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Introduction
The city of London began as a Roman settlement along the River Thames and grew into Europe’s first urban area of a million inhabitants. London was unique within Britain, and in many ways in Europe, yet it was deeply intertwined with the provinces and other cities. The city’s location on a great river meant that goods, people, and ideas flowed into and out of the city for centuries, to or from the countryside as well as far-flung areas of the globe. London has exerted enormous influence over the other towns and cities of England and Great Britain, and has similarly been shaped by in-migration from these places and from abroad. London began to rebound to its pre-plague population levels by 1500 and proceeded to grow rapidly. The works included here talk variously of London, including its suburbs, and a metropolis, to describe its inexorable expansion across former fields and to the borders of neighbors. As it grew, its significance in the economy of the world, in its connections to empire and trade, became predominant and its merchants and investors carved a new place for themselves in British society. The city was not just important in economic terms to England, Britain, and eventually a global empire—it attracted and nourished intellectuals and artists, playwrights and writers, scientists and natural historians, and provided the setting for the display of status, consumption of new goods, and the development of fresh tastes. Positioned next to the political center of Westminster, it housed and provided a public stage for parliamentarians, political protesters, members of court, and the monarchy. At the same time, London provided opportunity to poor and un- or underemployed men and women to work, even if in professions or criminal activities outside or on the edges of social and moral norms of the period. For those who struggled, there was charity and beneficence, and punishment and forced work or separation from families. The focus on social and economic history that shaped historical writing of the 1960s into the 1980s elevated local history but influenced the questions asked of the metropolitan center. The last several decades have brought a resurgence of interest in the history of London, in the important religious, cultural, economic, social, and political developments that marked its transformation over a few hundred years.
General Overviews
Most histories and literary studies of London focus on particular research themes and do not attempt a comprehensive overview. A few general works introduce readers to the city in many of its facets, often highlighting sensory perceptions and encouraging a sense of imagining being there. Bucholz and Ward 2012 focuses on two centuries in evoking sights and sounds of the city. Inwood 1998presents a general history beginning with the Romans and ending in the late 20th century, with a foreword from the author of Porter 1998, which aims to bring urban history research to a wider audience in its social history of the city. Popular works include Ackroyd 2000, a work also not limited to the Early Modern period. A comparative overview of the city in Early Modern Europe is found inFriedrichs 1995.
Ackroyd, Peter. London: The Biography. London: Chatto and Windus, 2000.
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A “biography” of the city as living being, written with verve and illustrated with engravings, images, and photographs. Not focused on scholarly interests or themes but on the city and its neighborhoods; for a wide audience. Concluding essay on sources.
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Bucholz, Robert O., and Joseph P. Ward. London: A Social and Cultural History, 1550–1750. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012.
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781139030106Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Provides a history of London’s transformation from a smaller and less significant European city into a cultural and economic leader in Europe. Fictional and primary source accounts are interwoven into the narrative to evoke the clamor, excitement, danger, and opportunity present in the city.
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Friedrichs, Christopher R. The Early Modern City, 1450–1750. London: Longman, 1995.
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Provides a comparative study of urban life and social groups in European cities and makes a case for the commonalities of life in these urban areas even as regional differences are noted.
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Inwood, Stephen. A History of London. New York: Carroll and Graf, 1998.
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London from Roman origins through modern times in its unplanned glory; considers the importance of the city to national life. Significant for economic activity, as place of migration, and challenges in governing.
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Porter, Roy. London: A Social History. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998.
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Accessible to a wide audience, yet based on current (to 1998) urban and social history research. About half on the period prior to 1820.
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Reference Works
Boulton 2000 and Schwarz 2000 provide London-specific introductions within a larger volume on urban history in Britain that gives context for the religious, social, economic cultural, and political themes significant for the history of London and other towns. The London Record Society series provides primary sources with scholarly introductions to archival materials.
Boulton, Jeremy. “London 1540–1700.” In Cambridge Urban History of Britain. Vol. II. Edited by Peter Clark, 315–346. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
DOI: 10.1017/CHOL9780521431415Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Thorough reference on urban history in Britain. Chapter on London in period of change, with attention to questions of social stability.
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London Record Society.
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A charitable foundation devoted to encouraging interest in London archives and research. Publications include scholarly introductions and transcribed primary and archival sources.
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Schwarz, Leonard. “London 1700–1840.” In Cambridge Urban History of Britain. Vol. II. Edited by Peter Clark, 641–671. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
DOI: 10.1017/CHOL9780521431415Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Thorough reference on urban history in Britain with overview of London from 1700 into the modern era.
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Bibliographies
Bibliographies of British history incorporate searchable entries on the history of London and on economic, religious or cultural, social, and political themes that impacted the city. Some of these bibliographies include primary source materials. British History Online provides links to primary and secondary sources and is sponsored by the Institute of Historical Research (IHR) and others.Connected Histories is similarly under the aegis of the IHR and brings together multiple databases. The Bibliography of British and Irish History requires a subscription and includes a key source for London.
Bibliography of British and Irish History.
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Incorporated London’s Past Online, a bibliography of published material relating to the history of London across time, the former Royal Historical Society Bibliography, and Irish History Online. Updated regularly.
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British History Online.
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Digital library of primary and secondary sources covering a long chronological period and including many sources pertinent to the study of London, as well as to the British Isles more generally.
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Connected Histories.
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Connected to British History Online and many other secondary and primary source bases, including image databases. Also find the Victoria County Histories there that include London.
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Primary Sources
London’s significance in economy, trade, government and politics, religion, and social changes was reflected by the long tradition of chronicling the city and its inhabitants. Those works also reveal the pride of inhabitants in their city—and sometimes concerns about its changing topography and society. Online collections and printed primary sources, many of them in English, provide English-speaking students a tremendous opportunity to engage in primary source research on the period before 1800.
DATABASES
Two of the most significant collections of primary sources, the Early English Books Online andEighteenth Century Collection Online, require subscriptions but offer access to a wealth of materials from the advent of printing in Britain through the 18th century. Open-access sources that are particularly useful for social history research include The Proceedings of the Old Bailey, 1674–1913,People in Place: Families, Households and Housing in London, 1550–1720, and the Records of London’s Livery Companies Online. Online versions of John Stow’s early modern history of London,Kingsford 1908, and its 18th-century revision, Strype 1720, provide access to a primary source that has a scholarly tradition of its own; see John Stow.
Early English Books Online.
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Includes many of the books, pamphlets, and other print sources published in England or in English colonies between 1475 and 1700. Includes the Thomason Tracts, civil war–era documents collected by a 17th-century London bookseller, many of them unique to this collection. Searchable, and indispensable for original research using printed sources.
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Eighteenth Century Collection Online.
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Full-text searchable database of English- and foreign-language primary sources printed in the 18th century in the United Kingdom. Also includes many works printed in the Americas.
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Kingsford, C. L. A Survey of London by John Stow, Reprinted from the 1603 Edition. 1908.
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John Stow was the first historian of London. Survey of buildings from Elizabethan era, with his observations and critiques of the city’s political, religious, social, and economic developments.
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National Portrait Gallery, London.
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The Research page of the National Portrait Gallery, helping users search the collection and explore topics like “making art” in Tudor Britain. Includes directories of artists and their suppliers since 1650.
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People in Place: Families, Households and Housing in London, 1550–1720.
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Through methods of family reconstitution and property history reconstruction, researchers have assembled a database on demographic and household change. Useful for studies on social and economic changes occurring in the city. Also points toward related studies.
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Records of London’s Livery Companies Online: Apprentices and Freemen 1400–1900.
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Full searchable database of membership of Clothworkers’ (1545–1908), Drapers’ (c. 1400–1900), Mercers’ (1339–1900); selection of Goldsmiths’ (1600–1700). Collaboration among Centre for Metropolitan History and the companies.
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Strype, John. A Survey of the Cities of London and Westminster. 1720.
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Eighteenth-century expansion of the 1603 edition of Stow’s Survey. Extensive engraved maps and illustrations.
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The Proceedings of the Old Bailey, 1674–1913.
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Online records of London’s central criminal court. While “crime” is at center of the proceedings, can be used to research any number of social, cultural, political, or economic history topics on the lives of non-elite people. Informative guides, historical background entries, and much more.
