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Islam in the Philippines (Islamic Studies)

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. Arab and Gujarati traders and missionaries introduced Islam to the Philippines in the 14th century. Overtime, Islam became a dominant religion and, in the southern Philippines the Sultan of Sulu carried the title “The Shadow of God on Earth.” Sultans also claimed to implement Islamic law and retained the services of Middle Eastern Muslims as qadis (judges). Spain, which colonized the Philippines in the 16th century, was not successful in subduing the Muslims or in converting them to Christianity. The three centuries of Spanish rule was beset by intermittent warfare in the South that combined political, economic, and spiritual motives. These, plus Spain’s negative portrayals of Islam and Muslims influenced negative perceptions of each other among Muslims and Christians. The Spanish used the term Moro (Moors) in a derogatory way but in recent times, the word has been imbued with positive meanings by Philippine Muslims to convey courage, bravery, and self-determination. When the United States took over the Philippines from Spain, it did not impose a religion but maintained Spanish emphasis on religion as identity markers and created the Bureau of Non-Christian Tribes for Muslims and indigenous non-Christian tribes. This “othering” which was based on religion, persisted in the post-independence period and affected Muslim–Christian relations. In addition, government neglect and marginalization of the Muslim South resulted in economic disparities between Muslim and Christian areas. These issues provided the impetus for Muslim-led rebellions from 1969 onward. Islam was previously identified with ethnic tribes in southern provinces but the war in the mid-1970s between the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) and government forces drove many Muslims to seek refuge in other parts of the country. The final peace agreement between the MNLF and the government in 1996 has not ended the conflict. Other groups like the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF) and the Abu Sayyaf (ASG) also engaged in armed conflict in pursuit of the creation of an independent Islamic state. The government, in an effort to end the war, launched various programs to help Muslims and promoted the idea that Islam is part of the national heritage. These, in effect, helped provide a climate conducive to Islamic resurgence. In the 1970s the Philippine government launched a labor migration program sending Filipino workers to the Middle East, especially to Saudi Arabia. Many Christian Filipinos have converted to Islam while in Saudi Arabia and on return to the Philippines have kept the new religion. Today, Islam is still a minority religion in a country where the population is 85 percent Catholic. However, there are now Muslim communities in every province, mosques have become part of the landscape in Christian areas, Islamic schools have been established in several regions, and the number of converts to Islam is rising. Aside from the earlier differences based on ethnicity, the Philippine ummah is now a more diverse community that includes Sunnis, Shias, Jami at Tablighis, and Ahmadiyyas, and a distinction between “born Muslims” and converts is maintained.
  4.  
  5. General Overviews
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  7. There are very few general works on Islam in the Philippines, and there is an obvious lack of more recent work that presents an overview of Islam in the country. Since Islam was linked with ethnicity, information on Islam and Muslims comes from a variety of sources that either focuses on specific tribes or general surveys of tribes in the Philippines. Gowing 1964 is one of the first attempts at bringing together in one volume the dispersed information on Islam and Muslims in the Philippines. Islam was tied up with ethnicity in the Philippines so studies like Isidro and Saber 1968 and Orosa 1931 present religion as an aspect of tribal life rather than as the main focus of study. Several edited volumes originating from different disciplines include religious, political, and social aspects of Muslim tribes including Gowing 1978, Madale 1981, and Jocano 1983. These materials are dated, but in the absence of recent general works, and in spite of the overlaps in the coverage, they are useful introductions to Islam as practiced in the Philippines for nonspecialists. In the last thirty years, much of the literature on Islam and Muslims focuses on Muslim movements and the continuing negotiations between the government and various Muslim groups. This focus has led to the neglect of other features of Philippine Islam and Muslim life and lack of academic writing on Islam as a religion in the Philippines.
  8.  
  9. Gowing, Peter G. Mosque and Moro: A Study of Muslims in the Philippines. Manila: Philippine Federation of Christian Churches, 1964.
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  11. An early attempt at consolidating information on Muslims and Islam in the Philippines. Includes geographic distribution of Muslim tribes, religious beliefs, and social and political organization.
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  13. Gowing, Peter G. Muslim Filipinos: Heritage and Horizon. Quezon City, Philippines: New Day, 1978.
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  15. A comprehensive introduction to Islam and Muslims in the Philippines. The chapters deal with a profile of Philippine Muslims, history of Islam and Islamization of Philippines, Muslim responses to colonialism, religious beliefs and practices, life ways and mores, art, and the secessionist movement. Good for a general introduction.
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  17. Isidro, Antonio, and Mamitua Saber, eds. Muslim Philippines. Marawi City, Philippines: Mindanao State University, 1968.
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  19. Introduction to history, culture, and religion of Muslims; general descriptions of Muslim tribes from secondary sources.
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  21. Jocano, F. Landa, ed. Filipino Muslims: Their Social Institutions and Cultural Achievements. Quezon City: Asian Center, University of the Philippines, 1983.
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  23. Various topics including history of Islamization, the Sulu sultanate, Muslim tribes, colonialism and Muslims, women and art. Quality of essays is variable.
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  25. Madale, Nagasura, ed. Muslim Filipinos: A Book of Readings. Quezon City, Philippines: Alemar-Phoenix, 1981.
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  27. Collection of essays on various topics regarding Muslim Filipinos. List of recommended readings is useful. Other articles refer to specific tribes such as the Maguindanaoan and Maranaos.
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  29. Orosa, Sixto Y. The Sulu Archipelago and Its People. Yonkers-on-the-Hudson, NY: World Book, 1931.
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  31. Provides a wealth of ethnographic information on the people of Sulu. Three chapters of the book deal with the beliefs and practices of the Mohammedans [sic] with detailed descriptions of life cycle and temporal rituals including the celebration of Maulod (Muhammad’s birthday). Photographs included. Originally published in 1923. Text available online.
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  33. The Coming of Islam
  34.  
  35. The introduction of Islam to the Philippines needs to be seen within the larger context of the Islamization of Southeast Asia—as seen in Majul 1973—where Sultanates were involved in each other’s religion, politics, trade, and economy. Tibbetts 1957 and Majul 1966 note that traders from the Arab world were instrumental in the spread of Islam in the region. Earlier works on the coming of Islam in the area pertained to Malaysia and Indonesia, where Sulu and Mindanao are mentioned. Al-Attas 1969 and Fatemi 1963 represent early attempts at theorizing on the coming of Islam to Southeast Asia.
  36.  
  37. Al-Attas, Muhammad Naguib. Preliminary Statement on a General Theory of the Islamization of the Malay-Indonesian Archipelago. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Dewan Bahasa Dan Pustaka, 1969.
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  39. Useful for understanding Islamization of the region; discusses the effects of Islam on society, particularly on the language and thought forms of the Malays.
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  41. Fatemi, S. Q. Islām Comes to Malaysia. Ampang, Malaysia: Malaysian Sociological Research Institute, 1963.
