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Warfare in Medieval and Early Modern Hungary

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Mar 25th, 2017
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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. Hungary enters the world of Western written sources by the 860s, which is why all the military history handbooks start with the Hungarian raids, and suppose a certain continuity between the tribal period and the foundation of the kingdom, traditionally dated to the year 1000. The country had an unchallenged position in the Carpathian basin, gradually developing to a middle power status by the mid-12th century. From the 12th century on there was a constant expansion, first to the northeast, later to the territory of Cumans in today’s Romanian Wallachia and South Moldavia, temporarily to the neighboring Austrian duchies, and to the south—characterized by the formation of a chain of buffer territories, so called banates. With the dynasties of the Angevins and the Luxembourgs the country had very close political ties with the West, and it witnessed a rapid cultural and military acculturation. In spite of the repeated inner wars of the 15th century, the rule of King Matthias is labeled as the peak of Hungarian power, and even today it has a good fame. The Hungarian military, with a significant standing army and border defense system under King Matthias could stop or at least slow down the Ottoman expansion toward the west. The period of the Jagiellonian kings, though not as weak as once described, ended in the final military defeat of the royal army at Mohács (1526), traditionally seen as a chronological turning point in Hungarian political and military history.
  4.  
  5. General Overviews
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  7. In spite of the growing number of source publications, the online open access to the medieval (pre-1526) charter collection of the Hungarian National Archive (cited as Medieval Hungary Online: The Hungarian National Archives’ Online Portal on Medieval Charters in Reference Resources), and also to the printed source editions, and a new wave of war history studies, a new updated military history handbook and chronology are still missing, although the short popular version Hermann 2012 is promising. The latest handbook on Hungarian military history, Liptai 1984–1985, is still reliable, though its medieval chapters are amazingly short. The medieval Hungarian encyclopedia until the 1380s, Kristó 1984, is useful, but it needs updating as well. Fortunately we have a modern concise history of medieval Hungary (Engel 2001) written by an expert, as well as Engel’s reference works on secular archontology of Hungary (1301–1457) and medieval genealogy of Hungary (see Engel 1996 and Engel 2001, cited under Reference Resources). The series East European Monographs and Atlantic Studies on Society in Change edited by an emigrated former Hungarian general, Béla Király, distributed by the Columbia University Press, is a pioneering project to present the leading Hungarian researchers and their books to the English-speaking world. The more than one hundred volumes differ greatly in in their standards, but the medieval military history volume Bak and Király 1982 offers a good start. The latest studies offer a wider range of topics, like expansionist tendencies in the Hungarian foreign relations by Attila (Bárány 2012) and Hungary’s place in the European development of warfare and the significance of military thinking in Hungary in an international context (Couteau-Bégarie and Tóth 2011).
  8.  
  9. Bak, János M., and Béla K. Király, eds. From Hunyadi to Rákóczi: War and Society in Late Medieval and Early Modern Hungary. Boulder, CO: Social Science Monographs, 1982.
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  11. The most widespread collection of studies on this topic, most of them still worthyof reading.
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  13. Bárány, Attila. “Attempts for Expansion: Hungary, 1000–1500.” In The Expansion of Central Europe in the Middle Ages. Edited by Nora Berend, 330–380. Farnham, UK: Ashgate, 2012.
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  15. A very clear overview of Hungarian campaigns and military-diplomatic activity
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  17. Couteau-Bégarie, Hervé, and Ferenc Tóth, eds. La pensée militaire Hongroise à travers les siècles. Paris: Economica, 2011.
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  19. The first book ever published on military thinking and reception of innovations in Hungary from the 14th century until World War I.
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  21. Engel, Pál. The Realm of Saint Stephen, 895–1526. A History of Medieval Hungary. London and New York: Tauris, 2001.
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  23. Basic and most recent overview by an excellent historian, compiler of databases of medieval Hungarian topography, archontology and genealogy (see also the chapter on castles), published in Hungarian and Romanian as well.
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  25. Hermann, Róbert, ed. Illustrated Military History of Hungary. Budapest: Zrínyi, 2012.
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  27. A short, but useful summery of Hungarian military history.
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  29. Kristó, Gyula. Korai magyar történeti lexikon (9–14. század). Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1984.
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  31. The encyclopedia of early Hungarian history, 9–14th offers a good orientation to the Hungarian history, included all military aspects.
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  33. Liptai, Ervin, ed. Magyarország hadtörténete. 2 vols. Budapest: Zrínyi, 1984–1985.
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  35. The only concise military history published after World War II; unfortunately the medieval chapters are very short, but the chronology is carefully chosen.
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  37. Reference Resources
  38.  