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COLLECTIONS AND FACSIMILES
Online histories of the city can be augmented by reproductions of important 16th- and 17th-century maps of London by Proctor and Taylor 1979 and Hyde and Fisher 1992. Archer, et al. 1988 is a 16th-century criticism of London’s market economy and includes images of the buildings and market spaces. The surveyor Ralph Treswell worked for guilds and companies anxious to document their property, drawing floor plans and views of buildings; see Schofield 1987. Burgess 1999 transcribes and comments upon the church records of the parish St. Andrew Hubbard, just one example of the available printed primary sources pertaining to London’s parishes. Fifteenth-century chronicles, such as McLaren 2002, demonstrate the tradition of writing about the city before Stow produced hisSurvey (see Databases). Two chronicles bridge the late medieval and early 16th century, Hall 1809and Thomas and Thornley 1938. Nichols 1848 provides another “ordinary” person’s view of religious and political change,
Archer, Ian, Caroline Barron, and Vanessa Harding. Hugh Alley’s Caveat: The Markets of London in 1598. London: London Topographical Society, 1988.
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Facsimile of a manuscript detailing abuses in food markets in London. Includes drawings of markets and streetscapes in London.
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Burgess, Clive. The Church Records of St. Andrew Hubbard, Eastcheap, c. 1450–c. 1570. London: London Record Society, 1999.
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Detailed accounts of the receipts and expenditures of the parish relating to all matters regarding worship and music within the church, the provision of poor relief, funeral practices and expenses, and all other parochial duties.
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Hall, Edward. Chronicle: Containing the History of England during the Reign of Henry IV, and the Succeeding Monarchs to the End of the Reign of Henry VIII. London: Johnson, 1809.
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Especially noted for the coverage of the reigns of the first two Tudor monarchs, Henry VII and Henry VII; source for later historians and playwrights writing on the early Tudor period.
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Hyde, Ralph, and John Fisher. A to Z of Restoration London. London: London Topographical Society, 1992.
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Reproduction of Ogilby and Morgan map of London from 1676 at scale of 17.5 inches per mile.
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McLaren, Mary-Rose. The London Chronicles of the Fifteenth Century: A Revolution in English Writing. Woodbridge, UK: D. S. Brewer, 2002.
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Provides commentary on the ordinary laypeople who produced these chronicles; includes some previously unpublished manuscript sources.
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Nichols, John Gough, ed. The Diary of Henry Machyn, Citizen and Merchant-Taylor of London from A.D. 1550 to A.D. 1563. London: Camden Society, 1848.
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Machyn sold cloth for funeral processions; his diary details practices relating to death during periods of religious reform, restoration, and renewed reform. Some commentary on society and politics as well.
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Proctor, Adrian, and Robert Taylor, comp. A to Z of Elizabethan London. London: London Topographical Society, 1979.
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Reproduction of c. 1560 (“Agas”) woodcut map at scale of 28 inches per mile with key and index to identify streets and significant buildings.
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Schofield, John. The London Surveys of Ralph Treswell. London: London Topographical Society, 1987.
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A painter-stainer, Treswell also made pictorial surveys and maps. The surveys plot property, but also reveal the layout and external appearance of late medieval homes later destroyed in the Great Fire of 1666.
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Thomas, A. H., and I. D. Thornley, eds. The Great Chronicle of London. London: G. W. Jones, 1938.
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Robert Fabyan, former alderman and sheriff, died in the early 16th century and is credited with writing this substantial chronicle of the late medieval city.
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Journals
Given London’s significance in European and world history, many comprehensive scholarly journals include frequent articles on the city, such as American Historical Review and Past and Present. A few that focus on distinct chronological periods publish on early modern London and provide comparative urban studies, such as Seventeenth Century, Sixteenth Century Journal, andEighteenth-Century Studies. The thematic focus of Continuity and Change, on social structures, law, and demography, is well-suited for articles on the growing city. Journal of British Studies often includes articles covering London, since the late medieval period. The London Journal is a scholarly, peer-reviewed publication devoted to multidisciplinary research and focused on London.
American Historical Review.
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Represents all fields of historical inquiry. Official publication of the American Historical Association.
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Continuity & Change.
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Historical sociology and interdisciplinary studies on law, social structures, and demography, all themes integral to the study of London in past time.
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Eighteenth-Century Studies.
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Interdisciplinary focus on all aspects of 18th-century culture. Official publication of the American Society for Eighteenth-Century Studies.
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Journal of British Studies.
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Publishing work on all areas of British studies from the medieval period to the present with frequent essays on London and its environs. Published for the North American Conference on British Studies.
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London Journal.
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Fosters interest in all aspects of London and its inhabitants, with multidisciplinary focus and broad coverage.
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Past and Present.
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Contributions to current debates on historical, social, and cultural change based on original research and interpretation.
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Seventeenth Century.
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Interdisciplinary and international, but often includes articles on London.
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Sixteenth Century Journal.
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Devoted to Early Modern studies, particularly in European history, literature, and art history. Published for the Sixteenth Century Society and Conference.
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Politics and Governance
As the neighbor of Westminster and the capital city, London was subject to tensions between national and civic politics and bodies. The works under review here highlight how London was governed, as well as how the city participated in and was subject to the repercussions of political debates, social and political upheaval, and war. Research on governance and political action should never be far removed from Society and Order, the Economy, and the Reformation and Puritanism.
CITY, SUBURBS, AND NEIGHBORS
London’s relative stability in the 16th century has been a subject of research, with Rappaport 1989seeing guilds as essential to social mobility and ultimately to peace in the city. Archer 1991emphasizes “pursuit” of such stability as the author outlines the challenges of a rising population and apparently rising poverty for a city trying to maintain social control. The experience of social transformation moved some inhabitants to reflect on their memory of the city in the midst of change; see Gordon 2013. Ward 1997 revisits the trade guilds and develops further the potential tensions between the core of London and its suburbs. Southwark, the suburb south of the Thames, is featured in Boulton 1987 and Carlin 1996, the former on the 17th century and the latter on the medieval period. Westminster, and the social problems within its large parishes, is the subject ofMerritt 2005. More on geographical and spatial features of London can be found in Harkness and Howard 2008, as well as an exploration of the tensions between the center and its periphery.
Archer, Ian. The Pursuit of Stability: Social Relations in Elizabethan London. Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991.
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511522468Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Shows link between stability in London and the provision of formal relief through parishes and institutions and of informal help through charity and the beneficence of Londoners; importance of social control. Quantitative sources joined to close reading of pamphlets and commentary on the state of the city, its government, and its people.
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Boulton, Jeremy. Neighborhood and Society: A London Suburb in the Seventeenth Century. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1987.
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511560361Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Social history founded on social and demographic research on Southwark, a suburb under the jurisdiction of the City of London, using archival sources. Includes some emphasis on poorer households and sense of local neighborhood and interests.
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Carlin, Martha. Medieval Southwark. London: Hambledon, 1996.
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Traces social, religious, and economic history of suburb to the 16th century, a moment when more migrants came to Southwark and trade expanded. Economic activity in trade, but also inns and “stews,” or brothels. Based on archival sources including the 1381 Poll Tax.
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Gordon, Andrew. Writing Early Modern London: Memory, Text and Community. London: Macmillan, 2013.
DOI: 10.1057/9781137294920Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
In this literary analysis, the contested nature of memory is shown through contemporary authors’ description of social transformation and religious reformation. In “writing the city,” memory, custom, and civic ritual are described and interpreted. One chapter focuses on John Stow.
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Harkness, Deborah, and Jean E. Howard, eds. Special Issue: The Great World of Early Modern London. Huntington Library Quarterly 71.1 (2008).
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Special issue drawn from conference papers; two parts using spaces and places as organizing principle, but linking activities of Londoners to them. Social and cultural history as well as literary analysis. Emphasis on “plural nature” of city and the relationship between metropolis and boundaries.
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Merritt, Julia F. The Social World of Early Modern Westminster: Abbey, Court and Community, 1525–1640. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 2005.
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From Reformation until the Civil War, a history of Westminster, a city without a charter next door to London. Influenced by the Abbey and marked by the presence of the royal court, elites, middling sort, and the poor, with tensions that came among these groups and institutions.
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Rappaport, Steve. Worlds within Worlds: Structures of Life in Sixteenth-Century London. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1989.
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511522772Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Based on study of trade guilds and their records, finds that opportunity for social mobility through the guilds made London a relatively peaceful city in the 16th century compared to other European urban areas. Crisis of the 1590s marked by lessened mobility, but lack of eruption of social unrest.
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Ward, Joseph P. Metropolitan Communities: Trade Guilds, Identity, and Change in Early Modern London. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1997.