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  43. Discusses the various ways Islam was introduced to Malaysia and the region; notes the early Arab trading communities and the presence of Muslim rulers in Malaysia in the 13th century.
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  45. Majul, Cesar Adib. “Islamic and Arab Cultural Influences in the South of the Philippines.” Journal of Southeast Asian History 7.2 (1966): 61–73.
  46. DOI: 10.1017/S021778110000154XSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  47. Traces the coming of Islamic influence in the Philippines prior to colonialism. Majul uses written and oral traditions due to the lack of satisfactory historical work and notes that, aside from the Arabs, other Malays were also involved in the Islamization of the Philippines. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
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  49. Majul, Cesar Adib. Muslims in the Philippines. Quezon City: Asian Center, University of the Philippines Press, 1973.
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  51. Explains beginnings of Arab settlements in the Southeast Asia regions; discusses six theories on the coming of Islam the region and presents the Islamization of the Philippines as part of a regional process. Also see Spanish Colonial Period (1521–1898) and Muslim–Christian Relations.
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  53. Tibbetts, G. R. “Early Muslim Traders in Southeast Asia.” Journal of the Malayan/Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 30.1 (1957): 1–45.
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  55. An early work on the subject that traces the beginnings of the Muslim traders’ settlement in Southeast Asia to a Chinese rebellion in the 9th century. Helpful for understanding the beginnings of Islam to Southeast Asia.
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  57. Spanish Colonial Period (1521–1898)
  58.  
  59. Early information on Islam and Muslims in the Philippines can be found in the reports, letters, and journals of Spanish administrators, missionaries as in Arcilla 1993, and soldiers as well as in the travel accounts of traders and travelers as in Dampier 1927 and Forrest 1780. These materials are essentially about political and economic concerns of the writers, but between ethnographic information about Muslims their beliefs and practices are mentioned. The fifty-five volume The Philippines (Blair and Robertson 1903–1909) is a rich source for Islam and Muslims in the southern Philippines during the Spanish period. Also included in this collection is Francisco Combés’s “Natives of the Southern Islands” (Combés 1906) excerpted from the larger work on the history of Mindanao and Sulu in Spanish. Sande 1903 relates the early expedition to Mindanao and Sulu and provides some descriptions of Muslims from the Spanish colonial perspective. The first historical work on Sulu in the English language is Saleeby 1963 followed by Majul 1973 focusing on the Spanish period to the beginning of American rule. Majul’s work continues to be the definitive history of Islam and Muslims in the Philippines for that period.
  60.  
  61. Arcilla, José S., ed. Jesuit Missionary Letters from Mindanao. Vol. 2, The Zamboanga-Basilan-Joló Mission. Translated by José S. Arcilla. Quezon City: Philippine Province Archives, 1993.
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  63. Letters reporting activities of the missionaries; their attempts at converting Moros to Islam are narrated as well as the institution of juramentado (one who has taken an oath and goes out to kill others after performing rituals) among Muslims. Useful for understanding historical tensions between Muslims and Christians.
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  65. Blair, Emma, and James A. Robertson, eds. The Philippine Islands, 1493–1898. 55 vols. Cleveland, OH: Clark, 1903–1909.
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  67. Valuable resource on Islam and Muslims in the Philippines during the Spanish period. Letters, reports of missionaries, administrators provide information on beliefs, practices, rituals of Muslims. Muslims are usually presented in a negative light in colonial reports. Numerous volumes are available online through the Gutenberg Project.
  68. Find this resource:
  69. Combés, Francisco. “The Natives of the Southern Islands.” Translated by James A. Robertson. In The Philippine Islands, 1493–1898. Vol. 40. Edited by Emma Blair and James Robertson, 99–182. Cleveland, OH: Clark, 1906.
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  71. This essay is excerpted and translated from the larger work Historia de Mindanao y Joló y Adjacentes published in 1667 and reprinted in 1887. Combés was in Mindanao in the 17th century and his work includes descriptions of institutions in Mindanao, social relations, beliefs, and practices of Muslims. See also Muslim Women and Muslim–Christian Relations.
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  73. Dampier, William. A Voyage to the New World. London: Argonaut, 1927.
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  75. Dampier was in Mindanao in 1686. Part of his work describes social mores and institutions among Muslims in Mindanao. Interesting ethnographic information. Originally published in 1697.
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  77. Forrest, Thomas. A Voyage to New Guinea and the Moluccas from Balambangan. 2d ed. London: Scott, 1780.
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  79. This travel report to the British East India Company includes ethnographic information on the Muslims of Sulu and Maguindanao. Majul 1973 notes some of the errors of Forrest.
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  81. Majul, Cesar Adib. Muslims in the Philippines. Quezon City: Asian Center, University of the Philippines, 1973.
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  83. Using primary sources from the archives in Europe and Manila, Majul links Islamization, politics, and economy of the southern Philippines to the rest of the countries in the region and analyzes the relationship between the sultanates and the Spanish colonial government. He also rectifies some of the assertions in Saleeby’s work (see Saleeby 1963; Saleeby 1976, cited under Islamic Law and Custom). Also see the Coming of Islam and Muslim–Christian Relations.
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  85. Saleeby, Najeeb M. The History of Sulu. Manila: Filipiana Book Guild, 1963.
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  87. Due to lack of sources on the precolonial Muslim areas, Saleeby used tarsilas (genealogies) and Sulu annals in reconstructing introduction of Islam to Sulu. An important work and still considered the standard on the history of Sulu. Originally published in 1908.
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  89. Sande, Francisco de. “Expeditions to Borneo, Jolo, and Mindanao.” Translated by James A. Robertson. In The Philippine Islands, 1493–1898. Vol. 4. Edited by Emma Blair and James Robertson. Cleveland, OH: Clark, 1903.
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  91. Part of the report has to do with Islam as observed in these places and information of how the natives learned about Islam. Also see Islamic Learning.
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  93. American Colonial Period (1898–1946)
  94.  
  95. Like Spanish colonial literature, information on Islam and Muslims during the American period is included in reports, letters, and journals of administrators, soldiers, and travelers. Gowing 1977 uses these materials for a comprehensive historical presentation of American rule. Tan 1977 traces the history of the Philippine Muslim struggle and explores the reasons for lack of unity within the struggle. Hurley 1936 critiques some of American military actions in Sulu. A more recent work on the American–Moro engagement is Fulton 2007.
  96.  
  97. Fulton, Robert A. Moroland, 1899–1906: America’s First Attempt to Transform an Islamic Society. Bend, OR: Tumalo Creek, 2007.
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  99. Looks at American failure in subjugating the Moros during the first seven years of occupation. Includes discussions and debates in the United States on the Bud Dajo battle in Jolo. Well researched with substantive bibliography, but many parts of the text lack documentation.