  39. The new (non-Hungarian) handbooks have dozens of articles on Hungarian military history, as represented by Rogers 2010 and Murray 2006. As the process of digitalization of sources and documents goes on in the Hungarian public collections, more and more reference sources will be available online and off-line. Concerning the medieval period, the most important are the websites of the National Archives of Hungary (NAH) (Medieval Hungary Online: The Hungarian National Archives’ Online Portal on Medieval Charters and Medieval Hungary Online: The Hungarian National Archives’ Online Portal on Source Publications in Full-Text Digital Form), but unfortunately on these websites the latest editions and series are not updated regularly. Other recently published international encyclopedias have significant and reliable Hungarian contributions comparable to those of Murray and Rogers.
  40.  
  41. Engel, Pál. Magyarország világi archontológiája, 1301–1457. 2 vols. Budapest: MTA TTI, 1996.
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  43. This secular archontology of Hungary 1301–1457 is a basic reference work that includes the minor dignitaries, the personnel of the court, and the castellans. The list of the castellans forms a new and unprecedented tool for modern castle research.
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  45. Engel, Pál. Magyar középkori adattár. CD-ROM. Arcanum Adatbázis. Budapest: Arcanum, 2001.
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  47. The CD-ROM, a compendium of medieval Hungary, contains the secular archontology of Hungary 1301–1457 (Engel 1996) and the medieval genealogy of Hungary, a history of families and kindreds, based on mostly unedited charter material. The second part has never been edited in a paper format.
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  49. Medieval Hungary Online: The Hungarian National Archives’ Online Portal on Medieval Charters.
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  51. The service of the NAH makes the surviving archival material of the medieval Hungarian Kingdom, concerning the period 1000–1526, accessible on the Internet. In the past few years, digital images of more than 108,000 records preserved in the NAH, as well as images of several thousand records preserved in other Hungarian institutions, have been added to the databases established in the early 21st century. The database is accessible on the website of the NAH under the menu item Databases “Adatbazisok,” or here.
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  53. Medieval Hungary Online: The Hungarian National Archives’ Online Portal on Source Publications in Full-Text Digital Form.
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  55. The service of the NAH makes accessible practically all the source publications (charters, letters, laws, etc.) concerning the period 1000–1526 published in Hungary. The database is accessible on the website of the NAH under the menu item Databases “Adatbazisok,” or here.
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  57. Murray, Alan V., ed. The Crusades. An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2006.
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  59. The most important topics of Hungarian military history are represented in this representative reference work.
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  61. Rogers, Clifford J., ed. Medieval Warfare and Military Technology: An Encyclopedia. 3 vols. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010.
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  63. A basic reference work with an unexpectedly high number of Hungarian or Hungary-related entries.
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  65. Historical Atlases
  66.  
  67. The historical mapping of Hungary was a rather neglected field of research, and partly still is. Glatz 1996, issued by the Institute of History of the Hungarian Academy, is a standard collection of maps with sites of battles and campaigns. Thanks to advances in digital technology, a spectacular development has taken place since the late 20th century, and a wide range of military surveys, city maps, and the like havebecome available in CD-ROM, DVD, off-line and online. For military historians the three military mappings of Hungary are the most important. At this moment the second survey is accessible online in the project MAPIRE.
  68.  
  69. Glatz, Ferenc, ed. Magyarország története térképeken elbeszélve. Vol. 1, Virágkor és pusztulás: A kezdetektől 1606-ig. Budapest: MTA TTI, 1996.
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  71. The History of Hungary on Maps. Vol. 1: From the Beginnings to 1606 is very useful guide to Hungarian history; the maps are clarified with short summaries, genealogical tables, etc.
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  73. MAPIRE (Historical maps of Habsburg Empire). Second Military Mapping Survey of the Habsburg Empire. “Zweite oder Franziszeische Landesaufnahme”.
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  75. It was started by Emperor Francis I in 1806 and covers more than 2,600 sheets, on a 1:28.800 scale (1 cm corresponds to 28800 cm). For the Hungarian Kingdom there are 1,112 sheets, made between 1819 and 1869. The service is accessible online as a common project of the Österreichisches Staatsarchiv, Vienna, National Archives of Budapest, MoD Institute and Museum of Military History, Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Arcanum, Budapest, 2013.
  76. Find this resource:
  77. Weapons and Technology
  78.  
  79. The greatest figure of medieval armorial studies, János Kalmár, former curator of the Hungarian National Museum, started his career in the interwar years and published regularly in the Zeitschrift für Historische Waffenkunde (Kalmár 1971). For a long time it was the archaeologists who were publishing on weapons as a by-product of their work, mostly on the conquest period (Kovács 1976; Kovács 1980–1981; Ruttkay 1975). Bíró 2013 represents a new wave of a younger generation combining material remains and written sources, while there is a continuity of traditional research approaches, as in Kovács 1994 and Kovács 2010, mostly focusing on the armament of the hussars. The celebration of the Matthias anniversary in 2008 gave impetus to the armament studies as well, such as Szabó 2008 on the defensive armaments.