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Trade guild archives constitute one part of the evidence, and prescriptive and descriptive literature, including sermons and pamphlets, form another. Studies both City core of London and its suburbs to assess reach of the guilds and relationship between the city and the suburbs during period of change.
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THROUGH CIVIL WAR
The growing population, especially in suburbs, challenged governance, as seen in Archer 2001.Croft 2002 shows Parliament’s value to the local economy. Turning to emerging national political issues, Brenner 1993 links economic change to merchants’ new political leanings and Ashton 1979focuses on business interests in the civil war. Coates 2004 shows how much and how unevenly the civil war impacted London’s economy. Lindley 1997 and Pearl 1961 reach contrasting conclusions on the politicization of London inhabitants and the significance of political protest in the city.
Archer, Ian. “The Government of London, 1500–1650.” In Special Issue: A Review of Metropolitan Society Past and Present. Edited by David Green. London Journal 26.1 (May 2001): 19–28.
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Expands temporal coverage of Archer 1991 (cited under City, Suburbs, and Neighbors) to show breakdown in 17th century of relative stability of Elizabethan age, showing how religious tensions and continuing growth of suburbs complicated governance.
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Ashton, Robert. The City and the Court, 1603–1643. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1979.
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511895982Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Examines importance of London’s support for parliamentarians rather than king and royalists and assesses role of business interests and alienation in leading to support for Parliament.
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Brenner, Robert. Merchants and Revolution: Commercial Change, Political Conflict, and London’s Overseas Traders, 1550–1653. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993.
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First outlines development of merchant community and engagement in early colonial activity through archival documentation. Argues “new merchants” involved in colonial trade and tobacco influenced parliamentarians and the political conflict, making link between economic factors and political upheaval.
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Coates, Ben. The Impact of the English Civil War on the Economy of London, 1642–1650. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2004.
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Disruption of the economy of city and suburbs during the civil war and disruption of international trade. Heavy burden of taxation and loans to Parliament. Uneven economic impact meant fuel, food, and clothing shortages for many and profits for some.
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Croft, Pauline. “Capital Life: Members of Parliament outside the House.” In Politics, Religion and Popularity in Early Stuart Britain: Essays in Honour of Conrad Russell. Edited by Thomas Cogswell, Richard Cust, and Peter Lake, 65–83. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2002.
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Shows economic importance of parliamentary sessions to London and Southwark and demonstrates the link between the city and its suburbs and Westminster. Using diaries of parliamentarians—and that of one member’s wife—to reveal that political and social news, gossip, and sermon notes were shared with provincial homes.
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Lindley, Keith. Popular Politics and Religion in Civil War London. Aldershot, UK: Scolar Press, 1997.
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Archival sources from city, parishes, and courts illustrating extensive political and social unrest of the city; confronts debates on whether elites or parliamentarians mobilized crowds and inhabitants. The political and religious divisions of civil war enacted in city.
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Pearl, Valerie. London and the Outbreak of the Puritan Revolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1961.
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London a key city for civil war and revolution. Argues for lack of spontaneous political activity among ordinary people, as seen in lack of uprising or social unrest.
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RESTORATION AND LATER
In contrast to pursuit of social stability in the earlier period, the Restoration brought political parties, and the ongoing economic and social pressures in the city brought new communities and new divisions. Berry 2003 and Pincus 1995 analyze coffeehouse and print culture in relation to the increasingly politicized populace; each includes gender in this discussion of political culture. The influence and importance of political parties and the genesis of crowd action are explored in Harris 1987 and De Krey 1985. The period also brings a stronger focus on national politics even at the level of city governance (Harding 2001). The importance of religious difference in political struggles is demonstrated in De Krey 2005 on dissent and in Haywood and Seed 2012 on violent mob action against Catholics in London in the Gordon Riots, which also reconsiders the role of the crowd in the 18th century.
Berry, Helen. Gender, Society, and Print Culture in Late Stuart England: The Cultural World of the Athenian Mercury. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2003.
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A study of a coffeehouse periodical; topics on sex and gender central to the periodical and revealing of late-17th-century life. Provides connection between gender and print culture, and gender and politics.
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De Krey, Gary Stuart. A Fractured Society: The Politics of London in the First Age of Party, 1688–1715. Oxford: Clarendon, 1985.
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Advent of party politics, with city politics set in a national context after the Glorious Revolution.
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De Krey, Gary Stuart. London and the Restoration, 1659–1683. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511721007Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Outlines the political and religious resistance to the Restoration of Charles II by politicized London inhabitants. Stresses influence of the city on national issues, significance of religious dissent, and the development of party politics.
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Harding, Vanessa. “Controlling a Complex Metropolis, 1650–1750: Politics, Parishes and Powers.” Special Issue: A Review of Metropolitan Society Past and Present. Edited by David Green. London Journal 26.1 (May 2001): 29–37.
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Limited structural change despite growth of metropolitan area. Changing attitudes about local governors and national politics and political allegiances; financial revolution under way.
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Harris, Tim. London Crowds in the Reign of Charles II: Propaganda and Politics from the Restoration to the Exclusion Crisis. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1987.
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Focused particularly on the crowd and its political activity in the period, especially participation in riots and street demonstrations. Religious beliefs linked to political values. Analyzes influence of political parties and social elites on the crowd. Includes engravings.
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Haywood, Ian, and John Seed. The Gordon Riots: Politics, Culture and Insurrection in Late Eighteenth-Century Britain. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2012.
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Collection of essays on the Gordon Riots of 1780, popular protests that were anti-Catholic and violent. Historians and literary scholars contributed essays that include consideration of petitions, political and economic grievances, representation of the riots, and the anti-Catholic undercurrents in late-18th-century London.
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Pincus, Steve. “‘Coffee Politicians Does Create’: Coffeehouses and Restoration Political Culture.” Journal of Modern History 67.4 (December 1995): 807–834.
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Maintains that a public sphere emerged in the later 17th century in England, against arguments that coffeehouses were exclusive to London, or to a particular social class, or to men. Although arguing for wider coffeehouse culture, does describe the many that existed in the city.
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Space and Civic Culture
The neighborhoods and structures of London make up the material landscape of the city. These locations and spaces had important occupational and commercial identities, and often served as the locus of ritual or were otherwise vested with iconographic or ritual meaning. The work of John Stow, the 16th-century historian of the city, is an important primary source for studying the history of London’s parishes and wards and their connection to civic culture. Scholarly commentary on the author and his work expands upon the history of London.
MATERIAL CULTURE AND SPACE
The Great Fire of 1666 is a watershed moment in the history of the built environment of London. Thus Schofield 1994 may be titled medieval, but for Early Modern inhabitants much of the medieval streetscape remained until 1666. Keene and Harding 1987 provides fine-grained commentary on properties along Cheapside, commercially important for its markets and shops and ritually significant for its location on processional routes. Griffiths 2000 shows that the opulent appearance and good repair of the area were the subject of regulation and control. The lingering identification of neighborhoods with certain occupations is mapped in Power 1986. Orlin 2000 offers a collection of essays—a more common format in the history of London than book-length overviews—linking social and cultural history with the urban space. Guillery, et al. 2004 focuses on “small” houses and the lower orders, while McKellar 1999 describes the new domestic spaces built for the middle classes.Ogborn 1998 analyzes space as one way to measure how London was becoming “modern” at the same time social classes began to replace medieval orders.
Griffiths, Paul. “Politics Made Visible: Order, Residence and Uniformity in Cheapside, 1600–1645.” In Londinopolis: Essays in the Cultural and Social History of Early Modern London. Edited by Mark S. R. Jenner and Paul Griffiths, 176–195. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 2000.
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Cheapside had ritual and commercial significance in the city. Early 17th century saw once-gleaming shops and wares of Goldsmiths’ Row grow tarnished, resulting in efforts to control the appearance of and residence in the area to preserve London’s status.
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Guillery, Peter, Andrew Donald, and Derek Kendall. The Small House in Eighteenth-Century London: A Social and Architectural History. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2004.
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Architectural history, with chapters on tenements and workers’ houses. Social history of the title includes discussion of work and industries, like shipbuilding and tanning. Shows the expansion of “London” to include Southwark and areas on the margins of the growing city.
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Keene, Derek, and Vanessa Harding. Historical Gazetteer of London before the Great Fire. Cambridge, UK: Chadwyck-Healey, 1987.