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  101. Gowing, Peter G. Mandate in Moroland: The American Government of Muslim Filipinos, 1899–1920. Quezon City: Philippine Center for Advanced Studies, University of the Philippines, 1977.
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  103. A well-researched work on American colonial rule in the Muslim areas. Primarily historical and focuses on the political aspects of American rule but in the process shows how American policies affected Muslims and the practice of Islam.
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  105. Hurley, Vic. Swish of the Kris: The Story of the Moros. New York: Dutton, 1936.
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  107. Presents the Moro response to Spanish and American colonialism as a defense of religion, Islam, and customs. Sympathetic view of Moros in the American attack at Bud Dajo. Also see Islamic Law and Custom.
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  109. Tan, Samuel K. The Filipino Muslim Armed Struggle, 1900–1972. Manila: Filipinas Foundations, 1977.
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  111. Integrative analysis of Muslim conflicts in the Philippines through time. Muslim response to colonialism and the continuing Muslim conflicts are attributed to the lack of organization of Muslims since the time Islam was introduced to the area. The Muslim armed struggle is traceable to age-old inter-Muslim conflicts.
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  113. Islamic Learning
  114.  
  115. There are scattered references to transmission of Islamic knowledge in various works on the Philippines and Muslims and also in colonial literature. Sande 1903 notes that the Sultan of Brunei sent preachers to various parts of the Philippines. Known as makhdum, sayyid, awliya, guru, and pandita, they were recognized as important transmitters of religious knowledge. So far, there is no comprehensive work on Islamic learning in the Philippines. Contemporary studies like Horvatich 1994 and Tulib 1991 focus on specific Muslim groups. Hassoubah 1983, Mastura 1982, and Milligan 2006 observe that formal acquisition of Islamic knowledge is through the madrasah (religious school), where Arabic, Islam, and the Qur’an are taught. Daquino 2004 reports that Boransing 2004 sees the Philippine government’s institutionalization and integration of madrasah education into the educational system as a way of improving education in the Muslim areas in the South.
  116.  
  117. Boransing, Manaros. Road Map for Upgrading Muslim Basic Education: A Special Program for the Comprehensive Educational Development of Muslim Mindanao and the Migrant Muslim Communities in the Philippines. Manila: Department of Education, 2004.
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  119. Outline form of Department of Education’s program of developing and institutionalizing madrasah education; provides details on how this integration is to be carried out in the public school curriculum including teacher training and alternative education. This document is available at the office of the Department of Education of the Philippines in Manila.
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  121. Daquino, Dolores. Secular and Islamic Education in the ARMM. ARMM Roundtable Series 9. Cotabato City, Philippines: Center for Autonomy and Governance, Notre Dame University, 2004.
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  123. Cites Boransing’s paper extensively in the report.
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  125. Hassoubah, Ahmad Mohammad H. Teaching Arabic as a Second Language in the Southern Philippines. Marawi City, Philippines: University Research Center, Mindanao State University, 1983.
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  127. A survey of the madrasah in the Philippines. Among Hassoubah’s findings include the need for better training of teachers to ensure Arabic language competency of students.
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  129. Horvatich, Patricia. “Ways of Knowing Islam.” American Ethnologist 21.4 (1994): 811–826.
  130. DOI: 10.1525/ae.1994.21.4.02a00080Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  131. An anthropological study of ways that the Sama of the island of Simunul learn about Islam. With Samas being educated and acquiring their understanding of Islam through reading materials (some from Ahmadiyya conversion efforts), younger generations of Sama now question the knowledge of the traditional religious leaders. So far, this study is the only research involving the Ahmadiyya in the Philippines. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
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  133. Mastura, Michael O. “Assessing the Madrasah as an Educational Institution: Implications for the Ummah.” Fund for Assistance to Private Education Review 12.3–4 (1982): 6–15.
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  135. Historical background on madrasah in the Philippines, its curriculum, and the role of Muslim countries in improving and promoting madrasah education. Middle Eastern countries provide scholarships for madrasah teachers. The essay was written years before the integration of madrasah education into the Philippine educational system but useful for providing the historical context. Reprinted in Muslim Filipino Experience: A Collection of Essays, edited by Michael O. Mastura (Manila: Ministry of Muslim Affairs, 1984), pp. 93–107.
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  137. Milligan, Jeffrey Ayala. “Reclaiming an Ideal: The Islamization of Education in the Southern Philippines.” Special Issue: Islam and Education: Myths and Truths. Edited by Wadad Kadi and Victor Billeh. Comparative Education Review 5.3 (2006): 410–430.
  138. DOI: 10.1086/503883Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  139. Processes of Islamization of education in the Philippines include the integration of madaris (pl., madrasah) into the public school curriculum, the launching of the Project Madrasa Education involving acceptance of concepts and values in the Qur’an in public schools, and nonformal education acquired through membership in Jami’at Tabligh. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  140. Find this resource:
  141. Sande, Francisco de. “Expeditions to Borneo, Jolo, and Mindanao.” Translated by James A. Robertson. In The Philippine Islands, 1493–1898. Vol. 4. Edited by Emma Blair and James Robertson. Cleveland, OH: Clark, 1903.
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  143. One of Sande’s concerns was on stopping the missionary activities of Muslims coming from Borneo to the Philippines. This report helps in understanding the early Islamization process as part of an Asian regional network. Also see Spanish Colonial Period (1521–1898).
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  145. Tulib, Ismaeil Hassanin Ahmad. “The Muslim Filipino Scholars to Egypt: Their Impact on the Development of Muslim Communities in the Philippines.” MA diss., Institute of Islamic Studies, University of the Philippines, 1991.
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  147. First work that tracks down beneficiaries of scholarships to Egypt (mostly to Al-Azhar University) who had returned to the Philippines. Seventy-five questionnaires were given but only twenty-eight responded. Survey return is low, but study is still helpful as it shows the circuits of Islamic learning of Philippine Muslims.
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  149. Islamic Law and Custom
  150.  
  151. Saleeby 1976 notes that prior to colonization, Muslims of Mindanao, specifically the Maguindanao and the Tausugs, already had a written book of laws that were implemented in their respective sultanates. Tan 1999 and Hurley 1936 also include the Luwaran (Maguindanao Law Code) as well as other indigenous sources like oral history. Like Kiefer 1972 and Jundam 2005, they observe that the laws, which were from Shafi’i sources, were also adjusted to fit local customs. President Marcos promulgated the Code of Muslim Personal Laws (Presidential Decree No. 1083) but Reyes 1989 notes that majority of Muslim women in the southern Philippines are unaware of the provisions of the law. Mastura 1994 recognizes the complexities of codifying the Code of Muslim Personal Laws.
  152.  
  153. Hurley, Victor. Swish of the Kris: The Story of the Moros. New York: Dutton, 1936.
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  155. Moro laws included in Saleeby 1976 (originally published in 1905) are also included in this volume. Also see American Colonial Period (1898–1946).
