Clara Barton’s influential role see Stephen Oates’s respected biography (Oates 1994), which focuses on her Civil War years. Balancing this is Pryor 1987, an earlier and somewhat more critical account.

Adams, George Worthington. Doctors in Blue: The Medical History of the Union Army in the Civil War. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1996.
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Any study of Civil War medicine begins here. It is a broad examination of the subject, focusing not only on disease and combat wounds, but also some of the medical advances that came from lessons learned amid all of the carnage. Originally published in 1952 (New York: H. Schumann).
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Cunningham, Horace Herndon. Doctors in Gray: The Confederate Medical Service. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1993.
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Also an abiding work with a Southern focus, Cunningham was one of the first historians to dispel stereotypes of primitive medical care throughout the Confederate Army, showing talented personnel making the best of limited resources. Originally published in 1958 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press).
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Faust, Drew Gilpin. This Republic of Suffering: Death and the American Civil War. New York: Knopf, 2008.
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An immediate masterpiece by one of the field’s leading scholars, This Republic of Suffering examines how Americans coped—physically, mentally, and spiritually—with the overwhelming number of deaths that resulted from America’s bloodiest conflict.
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Freemon, Frank R. Gangrene and Glory: Medical Care during the American Civil War. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2001.
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A superb, readable study of Civil War medicine by an M.D. who also earned a Ph.D. in history. Originally published in 1998 (Madison, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press).
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Letterman, Jonathan. Medical Recollections of the Army of the Potomac. New York: D. Appleton, 1866.
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If there was one good thing that came from the horrible death toll of the Civil War it was the advances in medicine. Letterman, known as the father of modern battlefield evacuation, was one of the North’s most talented physicians and his memoirs highlight how these lessons were learned and took hold.
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Nelson, John H. “Misery Holds High Carnival.” America’s Civil War 20.4 (September 2007): 30–39.
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A carefully researched study of how medical personnel struggled to treat the unprecedented number of wounded from America’s bloodiest day.
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Oates, Stephen B. A Woman of Valor: Clara Barton and the Civil War. New York: Free Press, 1994.
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Barton rose to fame in 1862 for her care of Union soldiers and remained in the national spotlight for the next fifty years. Oates’s study is one of the most balanced, well-written biographies available, focusing on her Civil War years.
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Pryor, Elizabeth Brown. Clara Barton: A Professional Angel. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1987.
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Pryor looks at Barton’s entire life, reaching beyond the Civil War, to reveal a strong-willed, intelligent woman whose personal demands for excellence often could offend those around her. A must-read for anyone who wants to understand America’s Florence Nightingale.
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Zeller, Bob. “Smoketown Hospital.” Civil War Times Illustrated 35.2 (May 1996): 36–44.
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Zeller offers a discussion of how hospital care was arranged at Antietam and includes rare photographs of one facility in particular, Smoketown Hospital.
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Art and Literature

Photography chronicled the carnage of the Civil War in ways that Americans had never experienced. While Matthew Brady’s name is most commonly associated with this, it was actually Alexander Gardner, who worked for Brady’s studio, who captured some of the most famous images of the Maryland Campaign, including the dead soldiers lying next to an artillery piece with the Dunker Church in the background. Gardner captured the carnage of Antietam and in doing so tested the faith that wove through both sides as survivors grappled with the results of the campaign. Frassanito 1978 offers the story behind many of these images. Alexander 2010 relates a story of an equally famous painting of the battlefield.

Alexander, Ted. “Witness to Battle.” America’s Civil War 23.4 (2010): 52–59.
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This article, written by the chief historian of Antietam National Battlefield, offers a careful examination of one of the most famous paintings of the battle and its artist, James Hope, who was also a veteran of this fight.
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Frassanito, William A. Antietam: The Photographic Legacy of America’s Bloodiest Day. New York: Scribner’s, 1978.
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An immensely popular, well-researched study of the battle of Antietam that relates the stories behind some of the most famous photos of the war, especially those taken by Alexander Gardner, and dispels some of the most resilient myths.
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