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Property history for properties in Cheapside area of London from 12th century through the Great Fire. Provides information on parish church construction, the size of structures, properties and endowments, owners and their occupations, and important civic monuments like the Great Conduit, a source of water and a significant urban monument. Also available online.
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McKellar, Elizabeth. The Birth of Modern London: The Development and Design of the City 1660–1720. Manchester, UK, and New York: Manchester University Press, 1999.
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Based on legal records from the Court of Chancery and focused not on grand buildings, but on the everyday ones and the period immediately before and following the Great Fire. The “modern” here refers to new domestic spaces for the middle class—the townhome.
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Ogborn, Miles. Spaces of Modernity: London’s Geographies, 1680–1780. New York: Guilford, 1998.
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Argues that the 18th century transformed London, with proof in the spaces of the city and the offices serving it. Provides answer to what “modernity” means for London. Emphasis on unevenness of the modern topography.
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Orlin, Lena, ed. Material London, ca. 1600. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2000.
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Collection of essays covering buildings and topography, boundary disputes, medicine, economic growth, consumption, cultural production, and the city’s relationship with the provinces. Together show the interconnectedness of studies of the city’s space and buildings with social wealth and poverty, economic growth and change, and cultural production.
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Power, M. J. “The Social Topography of Restoration London.” In London, 1500–1700: The Making of the Metropolis. Edited by A. L. Beier and Roger Finlay, 199–223. London and New York: Longman, 1986.
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Beginning with tax records, uses statistical methods to gauge how inhabitants chose neighborhoods, whether to cluster by occupation or by wealth. Argues for topography unlike modern cities and more like medieval ones, with occupation still significant.
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Schofield, John. Medieval London Houses. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1994.
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Although medieval houses, many of these stood until the Great Fire of 1666 brought destruction and rebuilding. Included are many other sites of urban life, like almshouses, taverns and inns, shops, and the halls of the livery companies; the built environment for the lives of Londoners before the fire.
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JOHN STOW
As the first historian of London and the subject of research, John Stow is worthy of a subheading of his own in the history of London. Stow 1908, edited by Kingsford, provides a version (online and in print) of Stow’s history of the city, organized by ward and parish. Stow’s history also discussed early modern governance, charity, economic activity, and social life in the city. On the post–Great Fire period, Strype 1720 expands Stow. Stow and Strype have fledged an entire field of interdisciplinary scholarship, as exemplified in the historian Archer and in the literary critic Manley. Each offers a view of Stow’s sense of loss in the midst of urban, cultural, and social change (Archer 1995 and Manley 1995). Hill 2010 on the Lord Mayor’s Show takes up one of the subjects that affected Stow’s view of civic culture. The essays in Merritt 2001 use both of the famed chroniclers to document the immense changes impacting the city and the responses to and perceptions of them.
Archer, Ian. “The Nostalgia of John Stow.” In The Theatrical City: Culture, Theatre, and Politics in London, 1576–1649. Edited by David L. Smith and Richard Strier, 17–34. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
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“Nostalgia” traced in celebration of what had been lost in Reformation, demographic expansion, and economic change over the 16th century. Stow’s concern with sociability and the fabric of churches linked to pride in city. Based on Stow’s work and parochial documents.
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Hill, Tracey. Pageantry and Power: A Cultural History of the Early Modern Lord Mayor’s Show, 1585–1639. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 2010.
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Content and production of the Lord Mayor’s Shows, with attention to the costs of them borne by guilds. Theatricality most important, judging by cost. Guild records and descriptions and texts of the shows, as well as eyewitness accounts, used in this study of the civic productions.
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Manley, Lawrence. “Of Sites and Rites.” In The Theatrical City: Culture, Theatre, and Politics in London, 1576–1649. Edited by David L. Smith and Richard Strier, 35–54. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
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Stow as chronicler of immense change and of continuity in social practices and ceremonies; part on Stow’s work on customs and everyday life and the other on topography of the city. Based largely on work of Stow and the guilds’ accounts of participation in new civic and mayoral ceremonies.
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Merritt, J. F. Imagining Early Modern London: Perceptions and Portrayals of the City from Stow to Strype, 1598–1720. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2001.
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Collection of essays analyzing how the city was memorialized, affected by economic developments and poverty, and made less stable through political and religious unrest. How Londoners imagined themselves, and the portrayal of inhabitants and city by others with the two chroniclers for chronological bookends.
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Stow, John. A Survey of London by John Stow, Reprinted from the 1603 Edition. Edited by C. L. Kingsford. London: Clarendon, 1908.
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John Stow was London’s first great chronicler, working from civic records and primary sources and observing the urban structures and spaces remaining around him. An essential primary source for his observations and commentary on the changes he saw about him, and the foundation of a vast secondary literature.
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Strype, John. A Survey of the Cities of London and Westminster. 1720.
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Expanded the 1603 edition of Stow’s Survey in order to bring the famous work up-to-date, not just in the aftermath of the Great Fire, but in the expansion of the city and its population into the early 18th century. Extensive engraved maps and illustrations.
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Society and Order
Order was a pressing concern to urban and national leaders throughout Europe in the 16th century and later. The demographic history of London is necessary to understand the profound changes affecting the city that did not go unrecognized by its inhabitants, rulers, and other observers. This section considers groups as well as social, moral, economic, and political problems that accompanied the city’s growth in size and population.
DEMOGRAPHY
Finlay 1981 is essential reading for the quantification of population growth in London, as is Finlay and Shearer 1986 for the growth in the suburbs in particular; these foundations help to make sense of urban problems and tensions. Landers 1993 picks up on a later period than Finlay 1981 but uses similar methodology. See People in Place: Families, Households and Housing in London, 1550–1720 (cited under Primary Sources: Databases) for research materials for demographic study.
Finlay, Roger. Population and Metropolis: The Demography of London, 1580–1650. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1981.
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511735325Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Quantitative study demonstrating London’s rapid population growth over a short period of time; describes methodology and the use of parish registers for measuring population. Grounds the qualitative observations by contemporaries of social and urban issues that accompanied such demographic growth; no history of London complete without mention of demography.
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Finlay, Roger, and Beatrice Shearer. “Population Growth and Suburban Expansion.” InLondon, 1500–1700: The Making of the Metropolis. Edited by A. L. Beier and Roger Finlay, 37–59. London and New York: Longman, 1986.
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Explores London’s distinctive, fourfold growth between 1550 and 1700, with importance of suburbs for migrants. Based on quantitative evidence drawn from parish registers, Hearth Tax assessments, and other archival sources. Demographic expansion linked to pressures on land and trend toward large-scale agricultural production.
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Landers, John. Death and the Metropolis: Studies in the Demographic History of London, 1670–1830. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1993.
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Methods of family reconstitution applied to Bills of Mortality and registers of the Quakers and the parish of the Church of England to reveal trends in mortality, fertility, and migration. History of population in the long 18th century and of disease.
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CITY WOMEN
The history of women as wives and widows has been a particularly rich area in the late medieval and early modern history of London, as seen in the exemplary widows of Barron and Sutton 1994 and the everyday lives and legal and economic status of those in McSheffrey 2006 and Hanawalt 2007. A stronger theoretical thread is found in Gowing 1996 and Hubbard 2012, although their conclusions on the primary significance of gender differ slightly. Court records are rich sources for teasing out women’s attitudes and experiences of marriage (Hunt 2000), conflicts with other women over sex and reputation (Gowing 1996), and their experience in households as domestic servants (Humfrey 2011). For women acting outside social and moral norms, see Sexuality and Reputation and for recent works on the 18th century and women and gender, see Crime and Punishment. Women also worked and engaged in politics and those areas should be consulted.
Barron, Caroline M., and Anne F. Sutton. Medieval London Widows, 1300–1500. London: Hambledon, 1994.
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Collection of essays offering both biographical essays of some extraordinary late medieval widows as well as studies of categories of widows, those working in certain professions or living in poverty.
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Gowing, Laura. Domestic Dangers: Women, Words, and Sex in Early Modern London. Oxford: Clarendon, 1996.
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Historical study enriched by theoretical and literary methodology, based on court depositions. Argues that women enforce and are subject to the patriarchal order, especially surrounding their sexuality and sexual reputations.
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Hanawalt, Barbara. The Wealth of Wives: Women, Law, and Economy in Late Medieval London. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.
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Argues against a brief “golden age” for women after the plague in London; considers women as independent actors in the late medieval economy and as those who inherited and facilitated the transmission of wealth through their dowries and dowers. Based on extensive civic archival records.