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  157. Jundam, Mashur Bin-Ghalib. Tunggal Hulaĥ-Duwa Saraĥ: Adat and Sharee’ah Law in the Life of the Tausug. Manila: Vibal, 2005.
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  159. Tausug society is syncretistic where adat (custom law) is observed side by side with the shariah. Compares adat and shariah provisions on marriage, inheritance, and punishments. Purpose of comparison is for Tausugs to know which is adat and shariah and eventually stop practicing adat laws that are contrary to the shariah. Also see Beliefs and Rituals.
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  161. Kiefer, Thomas M. The Tausug: Violence and Law in a Philippine Moslem Society. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1972.
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  163. Important for understanding Tausug customary law, family kinship, forms of social control and violence, and the fusion of custom and Tausug interpretation of Islamic law. Also see Beliefs and Rituals.
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  165. Mastura, Michael O. “Legal Pluralism in the Philippines.” Law and Society Review 28.3 (1994): 461–476.
  166. DOI: 10.2307/3054065Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  167. Mastura was a member of the commission designated by President Marcos to put together the Code of Muslim Personal Laws. Article notes the multiple issues involved especially since in addition to Islamic law and laws of the Philippines, there are also custom laws (adat) that supplement Islamic law. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
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  169. Presidential Decree No. 1083, A Decree to Ordain and Promulgate a Code Recognizing the System of Filipino Muslim Laws, Codifying Muslim Personal Laws, and Providing for Its Administration and for Other Purposes. Quezon City: University of the Philippines Law Center, 1977.
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  171. Code was promulgated as part of the government’s response to Muslim secessionist movement. Parts of code conflict with provisions of Women in Development Act. Code affirms position of father as head of the family and lacks provision that could help women in case of divorce or subsequent remarriage of husband. Also see Islam and the Philippine Government.
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  173. Reyes, Zenaida S. Survey Report on the “Recognition and Promotion of Legal Rights of Muslims as a Precondition to National Unity and Development.” Quezon City: University of the Philippines, 1989.
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  175. The report indicates that while the majority of Muslim women in Mindanao and Manila are aware of the Code of Muslim Personal Laws (Presidential Decree No. 1083), the percentage of those who know the actual provision is low.
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  177. Saleeby, Najeeb M. Studies in Moro History, Law and Religion. Manila: Filipiniana Book Guild, 1976.
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  179. Provides very useful material for the reconstruction of precolonial history of Sulu and Mindanao. It includes several genealogies of sultans of Mindanao. Genealogies were important for establishing legitimacy of the sultanate. The Maguindanao and Sulu Codes of Law are also included. First published in 1905.
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  181. Tan, Samuel K. Filipino Muslim Perceptions of Their History and Culture as Seen through Indigenous Written Sources. UP-CIDS Chronicle 4.1–2 (1999): art. 3.
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  183. Tan presents materials produced by Filipino Muslims that tell their own story. It is a departure from the usual colonial sources that are oftentimes biased against Islam and Muslims. These written indigenous sources are called Kirim and Jawi by the Maguindanao and Tausug-Sama, respectively.
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  185. Muslim Women
  186.  
  187. There are a few works that focus on Philippine Muslim women. Reports of administrators, travelogues, and missionary accounts in Combés 1906 provide some early description of Muslim women in the southern Philippines while a two-part special issue of Mindanao Art and Culture showcases varied aspects of life of the Maranao women. Angeles 1998 and Usodan-Sumagayan 1988 have to do mainly with the changing roles of Muslim women in the home and in society. Bonoan 1998 attempts to dispel stereotypes on Philippine Muslim women and show them in different professions and activities. Siapno 1994 focuses on the participation of women in the Muslim secessionist movement, while Abubakar 2005 and Dwyer and Cagoco-Guiam 2012 look at how the conflict in Mindanao has affected women and gender dynamics.
  188.  
  189. Abubakar, Carmen A. Gender Perspective of the Mindanao Conflict: Securing Alternative for Peace. Quezon City: Institute of Islamic Studies, University of the Philippines, February 2005.
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  191. Paper read at conferences in The Hague and the Philippines. Uses specific incidents to demonstrate how Muslim women have been affected economically, culturally, and psychologically by the conflict in Mindanao. Brief but satisfactory introduction to the topic.
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  193. Angeles, Vivienne S. M. “Philippine Muslim Women: Tradition and Change.” In Islam, Gender and Social Change. Edited by Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad and John L. Esposito, 209–234. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.
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  195. Uses historical framework to trace the evolving roles of Philippine Muslim women. Policies, institutions, and situations during specific historical periods functioned as agents of change in expanding women’s roles.
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  197. Bonoan, Jam, dir. Behind the Veil: Voices of Moro Women. VHS. Quezon City: Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism, 1998.
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  199. Film shows that Philippine women in contemporary times are engaged in various activities and professions including participation in the armed conflict. The constant flashing, however, of clips of Moro women in black abaya holding weapons overwhelms the film.
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  201. Combés, Francisco. “The Natives of the Southern Islands.” Translated by James A. Robertson. In The Philippine Islands, 1493–1898. Vol. 40. Edited by Emma Blair and James Robertson, 99–182, Cleveland, OH: Clark, 1906.
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  203. Excerpted and translated from the larger work Historia de Mindanao y Joló y Adjacentes published in Madrid in 1667 and reprinted in 1887. Ethnographic descriptions of Moros during the Spanish colonial period include Muslim women’s appearances and behavior. Also see Spanish Colonial Period (1521–1898) and Muslim–Christian Relations.
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  205. Dwyer, Leslie, and Rufa Cagoco-Guiam. Gender and Conflict in Mindanao. San Francisco: Asia Foundation, 2012.
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  207. Study was commissioned by the Asia Foundation in 2010 and involved five hundred interviews with people of Mindanao. Discusses effects on conflict on Muslim women in Mindanao, identifies the issues and challenges as well as opportunities for women’s involvement in conflict resolution. Notes that conflict in Mindanao is not limited to the military–Muslim armed conflict but includes rido–clan conflicts that also affect women. Very useful source on women’s roles and participation in both conflict and peace-making.
  208. Find this resource:
  209. Siapno, Jacqueline. “Gender Relations and Islamic Resurgence in Mindanao, Southern Philippines.” In Muslim Women’s Choices: Religious Belief and Social Reality. Edited by Camilla Fawzi El-Sohl and Judy Mabro, 184–201. Oxford: Berg, 1994.
  210. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  211. Muslim women’s participation in the secessionist movement is either active or symbolic, but either way Siapno notes that women accept their supportive rather than equal role. Study is based on interviews in Lanao del Sur among Muslims belonging to the Maranao ethno-linguistic group.