  80.  
  81. Bíró, Ádám. “Dating (with) Weapon Burials and the »Waffenwechsel«: A Preliminary Report on New Investigations of the So-Called Viking-Age Swords in the Carpathian Basin.” In Die Archäologie der frühen Ungarn. Chronologie, Technologie und Methodik. Edited by Tobias Bendeguz, 191–218. Mainz, Germany: RGZM, 2013.
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  83. A recent reassessment of the process of adopting long-edged swords by the 10th century Hungarian warriors.
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  85. Kalmár, János. Régi magyar fegyverek. Budapest: Műszaki, 1971.
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  87. Still the most comprehensive handbook of medieval and early modern Hungarian armory, entitled old Hungarian weapons, though in many aspects needs refreshing.
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  89. Kovács, László. “Über den Stand der ungarischen landnahmezeitlichen Waffengeschichtsforschung.” Mitteilungen des Archäologischen Instituts der Ungarischen Akademie der Wissenschaften 6 (1976): 81–98.
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  91. The author, an outstanding figure of armory studies in Hungary, summarizes the historiography of weapon studies of the 9th–10th centuries.
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  93. Kovács, László. “Die Waffen der landnehmenden Ungarn: Säbel, Kampfäxte und Lanzen.” Mitteilungen des Archäologischen Instituts der Ungarischen Akademie der Wissenschaften 10–11 (1980–1981): 243–255, 433–438.
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  95. A masterful analysis of the weapon findings from the 9th–10th centuries concerning sabers, axes, and lances.
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  97. Kovács, Tibor. “The Development of Hungarian Arms and Armor during the Baroque Period.” In Baroque Splendor. The Art of the Hungarian Goldsmith. Edited by Susan Weber Soros, 66–79. New York: Bard Graduate Center for Studies in the Decorative Arts, 1994.
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  99. A short overview of 16th–17th century development of Hungarian armory, written by the present curator of the armory at the Hungarian National Museum.
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  101. Kovács, Tibor. Huszárfegyverek a 15-17. században. Budapest: Martin Opitz, 2010.
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  103. An innovative handbook on the Hussar weapons in the 15th–17th centuries, and on the origins and development of the Hussar armory especially during the 16th–17th centuries, offering at the same time a catalogue of the most important items.
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  105. Ruttkay, Alexander. “Waffen und Reiterausrüstung des 9. bis zur ersten Hälfte des 14. Jahrhunderts in der Slowakei.” Slovenská Archeológia 23 (1975): 118–216.
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  107. An important contribution to medieval Hungarian armory, as today’s Slovakia formed a part of the Hungarian kingdom during medieval and early modern times.
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  109. Szabó, János B. “The Pavise, Infantry Shield of Matthias Corvinus’ Army.” In Matthias Corvinus the King: Tradition and Renewal in the Hungarian Royal Court, 1458–1490. Exhibition catalogue. Edited by Péter Farbaky, and András Végh, 298–311. Budapest: BTM, 2008.
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  111. The author focuses on the shields surviving in the collection of the city museum of Vienna.
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  113. Artillery, Tractates of War Techniques
  114.  
  115. King Sigismund’s travels throughout Europe and his interest in innovation contributed to the start of modernization of warfare in Hungary. The increasing prevalence of firearms can be traced from the 1390s in town account books, where their recurrent mention proves the presence of the artillery in towns. The 14th–15th centuries saw the birth of a completely new form of military literacy, the army regulations. King Sigismund issued his reform plans and regulations almost at the same time as the Hussites. There is no concise handbook on the history of artillery; one still has to consult the papers of Iványi (Iványi 1926). Particular attention was paid to the long reign of King Sigismund, especially by Veszprémy 2008, but also to the Transylvanian developments (Makkai 1954).
  116.  
  117. Iványi, Béla. “A tüzérség története Magyarországon kezdetétől 1711-ig.” Hadtörténelmi Közlemények 27 (1926): 1–36.
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  119. This history of the artillery in Hungary from the beginnings up to 1711 is still a basic and detailed description of the development of the artillery in Hungary. Continues over several articles [volume 27 (1926): 125–166, 259–289, 393–419; volume 28 (1927): 1–30, 129–151, 352–374, 523–540; and volume 29 (1928): 18–33, 152–176, 325–341, 419–453.]
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  121. Makkai, László. “I. Rákóczi György tüzérségének történetéhez.” Hadtörténelmi Közlemények 1.2 (1954): 110–135.
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  123. This paper on the history of György Rákóczi I’s artillery is a very useful study of the history of early modern artillery in Upper-Hungary and Transylvania.