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Hubbard, Eleanor. City Women: Money, Sex, and the Social Order in Early Modern London. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012.
DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199609345.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Considers women’s urban and economic roles across their life cycles, using court records including ecclesiastical courts and prescriptive sources such as conduct books and sermons. A woman’s reputation rests on more than sexual reputation in this reading of women’s lives as revealed in depositions and as prescribed in guides.
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Humfrey, Paula. The Experience of Domestic Service for Women in Early Modern London. Farnham, UK: Ashgate, 2011.
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Legal depositions and examinations read to cull evidence on the shape of women domestic servants’ lives and their reliance on this work across their lifetimes. Shows their importance in households and the overall economy of London.
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Hunt, Margaret R. “Wives and Marital ‘Rights’ in the Court of Exchequer in the Early Eighteenth Century.” In Londinopolis: Essays in the cultural and Social History of Early Modern London. Edited by Mark S. R. Jenner and Paul Griffiths, 107–129. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 2000.
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Pleadings from the court—the plaintiffs’ bills and the defendants’ answers—used to test the litigiousness of London women, often taken as a sign of urban women’s assertiveness. The particularities of London for women’s use of courts in their marital struggles.
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McSheffrey, Shannon. Marriage, Sex and Civic Culture in Late Medieval London. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006.
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Disposes of notion of private and public spheres in showing how marriage was contracted and celebrated or recognized in the late medieval city. Shows marriage practices as well as expectations for husbands and wives before legislation in 18th century exerted control over clandestine marriage and vows.
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CRIME AND PUNISHMENT
The study of crime and punishment has been a significant area of research for some decades and, given online access to the Proceedings of the Old Bailey, 1674–1913, research on 18th-century London has been vigorous and fruitful. Shoemaker 2004 and Turner 2005 are but two examples of the immense material on the lives of ordinary Londoners that not only reveal criminal activity, but also lead to nuanced and more detailed descriptions of everyday life. For an earlier period, archival research is necessary for Griffiths 2008 to evoke the hurly-burly of London, its sometimes disorderly inhabitants, and the control exercised to limit their resourcefulness. Andrew and McGowen 2001shows how printed primary sources—especially the press—reveal the anxieties over credit and forgery and the fashionable 18th-century society. Henderson 1999, like Andrew and McGowen, brings gender into the study of crime with a focus on prostitution. The issue of whether London was well-policed prior to the modern era is addressed by both Griffiths and Beattie 2001. Studies of crime have also shown the differences and complementarities between cultural and more traditional social or legal histories, comparing Griffiths and Beattie. Linebaugh 1992 follows the Marxist tradition, emphasizing economic and capitalist change behind patterns of crime and punishment.
Andrew, Donna T., and Randall McGowen. The Perreaus and Mrs. Rudd: Forgery and Betrayal in Eighteenth-Century London. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001.
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Sensational trial of forgery, involving twin brothers and their mistress. Capitalism and credit, the press, capital offense of forgery, gendered expectations for the witnesses and gendered readings of their testimony examined in an accessible and readable scholarly study based on contemporary print accounts.
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Beattie, J. M. Policing and Punishment in London 1660–1750: Urban Crime and the Limits of Terror. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.
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Discusses the particularities of punishment and criminal law in London and changes in patterns of crime in the 18th-century city. Assesses how demographic growth and changes in society led to development of new patterns of crime and new methods of surveillance, capture, and punishment before the era of modern police and criminal reform.
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Griffiths, Paul. Lost Londons: Change, Crime, and Control in the Capital City, 1550–1660. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2008.
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511495823Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Based on archival and print primary sources, focuses first on urban changes and perceptions that change equaled decline and disorder. Depicts nature of crimes, the majority of which were not felonies, and the increasingly effective means of controlling the resourceful people of “lost” London.
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Henderson, Tony. Disorderly Women in Eighteenth-Century London: Prostitution and Control in the Metropolis, 1730–1830. New York: Longman, 1999.
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Considers the women themselves who took up prostitution, drawing evidence from civic and legal archival records. Traces changes in attitudes about prostitution in the 18th century that are linked to ideas about poverty and work.
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Linebaugh, Peter. The London Hanged: Crime and Civil Society in the Eighteenth Century. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
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Based on archival and printed primary sources like the Ordinary of Newgate’s accounts, a provocative argument on the link between capitalism and hanging is made, that the gallows are a form of labor discipline.
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Proceedings of the Old Bailey, 1674–1913.
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Fully searchable, publicly accessible database of London’s central criminal court. Resource for primary-source research on crime and on the lives of non-elites in London. Secondary information and guides to using the database also provided by the editors.
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Shoemaker, Robert. The London Mob: Violence and Disorder in Eighteenth-Century England. London and New York: Hambledon and London, 2004.
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Physical violence, shaming, dueling and boxing, and insults figure in this study of conflict slowly giving way to greater orderliness. The “mob” is neither monolithic nor unthinking. Based on extensive research in the Proceedings of the Old Bailey and other legal and print sources.
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Turner, David. “Popular Marriage and the Law: Tales of Bigamy at the Eighteenth-Century Old Bailey.” London Journal 30.1 (2005): 6–21.
DOI: 10.1179/ldn.2005.30.1.6Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Part of a special issue on the research possibilities of the Old Bailey online sources. Explores economic and other reasons for bigamy and the focus on male sexuality and exploitation of women.
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SEXUALITY AND REPUTATION
At the forefront of a new field of historical inquiry, Bray 1982 considers “homosexuality.” The terms themselves have changed, with Norton 2005 offering instead “gay” history. Debate over women’s agency and sexuality in the midst of a patriarchal society, and whether a double standard of female sexual probity exists, can be seen in Capp 2003 and Gowing 1996. Gatrell 2007 and Dabhoiwala 2000 instead look at the prevalence of licentious and illicit behavior of men and women of all social classes.
Bray, Alan. Homosexuality in Renaissance England. New York: Columbia University Press, 1982.
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Not focused exclusively on London since sodomy legal cases show London not to be the “world apart” alleged by early modern satirists. Yet description of mollies and molly houses dependent on accounts of Society of the Reformation of Manners’ raids on London public houses.
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Capp, Bernard. When Gossips Meet: Women, Family, and Neighbourhood in Early Modern England. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199255986.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Records of London’s Mayor’s and Consistory Courts, Bridewell, and parish vestry minutes provide part of the resource base for this comparative study covering more than London. Important in scholarly debate about gender in early modern London, especially the determinants of men’s and women’s reputations and their sexual behavior.
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Dabhoiwala, Faramerz. “The Pattern of Sexual Immorality in Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century London.” In Londinopolis: Essays in the Cultural and Social History of Early Modern London. Edited by Mark S. R. Jenner and Paul Griffiths, 86–106. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 2000.
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Seeks to reveal sexual behavior of men and women through study of prostitution; concerned with illicit behavior of elites and non-elites, commonly separated in studies of sexuality.
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Gatrell, Vic. City of Laughter: Sex and Satire in Eighteenth-Century London. New York: Walker, 2007.
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Sense of place conveyed and the rapid changes of the 18th century; counterweight to polite society and manners existed in lewd satire and publicly lascivious or libertine behavior. Evidence drawn from popular print sources and the engravings and illustrations of the age, many of which are reproduced in the volume.
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Gowing, Laura. Domestic Dangers: Women, Words, and Sex in Early Modern London. Oxford: Clarendon, 1996.
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Argues women’s sexual reputation is paramount to their reputation and honor in urban society in contrast to men’s reputations. Based on careful reading of depositions in London church courts, particularly to understand the meaning and impact of insults that turned on women’s sexual reputation. Demonstrates women’s litigiousness in assailing and protecting reputations.
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Norton, Rictor. “Recovering Gay History from the Old Bailey.” In Special Issue: A Review of Metropolitan Society Past and Present. Edited by Tim Hitchcock and Robert Shoemaker.London Journal 30.1 (2005): 39–54.
DOI: 10.1179/ldn.2005.30.1.39Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
From special issue on utilizing Old Bailey Proceedings to gain clearer picture of life in London, in this case evidence about a gay subculture and identity in 18th-century London. Locates early origins of such an identity in contrast to prevailing theories of the more recent origins of gay subculture.