  212. Find this resource:
  213. Special Issue: The Maranao Woman Goes International. Mindanao Art and Culture 2.1–2 (1979).
  214. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  215. Articles in these two parts cover various aspects of life of the Maranao woman like rights of women in marriage according to adat (custom) law, food, dress, and religious observances.
  216. Find this resource:
  217. Usodan-Sumagayan, Aminah P. “The Changing Role of Maranao Women in a Maranao Rural Society.” Dansalan Quarterly 9.4 (1988): 165–228.
  218. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  219. Anthropological study based on interviews of 250 Maranao women (Maranao is one of the Muslim tribes) in Taraka, Lanao del Sur. Very short discussions on religious duties of women and on madrasah education.
  220. Find this resource:
  221. Islamic Art
  222.  
  223. Szanton 2001 notes that okkir/ukkil (as spelled by Maranaos and Tausugs, respectively) refers to both the “art of carving and the type of curvilinear design which combines stylized scroll, leaf and vine elements” (p. 69). Okkir/ukkil is common among Muslim tribes in the southern Philippines and has been viewed as Islamic art, although Sakili 1997 and Sakili 1998 qualify the use of the term “Muslim art” as referring to nonreligious art and “Islamic art” as having to do with expressions of the Tawhid (unity of God). Baradas 1968, Casiño 1973, Saber and Orellana 1973, and Fernando-Amilbangsa 2005 tend to focus on okkir/ukkil and how they are used or applied in domestic objects, textiles, and architecture. These works are dated and were done at approximately the same time with Baradas being the earliest. Hamilton 1998, a catalog for the Fowler Museum Exhibit on textiles of the southern Philippines, shows how the okkir/ukkil design is executed in textiles. Except for Fernando-Amilbangsa 2005, Sakili 1997, and Sakili 1998, not much has been written about Islamic and Muslim art in the Philippines recently.
  224.  
  225. Baradas, David. “Some Implications of the Okir Motif in Lanao and Sulu Art.” Asian Studies 6.2 (1968): 129–168.
  226. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  227. Survey of Sulu and Maranao art; shows use of okir motifs in the beams of homes and in everyday objects.
  228. Find this resource:
  229. Casiño, Eric. Ethnographic Arts of the Philippines: An Anthropological Approach. Manila: Bookman, 1973.
  230. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  231. A comparative study of the arts of the northern and southern peoples of the Philippines. Detailed description of okkir art of Muslims.
  232. Find this resource:
  233. Fernando-Amilbangsa, Ligaya. Ukkil: Visual Arts of the Sulu Archipelago. Quezon City, Philippines: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 2005.
  234. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  235. Use of ukkil design by the people of Sulu on textile, wood, cloth, and other utilitarian objects. This design is also used on grave markers combined with Arabic calligraphy. Includes a picture of a buraq made of shells on wood and two wood pieces with Qur’anic verses. Numerous colored photographs and illustrations.
  236. Find this resource:
  237. Hamilton, Roy W., ed. From the Rainbow’s Varied Hue: Textiles of Southern Philippines. Los Angeles: UCLA Fowler Museum of Cultural History, 1998.
  238. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  239. Exhibition catalog for textiles of the southern Philippines. Four chapters written by Cherubim Quizon, Ruurdje Laarhoven, Abdullah Madale, and Nagasura Madale are on textiles of the Muslim tribes. Good introduction to textile designs and functions.
  240. Find this resource:
  241. Saber, Mamitua, and Dionision G. Orellana. Maranao Folk Art: Survey of Forms, Designs, and Meanings. Marawi City, Philippines: University Research Center, Mindanao State University, 1973.
  242. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  243. A brief survey of aspects of folk art of the Maranaos including detailed illustrations and descriptions of okkir patterns on textiles, wood, and everyday objects.
  244. Find this resource:
  245. Sakili, Abraham P. “Muslim Figurative Painting: Issues and Prospects.” PANANAW: Philippine Journal of Visual Arts 1 (1997): 46–55.
  246. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  247. Half of the essay deals with the issue of figural representation in Islam, and the other half is a brief survey of works of Philippine Muslim painters, some of whom engage in portraiture. Sakili calls for social involvement of Muslim artists in correcting misconceptions and negative perceptions of Muslims.
  248. Find this resource:
  249. Sakili, Abraham P. “Finite Infinities: The Muslim View of Space.” PANANAW: Philippine Journal of Visual Arts 2 (1998): 44–51.
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  251. Discusses the concepts of space in various cultures and then uses Tawhid in Islam and Syed Hossein Nasr’s “concept of the void” to explain the ukkil/okkir compositions of the Maranaos and the Tausugs.
  252. Find this resource:
  253. Szanton, David L. “Art in Sulu: A Survey.” In People of the Current: Sulu Studies Revisited. Edited by National Commission on Culture and the Arts, 67–126. Intramuros, Philippines: National Commission for Culture and the Arts, 2001.
  254. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  255. Survey of Sulu art; provides detailed description of themes and motifs of designs used in boats, metalwork, graves, house beams, mosques, mats, and textiles. Photographs show ukkil as “central manifestation of the plastic arts of Sulu” (p. 69). Important work. Originally published in Sulu Studies 2 (1973): 2–69.
  256. Find this resource:
  257. Mosque Architecture and Functions
  258.  
  259. Islamic architecture is best represented by the mosque. The last thirty years has seen a tremendous increase in the number of mosques in the Philippines but there is a dearth of literature on the subject. Majul 1978, Madale 2003, and Angeles 2012 provide introductions to mosques in the Philippines, but Klassen 1986 and Abbahil 1980 treat the subject at length with Klassen providing detailed illustrations. Watanabe 2008 is an innovative study that looks at the expansion of communities anchored by a mosque.
  260.  
  261. Abbahil, Abdulsidik. “The Maranao Mosque: Its Origin, Structure and Community Role.” Dansalan Quarterly 1.2 (1980): 85–103.
  262. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  263. Marawi City, in Lanao del Sur (renamed Islamic City of Marawi by the Philippine government in 1980) has the most mosques in the Philippines. Abbahil describes the structure, parts, and functions of the Maranao mosque. A good introduction to the Maranao mosques.
  264. Find this resource:
  265. Angeles, Vivienne S. M. “Visualizing Islam: The Art, Architecture and Functions of Philippine Mosques.” In Islam and Knowledge: Al Faruqi’s Concept of Religion in Islamic Thought: Essays in Honor of Isma’il Al Faruqi. Edited by Imtiyaz Yusuf, 269–305. London: I. B. Tauris, 2012.
  266. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  267. Results of a field survey of mosques in the Philippines indicating their major characteristics, uses, and styles.
  268. Find this resource:
  269. Klassen, Winand W. “Six Hundred Years of Islam: Muslim Architecture in the Philippines.” In Architecture in the Philippines: Filipino Building in a Cross-Cultural Context. By Winand W. Klassen, 127–152. Cebu City, Philippines: University of San Carlos, 1986.