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POVERTY, CHARITY, AND POOR RELIEF
Londoners noted the incidence of poverty and sought to ameliorate or eradicate it. They also sought to help and control the poor. Demographic and economic changes were exacerbated by cultural and social changes in attitudes about the poor and charity. Jordan 1960 surveys the aspirations behind charitable bequests and the people and institutions those bequests supported. Hickman 2003 andSchen 2002 assess the impact of the Reformation on charitable attitudes and practices. “Godly Londoners” in Ward 2013 seek to further religious reform through their philanthropy. Like Macfarlane 1986, Ward 2013 covers the gap of the 17th century in the history of philanthropy. A picture of the poor and their lives emerges through Hitchcock 2004 and through the research database London Lives. Andrew 1989 and Levene 2012 focus on the growth of institutional responses to the problem of poverty and new ideas about how to train and correct the poor.
Andrew, Donna. Philanthropy and Police: London Charity in the Eighteenth Century. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1989.
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Focusing particularly on new institutions founded by newly wealthy traders and merchants that emphasized self-help through preparation for military service and work, social goals to be furthered by philanthropy. Gender of both donors and recipients analyzed.
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Hickman, David. “From Catholic to Protestant: The Changing Meaning of Testamentary Religious Provision in Elizabethan London.” In England’s Long Reformation, 1500–1800. Edited by Nicholas Tyacke, 117–140. London: University College London Press, 2003.
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Evidence drawn from the testamentary bequests of London elites that paid for funerary processions and celebrations, but included provision made to the poor. Argues that these religious provisions help to explain how elites maintained their leadership roles and provides an answer as to how reform took hold among city inhabitants.
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Hitchcock, Tim. Down and Out in Eighteenth-Century London. London and New York: Hambledon and London, 2004.
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Lively descriptions of the poor and beggars and the work they carried out, drawing extensively on theProceedings of the Old Bailey, 1674–1913 (see Crime and Punishment) as social history source. Argues for the essential, if lowly and unskilled, work performed by these men and women for the economy of London and the generally charitable attitudes of Londoners.
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Jordan, Wilbur. The Charities of London, 1480–1660: The Aspirations and the Achievements of the Urban Society. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1960.
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While recent studies have incorporated revisionist historiographical thinking about social status, gender, and religious change, this older work lays out the foundations of significant urban foundations and patterns in charitable giving over almost two centuries.
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Levene, Alysa. The Childhood of the Poor: Welfare in Eighteenth-Century London. Houndmills, UK, and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012.
DOI: 10.1057/9781137009517Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Expands the study of poor children in the 18th century to include not only workhouses and institutions, but family, community, and parochial support and charity. Larger context in the history of childhood, questioning if emerging notions of childhood affected the experience of poor children.
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London Lives, 1690–1800: Crime, Poverty and Social Policy in the Metropolis.
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Fully searchable manuscript collection and datasets on provision of poor relief and medical care, as well as on criminal justice. Sponsored by the Economic and Social Research Council, the Humanities Research Institute online project of the University of Sheffield, and the University of Hertfordshire.
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Macfarlane, Stephen. “Social Policy and the Poor in the Later Seventeenth Century.” InLondon, 1500–1700: The Making of the Metropolis. Edited by A. L. Beier and Roger Finlay, 252–277. Harlow, UK: Longman, 1986.
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Through colonial records, parish churchwardens’ accounts, and records from the city, an exploration of the London Corporation of the Poor 1698–1713 to reveal attitudes about poverty, provision of parish relief, and the workhouse. Sources supplemented by chronicles and pamphlets to show tension between workhouse and parochial administration.
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Schen, Claire. Charity and Lay Piety in Reformation London, 1500–1620. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2002.
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Sample of parishes varying in size, location, and wealth of inhabitants; showing how the Reformation impacted lay piety and charitable practices well after the Elizabethan Settlement. Attention to women as both recipients and donors of bequests and parochial charity.
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Ward, Joseph. Culture, Faith, and Philanthropy: Londoners and Provincial Reform in Early Modern England. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013.
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Relies on sources across genres and disciplines to illustrate the workings of the moral economy and the efforts of godly Londoners to further religious reform through philanthropy. Chronological span significant for including 17th-century political upheaval and bridging divide between studies of 16th and 18th centuries.
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MIGRATION
Migration into the city was essential for its population growth given its mortality rates. English migrants are studied in Kitch 1986, and their place of origin and distance from the city mapped. Other migrants had their roots farther away, coming to London to escape religious persecution, as inPettegree 1986. In a far-ranging study, Selwood 2010 discusses these western European religious refugees, but also the strangers from around the globe, many of whom were not Protestants. Enslaved, and formerly enslaved, Africans also formed a relatively small yet economically and culturally important group in 18th-century London; see Gerzina 1995.
Gerzina, Gretchen. Black London: Life before Emancipation. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1995.
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The lives of black Londoners in the 18th century before the emancipation of enslaved Africans and others in Britain and British colonies. Demonstrates their economic role and social networks.
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Kitch, M. J. “Capital and Kingdom: Migration to Later Stuart London.” In London, 1500–1700: The Making of the Metropolis. Edited by A. L. Beier and Roger Finlay, 224–251. Harlow, UK: Longman, 1986.
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Using apprenticeship and freedom records to estimate migration into the city of London and to develop portrait of the young migrants’ limited opportunities for social advancement. Tables showing county origins and maps showing distance of migration.
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Pettegree, Andrew. Foreign Protestant Communities in Sixteenth-Century London. Oxford: Clarendon, 1986.
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Protestant exiles of Reformation era. Established own churches and church governance, including moral oversight; debate over influence of these communities on Reformation in England and abroad. Participation in civic economy and society explored.
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Selwood, Jacob. Diversity and Difference in Early Modern London. Farnham, UK, and Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2010.
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Based on archival sources like guild and government records as well as print and literary sources to uncover everyday life experiences. Looks at wide range of immigrants to city, from the western European Protestants, to refugees from around the world, to Jews after the 1650s; considers how they were received by Londoners.
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Economy
Economic histories focus on the economic relationship between London and the provinces measured by the goods traded. The commodities are described. The nature of London’s economic activity—producer or consumer of commodities—is debated. Merchants themselves factor in the history of trade and the politics and social life of the city.
MERCHANTS AND TRADE
Trade in London had been significant to the economy for centuries, but new organizations supporting trade with old and new trading partners affected the city’s economy. Trade across the Atlantic, in southern Europe, and through the Levant contributed to London’s economic growth, as in Dietz 1986. On the value of the Atlantic trade in the 18th century, see Hancock 1995 and Zahediah 2010.Games 1999 demonstrates that London was not only a center of trade and finance, but also an embarkation point for migrants to Atlantic colonies. Brenner 1993 connects the economic success of “new merchants” to their political confidence and tenets; Hancock 1995 and Zahediah 2010 give portraits of individual merchants. Earle 1989 focuses on merchants and men and women of business in their lives in London.
Brenner, Robert. Merchants and Revolution: Commercial Change, Political Conflict, and London’s Overseas Traders, 1550–1653. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993.
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Sees development of “new merchants” active in colonial enterprises and slowly surpassing established merchants of the trading companies. First part of book devoted to merchants and their commercial activity before turning to their political allegiances and influence on the civil war in London.
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Dietz, Brian. “Overseas Trade and Metropolitan Growth.” In London, 1500–1700: The Making of the Metropolis. Edited by A. L. Beier and Roger Finlay, 115–140. Harlow, UK: Longman, 1986.
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Economic modeling to assess impact of overseas trade on the city, focusing particularly on the cloth trades, with values, tonnage, and percentage of overall trade included in charts and tables. Atlantic trade, but also trade with southern Europe and Levant; composition of import and export trade over time.
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Earle, Peter. The Making of the English Middle Class: Business, Society, and Family Life in London, 1660–1730. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989.
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A study of financial and property records, like postmortem accounts, wills, and bankruptcy records, that illuminates the business dealings and everyday lives of the well-to-do in London profiting from trade and industry.
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Games, Alison. Migration and the Origins of the English Atlantic World. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999.
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Using port register of 1635 from London, traces the migration to Atlantic colonies of those who passed through London. Significance of the city as magnet and departure point for migration and for the transportation of commodities and ideas.
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Hancock, David. Citizens of the World: London Merchants and the Integration of the British Atlantic Community, 1735–1785. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
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Focus on twenty-three London merchants of late 18th century, originating in provinces and helping to develop colonies and economy in Atlantic world. Adoption of manners and habits of polite society in London.
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Zahediah, Nuala. The Capital and the Colonies: London in the Atlantic Economy, 1660–1700. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
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Port books of London from 1686 showing importers and exporters; risk-taking merchants who were not part of the traditional chartered companies. Sugar and tobacco from North American and Caribbean colonies.
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PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION
On the trade guilds of London, Beier 1986 revisits debates about the origins of industrial capitalism and London’s role as a producer of goods. Sutton 2005 offers a history of the Mercers’ Company that includes information on the production of cloth and the networks in which the cloth was traded. The power of London as a consumer, however, is awesome. It is a city that needs to be fed, asChartres 1986 shows. Necessities are not its only tastes, however, as Thirsk 2000 demonstrates through the willingness of provincial towns to bring new garden and agricultural products to market to meet London’s taste for unusual and exotic plants and herbs, a process that transformed the provinces. New tastes included coffee, setting off new enthusiasm for coffeehouses, and the political and social education possible in them (Cowan 2005). The appetite for new luxury goods, art, botanicals, buildings, clothing, and all manner of goods was seemingly limitless, according to Peck 2005, and important to growing production and wealth as well as status. Sacks 2000 also emphasizes London’s economic role as a consumer of goods.
Beier, A. L. “Engine of Manufacture: The Trades of London.” In London, 1500–1700: The Making of the Metropolis. Edited by A. L. Beier and Roger Finlay, 141–167. Harlow, UK: Longman, 1986.
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Importance of metropolis in cloth and other production, in consumption, and in emergence of industrial capitalism. Appendixes delineating trades and showing occupational, status titles within parishes.
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Chartres, John. “Food Consumption and Internal Trade.” In London, 1500–1700: The Making of the Metropolis. Edited by A. L. Beier and Roger Finlay, 168–196. Harlow, UK: Longman, 1986.
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Explores London’s role as consumer of food produced in provinces and impact on agriculture and transportation. Tables showing wages, prices, consumption patterns.
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Cowan, Brian. The Social Life of Coffee: The Emergence of the British Coffeehouse. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2005.
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Offers a view of the development of the coffeehouse in London and the production and consumption of coffee there. Coffeehouses became essential to social life in the city and other urban areas and were even recognized as providing some education.
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Peck, Linda Levy. Consuming Splendor: Society and Culture in Seventeenth-Century England. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
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Who were the arbiters of taste in the 17th century—the nobility or fledgling middle class? Describes luxuries, exotic commodities from around the world, and new production that fed these tastes.
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Sacks, David Harris. “London’s Dominion: The Metropolis, the Market Economy, and the State.” In Material London, ca. 1600. Edited by Lena Orlin, 20–54. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2000.
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London as central market and as city with economic “dominion” over England and eventually Britain. Consumer of necessities and services, and the source of tastes and culture of consumption.
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Sutton, Anne. The Mercery of London: Trade, Goods and People, 1130–1578. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2005.
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History of one of the most influential and wealthy of London guilds that covers production, trade, and consumption of the guild’s goods, silks, linens, fustians. Overseas trade, network of bankers and merchants. Guild records, as well as civic and court archives.
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Thirsk, Joan. “England’s Provinces: Did They Serve or Drive Material London?” In Material London, ca. 1600. Edited by Lena Orlin, 97–108. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2000.
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In this account, London spurs changes in agriculture and rural industries to meet new consumer tastes. A “veritable spider’s web” of production linked city and provinces and spurred standardization.
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The Reformation and Puritanism
The religious history of London remains focused especially on the Reformation and Puritans and puritanism in the city. Any consideration of religion should be placed in a wider context; see alsoSociety and Order and Politics and Governance. Brigden 1989 is a focused work on the Reformation; Schen 1997 considers women’s role in and their experience of the Reformation.Harding 2002 argues for the importance of social and cultural factors in burial changes and adaptations. For preaching at the noteworthy (for city and nation) outdoor pulpit of Paul’s Cross, seeMorrissey 2011. For another dimension of teaching and preaching in the parishes, see Seaver 1970on lectureships. Seaver 1985 offers a narrative history of one Puritan divine family and home life using a remarkable diary as the source, while Lake 2001 brings the in-fighting and acrimony of the Puritan “community” alive through the story of two lesser-known men and their polemical debates.Liu 1986 looks for signs of Puritan leanings in parishes and areas of the city.
Brigden, Susan. London and the Reformation. Oxford: Clarendon, 1989.
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Thorough research showing how inhabitants accepted and resisted waves of religious change in the city. Engaged in the revisionist debates of the late 1980s that questioned popular enthusiasm for reform, yet attuned to the evangelical strands in the city. Starting point on the Reformation in London up to Elizabethan settlement.
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Harding, Vanessa. The Living and the Dead in Paris and London, 1500–1670. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2002.
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Assesses changes in burial and churchyards across a period of demographic growth and of intense religious change in the two cities. Argues that Paris burials remained contentious while London adapted, suggesting demographic, social, and religious differences between the two.
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Lake, Peter. The Boxmaker’s Revenge: “Orthodoxy,” “Heterodoxy” and the Politics of the Parish in Early Stuart London. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 2001.
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Using the long-running and deep antagonism between the minister Stephen Denison and the artisan John Etherington, Lake reveals what he terms the “puritan underground” of early-17th-century London. A specialized work fully engaged in historical debates, particularly about the meaning of puritanism and identities of Puritans.
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Liu, Dai. Puritan London: A Study of Religion and Society in the City Parishes. Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1986.
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Locates in parishes people known broadly as “puritans;” suggests connections between parishes and religious identities. Larger context of London’s religious and political affiliations in the civil war period. What constitutes a “puritan” has been the subject of hot debate in the intervening decades since publication.
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Morrissey, Mary. Politics and the Paul’s Cross Sermons, 1558–1642. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011.
DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199571765.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
First significant study since the late 1950s; interdisciplinary study of history and operation of the outdoor preaching center. Focus on sermons that address political and religious controversies, relationship of preaching to the monarchy and print, and anti-Puritan and anti-Catholic themes.
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Schen, Claire. “Women and the London Parishes 1500–1620.” In The Parish in English Life 1400–1600. Edited by Katherine L. French, Gary G. Gibbs, and Beat Kümin, 250–268. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1997.
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Impact of the Reformation on women’s duties within parishes, charity available to them, and their participation in the provision of charitable bequests.
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Seaver, Paul S. The Puritan Lectureships: The Politics of Religious Dissent, 1560–1662. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1970.
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Addresses endowed religious lectureships in London parishes and identifies the men hired as lecturers by name and discusses their religious inclinations. A useful resource for understanding how worship functioned in a parish and how the words of preachers and lecturers could ignite controversy.
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Seaver, Paul S. Wallington’s World: A Puritan Artisan in Seventeenth-Century London. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1985.
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Based on the highly unusual archive of personal writings left behind by this Puritan London turner, Seaver reveals his world of family, faith, and civil war and revolution.
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Intellectual Life and Culture
London served as a center of the production, collection, and dissemination of new ideas. The book trade was one component, science and medicine another. The city brought together people interested in these fields. The theaters and acting companies exported drama. Architecture was driven by the city’s expansion and suited its populace’s enthusiasm for the latest in fashionable homes and buildings. Art and music flourished in the city to meet the aesthetic demands of wealthy inhabitants focused on cultivation of tastes and collections and to serve the royal court.
BOOKS AND BOOKSELLERS
The Stationers’ Company is important in the history of the book in London, as some of the essays inHunt, et al. 1997 describe; other essays address book production and bookselling. The location of book shops is well-described in Myers, et al. 2003. Watt 1991 is focused on cheap print—especially as it demonstrates and disseminates popular religious ideas.
Hunt, Arnold, Giles Mandelbrote, and Alison Shell. The Book Trade and Its Customers, 1450–1900: Historical Essays for Robin Myers. New Castle, DE: Oak Knoll, 1997.
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Festschrift for specialist in history of the book Robin Myers. Collection of essays includes a number pertaining to book production and bookselling in London and to the Stationers’ Company.
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Myers, Robin, Michael Harris, and Giles Mandelbrote. The London Book Trade: Topographies of Print in the Metropolis from the Sixteenth Century. New Castle, DE: Oak Knoll, 2003.
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Collection of essays drawn from conference on book trade; workshop inventories, areas of book production like Paternoster Row.
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Watt, Tessa. Cheap Print and Popular Piety, 1550–1640. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1991.