  270. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  271. This chapter includes descriptions of mosques, madrasahs, tombs, and royal residences of Sultans. Photographs and illustrations show the varied styles of mosques. The chapter is comprehensive and a very good source on Muslim architecture in the Philippines. Includes detailed illustrations of different types of mosques.
  272. Find this resource:
  273. Madale, Nagasura T. “A Look at Philippine Mosques.” National Commission for Culture and the Arts, 2003.
  274. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  275. A short but useful introduction to mosques in the Philippines. Looks at the architectural types of mosques and influences of other cultures, notably Chinese.
  276. Find this resource:
  277. Majul, Cesar Adib. “Mosques in the Philippines.” In Filipino Heritage: The Making of a Nation. Edited by Alfredo R. Roces, 779–784. Manila: Lahing Pilipino, 1978.
  278. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  279. A short piece that provides basic information on the mosque, structure and functions in the Philippines.
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Watanabe, Akiko. Migration and Mosques: The Evolution and Transformation of Muslim Communities in Manila, the Philippines. Working Paper Series 37. Shiga, Japan: Afrasian Centre for Peace and Development Studies, Ryukoku University, 2008.
  282. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  283. The mosque is a symbol of community identity and also facilitates the growth of the Muslim community. Manila and suburbs are traditionally Christian areas but now have Muslim communities whose members migrated from the southern Philippines. Very useful and one of the few studies on Muslim communities outside of the southern Philippines.
  284. Find this resource:
  285. Beliefs and Rituals
  286.  
  287. Beliefs and rituals of Muslims in the Philippines as an independent area of study have not received adequate attention from scholars. They are usually included as part of larger studies on specific tribes that profess Islam. Many of the works on the subject were done by anthropologists who conducted fieldwork for their dissertations like Casiño 1984, Wulff 1962 and Kiefer 1972 on the Jama Mapun, Yakan, and Tausug tribes, respectively. Rixhon 2010 and Rixhon 2001, are important works on Tausug literature that includes materials used for Islamic rituals like marriage and birth, which Jundam 2005 discusses in detail. Madale 1988 explains localized practices during the fasting month in Lanao. These works all note that beliefs and rituals among Muslims in the southern Philippines reflect a fusion of Islam and indigenous religions.
  288.  
  289. Casiño, Eric. The Jama Mapun: A Changing Samal Society in the Southern Philippines. Quezon City, Philippines: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1984.
  290. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  291. A useful book that traces the effects of economic changes on the various aspects of life, including religion and ritual of a Muslim tribe. Casiño notes, however, that the effect of these changes on ritual and religion are marginal. Chapter 4 provides a detailed discussion of folk Islam rituals and doctrines. Originally published in 1976.
  292. Find this resource:
  293. Jundam, Mashur Bin-Ghalib. Tunggal Hulaĥ-Duwa Saraĥ: Adat and Sharee’ah Law in the Life of the Tausug. Quezon City, Philippines: Vibal, 2005.
  294. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  295. Includes detailed descriptions of Tausug rituals like birth and marriage that reflect a fusion of Islamic and adat (custom law). A number of photographs are included, some of which do not seem to be related to the topics being discussed. Also see Islamic Law and Custom.
  296. Find this resource:
  297. Kiefer, Thomas. The Tausug: Violence and Law in a Philippine Moslem Society. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1972.
  298. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  299. Kiefer’s work is a valuable study on the Tausug tribe. In chapter 5 (“Folk Islam and the Supernatural,” pp. 112–125), Kiefer discusses folk Islam and the supernatural and notes that Tausug religion incorporates major teachings of Islam yet has kept rituals and beliefs of the pre-Islamic religions. Also see Islamic Law and Custom.
  300. Find this resource:
  301. Madale, Nagasura. “Ramadhan as Observed in Lanao.” In Understanding Islam and Muslims in the Philippines. Edited by Peter G. Gowing, 77–86. Quezon City, Philippines: New Day, 1988.
  302. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  303. A short article on the practice of Ramadhan in Lanao based on interviews and personal observations.
  304. Find this resource:
  305. Rixhon, Gerard. “Tausug Literature: Overview.” In People of the Current: Sulu Studies Revisited. Edited by National Commission on Culture and the Arts, 197–255. Manila: National Commission for Culture and the Arts, 2001.
  306. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  307. A very important survey of Tausug (a Muslim tribe in the southern Philippines) literature that includes kassis (sacred stories), hadis (hadith as interpreted by Tausug religious teachers), and adaptations of stories in the Qur’an to the Sulu context. These are usually sung to accompany rituals. Originally appeared in Sulu Studies 3 (1974): 1–84.
  308. Find this resource:
  309. Rixhon, Gerard, ed. Voices from Sulu: A Collection of Tausug Oral Traditions. Quezon City, Philippines: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 2010.
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  311. The collection includes kissa (sacred narrative) like Sitti Maryam, which is Mary’s story in the Qur’an but with some variation. Kissas usually accompany the performance of ritual.
  312. Find this resource:
  313. Wulff, Inger. “Burial Customs among the Yakan: A Muslim People in Southern Philippines.” Folk 4 (1962): 111–122.
  314. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  315. Wulff notes the Islamic and non-Islamic components of burial customs. Essay demonstrates the fusion of Islamic belief and indigenous religious practices.
  316. Find this resource:
  317. Muslim–Christian Relations
  318.  
  319. Majul 1973 views the tension between Muslims and Christians as a legacy of Spanish colonial rule, which emphasized religious identity on its subject population. Spanish negative portrayals of Muslims as shown in Combés 1906 and Montero y Vidal 1886 and the use of Christianized Filipinos to fight against Muslims helped shape Muslim–Christian negative relations. Hunt 1955 and Filipinas Foundation 1971 attribute the tension between these two groups to the government program of resettling Christian Filipinos in Muslim ancestral lands during the American period and the post–Second World War years. This tension became one of the reasons for the formation of Muslim movements and the continuing issue of ownership of ancestral lands in Muslim areas. In more recent times, the military conflict between Muslim groups (Moro National Liberation Front, Moro Islamic Liberation Front, and Abu Sayyaf Group) and government forces plus global events like 9/11 have rekindled Christians’ negative views of Muslims. Muslim and Christians, however, have also launched programs aimed at better understanding of each other and for achieving peace in Mindanao, as discussed in Larousse 2001, Gomez 2000, and Rood 2005.
  320.  
  321. Combés, Francisco. “Natives of Southern Islands.” Translated by James A. Robertson. In The Philippine Islands, 1493–1898. Vol. 40. Edited by Emma Blair and James Robertson, 99–182. Cleveland, OH: Clark, 1906.
  322. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  323. Combés presents negative views of Islam and Muslims in the Philippines. Useful for an understanding of how early missionaries viewed Islam in the Philippines. Also see Spanish Colonial Period (1521–1898) and Muslim Women.
  324. Find this resource:
  325. Filipinas Foundation. An Anatomy of Philippine Muslim Affairs. Makati, Philippines: Filipinas Foundation, 1971.
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  327. One of the early works that analyzes the causes of conflicts in Mindanao—a major one being the aftermath of the Hukbalahap (HUK; a communist-oriented peasant movement) rebellion when a government program resettled the HUKs in Muslim ancestral lands in Mindanao. Useful for historical assessment of the issues.
  328. Find this resource:
  329. Gomez, Hilario M. The Moro Rebellion and the Search for Peace: A Study on Christian-Muslim Relations in the Philippines. Zamboanga City, Philippines: Silsila, 2000.
  330. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  331. Descriptions of Muslims in Mindanao, problems between Muslims and Christians that were aggravated by religious identification although the issues are mainly political and not religious. Supports interreligious dialogue at the community level and proposes specific areas of discussion.
  332. Find this resource:
  333. Hunt, Chester L. “Moslem and Christian in the Philippines.” Pacific Affairs 28.4 (1955): 331–349.
  334. DOI: 10.2307/3035317Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  335. Provides a brief history of Muslim-Christian relations, describes characteristics of Muslim and Christians in Cotabato, and notes that the terms Christian and Moro have cultural rather than religious significance. The major source of conflict is the presence of Christian settlers on Muslim ancestral lands. Sees education as a means to reduce Muslim–Christian tension. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. Larousse, William. Walking Together Seeking Peace: The Local Church of Mindanao-Sulu Journeying in Dialogue with the Muslim Community (1965–2000). Quezon City, Philippines: Claretian, 2001.
  338. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  339. Introduces the Muslim–Christian situation in Mindanao as the context for dialogue. Book is very helpful for understanding the efforts of Christian and Muslim groups in promoting understanding through interreligious dialogue.
  340. Find this resource:
  341. Majul, Cesar Adib. Muslims in the Philippines. Quezon City: Asian Center, University of the Philippines Press, 1973.
  342. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  343. Views Spanish imposition of Christianity as a source of conflict between the Spanish colonizers and Muslims. Asserts that existence of an Islamic consciousness among Muslims is largely responsible for the resistance. Other scholars tone down this consciousness as there are political and economic factors that fueled the responses to colonialism. Also see the Coming of Islam and Spanish Colonial Period (1521–1898).
  344. Find this resource:
  345. Montero y Vidal, José. El Archipiélago Filipino y las Islas Marianas: Su Historía, Carolinas y Palaos. Madrid: Imprenta y Fundición de Manuel Tello, 1886.
  346. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  347. Contains descriptions of Philippine Muslims during the Spanish period. Montero y Vidal criticizes the religion and practices of the Muslims. This work is fairly typical especially of the missionary accounts because there is the perception of the superiority of Christianity and the inferiority of other religions.
  348. Find this resource:
  349. Rood, Steven. Forging Sustainable Peace in Mindanao: The Role of Civil Society. Policy Studies Paper No. 17. Washington, DC. East-West Center Washington, 2005.
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  351. Rood argues that civil society groups can contribute to the resolution of the conflict in Mindanao. He cites specific peace efforts of Muslim and Christian groups like the holding of interreligious dialogues.
  352. Find this resource:
  353. Islam and the Philippine Government
  354.  
  355. One of the reasons why President Marcos declared martial law in 1972 was the existence of a Muslim secessionist movement in the southern Philippines, the MNLF. The MNLF claimed multiple reasons for its quest for independence including the economic disparity between the Muslim South and the capital region, government injustices on Muslims, and their marginalization and discrimination because of their religious differences. The war reached its height in the early 1970s, resulting in the loss of lives and properties and the internal displacements of those living in the conflict areas. In an effort to end the conflict in the southern Philippines between the MNLF and the military, the martial law government of President Marcos passed a number of decrees affecting Islam and Muslims in the Philippines. The 1973 and 1987 (present) constitutions of the Philippines consistently guarantee the freedom of worship and recognize the separation of church and state. Decrees enforced by President Marcos from 1972 to 1981 that have to do with Islam touched on constitutional provisions and raised questions on whether the government was violating Article 3 Section 5 of the constitution that says that “no law shall be made regarding the establishment of a religion or free exercise thereof.” The government justified such decrees as necessary for the ethnic minorities who happen to be Muslims but are also entitled to the preservation of their culture and heritage that includes Islam. The decrees include Presidential Decree No. 342 creating the Philippine Center for Advanced Studies with an Institute of Islamic Studies as one of its components at the University of the Philippines; Presidential Decree No. 291 and Proclamation No. 1198 (Manila: Office of the President, 26 October 1973) declaring Muslim holidays as legal holidays in the Muslim areas; Presidential Decree No. 264, directing Amanah Bank to implement the Islamic concept of banking; and Presidential Decree No. 1083 on the codification of Muslim Personal Laws. The succeeding Philippine presidents after Ferdinand Marcos implemented legislation that preserved the tradition and culture of Philippine Muslims, including their religion. During the term of President Corazon Aquino, Executive Order 122-A created the Office of Muslim Affairs to deal with the needs of Philippine Muslims. In 2010, under President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo, the Office of Muslim Affairs was replaced by the National Commission on Muslim Filipinos (Republic Act 9997). Simeon Benigno Aquino issued Proclamation 455, s 2012, declaring Eid al-Fitr as a national holiday all over the Philippines. These decrees, proclamations, and laws did not end the war but opened up an environment that now recognizes religious pluralism and launched programs to improve the lives of ethnic minorities who happen to be Muslims.
  356.  
  357. Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines, 1973.
  358. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  359. Promulgated during the period of martial law under President Ferdinand Marcos and created a parliamentary system of government.
  360. Find this resource:
  361. Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines, 1987.
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  363. Promulgated during the term of President Corazon Aquino. This constitution also provided for an autonomous region for Muslim Mindanao.
  364. Find this resource:
  365. Executive Order No. 122-A, Dated 30 January 1987 as Amended by Executive Order No. 295 Creating the Office of Muslim Affairs (OMA) Manila: Office of the President, 1987.
  366. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  367. The Office of Muslim Affairs was mandated to preserve and develop the culture, traditions, institutions, and well-being of Muslim Filipinos, in conformity with the country’s laws and in consonance with national unity and development.
  368. Find this resource:
  369. Presidential Decree No. 264: An Act Creating a Philippine Amanah Bank. Manila: Office of the President, 2 August 1973.
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  371. Decree was intended to stimulate growth and development in Muslim areas by providing credit, commercial, and saving facilities.
  372. Find this resource:
  373. Presidential Decree No. 291: Recognizing Muslim Holidays and Providing for the Implementation. Manila: Office of the President, 12 September 1973.