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Centered on the production of cheap print—broadside ballads, woodcuts, and chapbooks or small pamphlets—in London over the course of the Reformation to the Civil War. Focused on popular religious belief reflected in and conveyed by these sources. Many reproductions illustrate the text.
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SCIENCE AND MEDICINE
Professionalization marked the development of science and medicine in London over the 16th through early 18th centuries. Evenden 2000 on midwives and Wilson 1995 on male midwifery show the process by which women were excluded from midwifery. Pelling and White 2003 similarly demonstrates the high stakes for professionalizing physicians against “irregular” practitioners.Harkness 2007 makes a case for the contributions of scientists later downplayed by Sir Francis Bacon because of their modest status or disinterest in publishing their findings.
Evenden, Doreen. The Mid-Wives of Seventeenth-Century London. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
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Study of the licensing of midwives in London by the Church of England; emphasis on their training and expertise to counter stereotypes of ignorance and poor practice.
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Harkness, Deborah. The Jewel House: Elizabethan London and the Scientific Revolution. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2007.
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The men and women (some humble) who made instruments, experimented, gardened, healed. Demonstrates significance of network of scientists in London and their wider European intellectual and scientific network.
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Pelling, Margaret, and Frances White. Medical Conflicts in Early Modern London: Patronage, Physicians, and Irregular Practitioners, 1550–1640. Oxford: Clarendon, 2003.
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Focus on the College of Physicians and anxieties about their status and competing practitioners in London, including women practicing medicine and healing. Seen through their pursuit of irregular practitioners as detailed in college records.
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Wilson, Adrian. The Making of Man-Midwifery: Childbirth in England, 1660–1770. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995.
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Transitional period between midwifery practiced by women and eventual control of midwifery and childbirth by male physicians in the late 18th century, with some focus on London.
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THEATER AND LITERATURE
Vast secondary literature exists on the Globe Theatre, William Shakespeare, other playwrights, and acting companies in London. In this selective approach to the significance of the theater, works have been limited to those placing drama and performance in the urban landscape. Dillon 2000 andHoward 2007 show how the city figured in drama and productions. The importance of the city and its suburbs, its early imperial engagement, and the signs of change that surrounded inhabitants are seen in Mullaney 1988.
Dillon, Janette. Theatre, Court and City: 1595–1610: Drama and Social Space in London. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
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Explores drama in context of relations between the city and the royal court and considers the gradual expansion of the city along the Strand, bridging London and Westminster.
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Howard, Jean E. Theater of a City: The Places of London Comedy, 1598–1642. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007.
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With commercial and demographic expansion of the city, comedy became a way of making identity and understanding the vast social and economic changes under way. Organized by particular urban spaces, focused on comedies to show the “synergy” between the theater and the sprawling city.
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Mullaney, Steven. The Place of the Stage: License, Play, and Power in Renaissance England. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988.
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The city, suburbs, and liberties presented as place of performance and ceremony; describes wider cultural developments including collecting.
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Open City: London, 1500–1700.
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Exhibition (2012) from the Folger Shakespeare Library, Washington, DC, that highlighted church, theater, and market. Sample of cases and a virtual tour of sites in the city available online.
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ARCHITECTURE
The spatial expansion of London, the presence of the royal court in Westminster, and the accident of the Great Fire of 1666 contributed to the building and rebuilding of churches, institutions, and homes in the city. For topics such as domestic architecture and the urban landscape, see Material Culture and Space as well as Primary Sources for further suggestions. For a general survey of British architecture that includes many examples from London, see Summerson 1983. Tinniswood 2001offers a biography of one of the important architects, Christopher Wren, of the post-Fire city and Hart 2002 one of Wren’s apprentices and an innovative architect in his own right, Nicholas Hawksmoor. The mathematical foundations of the work of these and other architects is explored by Gerbino and Johnston 2009. The royal palace of Whitehall was architecturally significant, though Thurley 1999shows it did not compare to continental examples. See also Art and Music for more on the palace’s painted ceilings.
Gerbino, Anthony, and Stephen Johnston. Compass and Rule: Architecture as Mathematical Practice in England, 1500–1750. New Haven, CT, and London: Yale University Press, 2009.
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Focuses on technical drawing and design in the Early Modern period with attention to Inigo Jones, Christopher Wren, and others.
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Hart, Vaughan. Nicholas Hawksmoor: Rebuilding Ancient Wonders. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2002.
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Not limited to work in London, Hawksmoor was an apprentice to Wren and others and bore responsibility for rebuilding of churches and for design of substantial residences.
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Summerson, John. Architecture in Britain, 1530–1830. 7th ed. Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1983.
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Overview of development of architecture in Britain, particularly of significant institutions and churches and elite homes, with special attention to the London work of Jones and Wren.
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Thurley, Simon. Whitehall Palace: An Architectural History of the Royal Apartments, 1240–1698. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1999.
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First a residence, the medieval building became the principal seat of the Tudor and Stuart monarchs. An analysis of the renovations of and planned redesign of the palace to compete with royal style and spectacle seen in other European palaces.
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Tinniswood, Adrian. His Invention So Fertile: A Life of Christopher Wren. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.
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A biography, with attention to his architectural work and other interests, of one of the key architects in the design and rebuilding of the city’s churches and St. Paul’s Cathedral after the Great Fire.
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ART AND MUSIC
Whitehall Palace was significant in architectural terms, but also for the ceiling paintings by Rubens, painter to the Stuart court, as outlined in Donovan 2004. These ceiling paintings, as in Strong 1980, represented important political allegories and highlighted a new taste for the baroque style. Whitehall was also the setting for the extravagant theatrical and musical productions of the royal masques; seeOrgel 1969. Paulson 1971 gives the biography of the painter, engraver, and advocate for copyright William Hogarth and analyzes his work, much of it illustrative of London’s streetscapes and society’s fashions and foibles in the 18th century. Sixteenth-century music was centered in parish churches and the chapel royal, the focus of Kisby 2001. The significance of the chapel royal continued in the 18th century; see Burrows 2005. Public concerts (McVeigh 1993) and opera (Woodfield 2001) became part of fashionable entertainment in the 18th century in new settings.
Burrows, Donald. Handel and the English Chapel Royal. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.
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Studies Handel’s religious music and the setting for its performance in the chapel royal.
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Donovan, Fiona. Rubens and England. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2004.
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Studies Rubens’s artistic role in the politics of the Stuart court, particularly focusing on the Whitehall ceiling paintings and their allegories. Demonstrates as well the importance of continental taste and influence on the court and wider society.
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Kisby, Fiona. “‘When the King Goeth a Procession’: Chapel Ceremonies and Service, the Ritual Year, and Religious Reforms at the Early Tudor Court, 1485–1547.” Journal of British Studies 40.1 (2001): 44–75.
DOI: 10.1086/386234Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Establishes the chapel royal as important not only to the liturgical calendar and religious practice, but as the national manifestation of royal practice. Demonstrates the survival of the pageantry and significance of the chapel royal despite religious change and Reformation.
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McVeigh, Simon. Concert Life in London from Mozart to Haydn. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1993.
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Sets the development of the public concert of the second half of the 18th century in the historical context of prosperity and the desire of fashionable inhabitants to hear music. Music as commercial enterprise and another outlet for consumption.
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Orgel, Stephen, ed. The Complete Masques. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1969.
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Compilation of the masques written by Ben Jonson and staged by Inigo Jones. Masques were performed at court and in elite homes, with the court masques embodying political and cultural themes and employing extravagant and ingenious sets and designs.
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Paulson, Ronald. Hogarth: His Life, Art, and Times. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1971.
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Two-volume biography of Hogarth, best known for his engravings of London. Analyzes his work and situates the artist and his work in historical context. Includes illustrations as well as documents pertaining to his life and artistic production.
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Strong, Roy. Britannia Triumphans: Inigo Jones, Rubens, and Whitehall Palace. London: Thames and Hudson, 1980.
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Art historical criticism of the Rubens ceiling paintings in Whitehall Palace showing the significance of the space and its decoration for the king and court and its political and imperial meanings.
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Woodfield, Ian. Opera and Drama in Eighteenth-Century London: The King’s Theatre, Garrick, and the Business of Performance. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2001.
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511481758Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Principally focused on the business aspects of performance, such as hiring and paying for artists and performers, especially operatic productions. Reveals the international ties in the theater. Includes appendixes with accounts of expenditures, salaries, and other financial information.
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LAST MODIFIED: 05/29/2014
DOI: 10.1093/OBO/9780195399301-0193
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