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  375. Five Muslim holidays are recognized as holidays in designated provinces and cities in Mindanao, allowing Muslims working in government offices to take days off. Incorrectly lists Laylatul Isra wal Miraj as Milad-an-Nabi.
  376. Find this resource:
  377. Presidential Decree No. 342: Creating the Philippine Center for Advanced Studies at the University of the Philippines; Defining Its Organization, Powers, Functions and Responsibilities. Manila: Office of the President, 22 November 1973.
  378. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  379. The decree created the Philippine Center for Advanced Studies, which includes an Institute of Islamic Studies. The center was an autonomous unit of the University of the Philippines, which, aside from its degree granting functions, was to serve the government in its efforts at mobilizing national institutions for the purpose of nation-building.
  380. Find this resource:
  381. Presidential Decree No. 1083: Ordaining and Promulgating a Code Recognizing the System of Filipino Muslim Laws, Codifying Muslim Personal Laws, and Providing for Its Administration and for Other Purposes. Quezon City: University of the Philippines Law Center, 1977.
  382. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  383. Mainly a response to the Muslim agitation for independence in the southern Philippines, the decree recognizes aspects of Islamic law as part of the laws of the country, codifies Muslim personal laws, and provides for its enforcement among Muslims. It allows for the creation of shariah courts. Certain provisions on rights of women, however, are more limited than those of succeeding laws like the Women and Development Act and the New Family Code. Also see Islamic Law and Custom.
  384. Find this resource:
  385. Proclamation 455, s. 2012. Manila: Office of the President, 2012.
  386. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  387. Declares Eid al-Fitr as a national holiday all over the Philippines to allow other Filipinos to join their Muslim brothers and sisters in the observance of Eid al-Fitr.
  388. Find this resource:
  389. Republic Act 9997: National Commission on Muslim Filipinos Act of 2009. Manila: Republic of the Philippines, 27 July 2009.
  390. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  391. The National Commission on Muslim Filipinos is directly under the Office of the President of the Philippines and includes the Bureau of Pilgrimage and Endowment. It issues guidelines for the hajj, certifies the leaders of the pilgrimage, and coordinates participation of Filipinos in international Qur’an reading contests. This office replaced the Office of Muslim Affairs created during the time of President Corazon Aquino.
  392. Find this resource:
  393. Muslim Secessionist Movements
  394.  
  395. The armed conflict between the MNLF and the Philippine military did not end with the signing of the final peace agreement in 1996. Other Muslim movements like the MILF and the Abu Sayyaf grew out of the MNLF and also claimed the creation of an Islamic state in the southern Philippines as their goal. Glang 1969 analyzes the causes of Muslim secession and discusses the Muslim Independence Movement, the precursor to the MNLF, on which Majul 1985 focuses. Stern 2012 focuses on Nur Misuari, chair of the MNLF. Mckenna 1998 and Abinales 2010 demonstrate the complexities of Muslim involvement and the dimensions of the conflict. Mastura 2012 traces the beginnings of the MILF and discusses the basis for the struggle for self-determination of the people while Banlaoi 2006 concentrates on the Abu Sayyaf. Together with the MNLF, these movements all claim inspiration from the Qur’an and Islam. Tuazon 2008 presents various perspectives on the Bangsamoro struggle while Tan 2003 focuses on the international linkage of the movements. There are quite a number of materials on Muslim movements in the Philippines, but many are repetitions of previous works.
  396.  
  397. Abinales, Patricio N. Orthodoxy and History in the Muslim–Mindanao Narrative. Quezon City, Philippines: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 2010.
  398. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  399. Abinales contests the traditional view on the continuity of the Muslim-government conflict since the colonial period. He raises various factors like race, class, and allocation of resources that play into the conflict and notes the connections between Muslims and other Filipinos. A critical addition to the literature on the subject.
  400. Find this resource:
  401. Banlaoi, Rommel C. “The Abu Sayyaf Group: From Mere Banditry to Genuine Terrorism.” Southeast Asian Affairs 2006 (2006): 247–262.
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  403. Banlaoi deals with the unresolved issue of whether the Abu Sayyaf was a government-created group. Work also explores the concept of terrorism and its application. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  404. Find this resource:
  405. Glang, Alunan C. Muslim Secession or Integration? Quezon City, Philippines: Garcia, 1969.
  406. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  407. The earliest work on the Muslim independence movement. Glang’s interviews of Muslims on leadership help explain the dynamics of relations between traditional leaders and ordinary people. Several Muslim leaders are profiled; includes documents of the Muslim independence movement.
  408. Find this resource:
  409. Majul, Cesar Adib. The Contemporary Muslim Movement in the Philippines. Berkeley, CA: Mizan, 1985.
  410. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  411. The work focuses on the MNLF and views the movement as a continuation of Muslim responses to colonialism and the politics of the Philippine government. The work is useful for background on the movement.
  412. Find this resource:
  413. Mastura, Michael O. The Bangsamoro Quest: The Birth of the Moro Islamic Liberation Front. Penang: Research and Education for Peace Universiti Sains Malaysia, 2012.
  414. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  415. Mastura has the advantage of being involved in the MILF and being a participant in the negotiations between the Philippine government and the MILF. An important source not only on the MILF but also on Muslim movements in the Philippines.
  416. Find this resource:
  417. McKenna, Thomas. Muslim Rebels and Rulers: Everyday Politics and Armed Separatism in the Southern Philippines. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998.
  418. DOI: 10.1525/california/9780520210158.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  419. McKenna’s work has become one of the most cited of works on Philippine Muslim movements. It looks at history from the perspective of the urban poor in Cotabato where he conducted extensive interviews with members of the movement and other sectors of the population.
  420. Find this resource:
  421. Stern, Tom. Nur Misuari: An Authorized Biography. Manila: Anvil, 2012.
  422. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  423. Traces the rise of Misuari from humble beginnings to MNLF chairman to governor of the Autonomous Region of Muslim Mindanao. Relies mainly on Misuari’s views; lacks critical analysis of events and situations that affected the relations among MNLF members and between the MNLF and the government.
  424. Find this resource:
  425. Tan, Samuel K. Internationalization of the Bangsamoro Struggle. Rev. ed. Quezon City: University of the Philippines Center for Integrative and Development Studies, 2003.
  426. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  427. Credits MNLF with internationalizing the movement through the Organization of Islamic Conference. The Abu Sayyaf is reported to have links with the Al-Qaeda movement. Tan had access to materials on Abu Sayyaf that are not available in other works on Philippine Muslim movements.
  428. Find this resource:
  429. Tuazon, Bobby M., ed. The Moro Reader: History and Contemporary Struggles of the Bangsamoro People. Quezon City, Philippines: Center for People Empowerment in Governance, 2008.
  430. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  431. Various issues of the Bangsamoro struggles are presented by authors of different backgrounds and academic specialties. Useful appendices include documents that will help give a historical perspective on the search for resolution of the conflict in the southern Philippines.
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