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  125. Veszprémy, László. “Bombardes, arquebuses et manuscrits de l’art militaire: L’apparition des armes à feu en Hongrie jusqu’en 1526.” In Armes et cultures de guerre en Europe centrale XVe siècle–XIXe siècle. Edited by Musée de l’Armée, 139–154. Cahiers d’études et de recherches du musée de l’Armée 6. Paris: Musée de l’Armée, 2008.
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  127. Conference organized by Musée de l’Armée, 2–4 February 2006. A comprehensive study on the reception of Western military manuscripts and innovations.
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  129. Castles and Fortifications of the Medieval Period
  130.  
  131. The periodical Castrum Bene of the Hungarian Society for Castle Studies started a revival of research activity, annual conferences, and publications on this subject, organized by Professor István Feld. Concerning the 14th–15th centuries, the handbooks (partly on CD-ROM) of Pál Engel offer the most up-to-date list of the castles and their lords of late medieval Hungary. Unfortunately, a modern systematic handbook of the whole territory of the medieval Hungarian kingdom is missing. It was László Gerő who founded the scientific castle research in Hungary, though his typology has been refuted and renewed by younger generations of archaeologists and historians, as listed by Feld 1987. For the medieval period it was the historian Erik Fügedi who introduced social-historical methods (see Fügedi 1986), followed by Pál Engel, while the beginning of the Hungarian castle system was radically reinterpreted by the archaeologist István Bóna (see Bóna 1998), refuting myths and false statements of medieval narrative sources.
  132.  
  133. Bóna, István. Az Árpádok korai várai. 2d ed. Debrecen: Ethnica, 1998.
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  135. (The early castles of the Árpád dynasty.) A very important book about the beginnings of the castle and county system in Hungary. The author argues that they were built parallel to the foundation of the kingdom, and not earlier, during the 10th century, as some medieval chroniclers suggested.
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  137. Castrum Bene. 1990–.
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  139. A publication of the Hungarian Society for Castle Studies. An important series for Central European castle research, focusing mainly on the territory of Hungary.
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  141. Feld, István. “Neuere Ergebnisse bei der Untersuchung mittelalterlicher ungarischer Burgen.” Arx. Burgen und Schlösser in Bayern, Österreich und Südtirol 2 (1987): 196–202.
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  143. A fine guide to the recent developments and results in Hungarian castle research.
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  145. Fügedi, Erik. Castle and Society in Medieval Hungary. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1986.
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  147. King Béla IV and his successors recognized the importance of stone castles, as 150 new castles were built in the 13th century, most of them on private estates. From now on the castles were seen not only as monuments, but also as centers of political and economical power.
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  149. Gerő, László. Magyar várak. Budapest: Műszaki, 1968.
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  151. The classic handbook of Hungarian castles—it needs a total updating only partly done by Karczag and Szabó 2012.
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  153. Karczag, Ákos, and Tibor Szabó. Erdély, Partium és a Bánság erődített helyei. Várak, várkastélyok, városfalak, templomvárak, barlangvárak, sáncok és erődítmények a honfoglalástól a 19. század végéig. 2d ed. Budapest: Semmelweis, 2012.
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  155. The most complete list of fortifications of Hungary located outside the boundaries of present-day Hungary, that is, the fortified places of Transylvania, Partium, and Banat. Castles, fortified manor houses, town walls, church castles, cave castles, palisades, and fortifications from the conquest until the end of the 19th century, with short bibliographies.
  156. Find this resource:
  157. Laszlovszky, József, ed. Medieval Visegrád: Royal Castle, Palace, Town and Franciscan Friary. Budapest: ELTE, 1995.
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  159. This book represents a series of new archaeological overviews of medieval castles, like the royal castle of Visegrád on the Danube, not far from Budapest, capital of the country, at the beginning of the 14th century.
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  161. Castles of the Early Modern Period
  162.  
  163. The military fortification system of Upper Hungary, that is, Hungary under Habsburg rule, and that of Transylvania was modernized and rebuilt in the decades after 1526 according to the most recent requirements and by the well-trained foreign, mostly Italian, military architects (Marosi 1976); of them the most important was Ottavio Baldigara (Domokos 2000). The developments in Transylvania, totally neglected by former research, are highlighted by Kovács 2011b and Kovács 2012, and even an independent study is devoted to the capital of the principality by Kovács 2011a. The private architecture was dominantly militarized as presented by Feld 2009. Not all the fortifications in the border area were built of stone, and in that case they disappeared without a trace; only excavations may bring them to light (Gyöngyi Kovács 2002).
  164.  
  165. Domokos, György. Ottavio Baldigara—Egy itáliai várfundáló mester Magyarországon. Budapest: Balassi Kiadó, 2000.
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  167. An important book on the career of Ottavio Baldigara, an important Italian military architect in Hungary in the 16th century.
  168. Find this resource:
  169. Feld, István. “Mohácstól a tizenötéves háborúig: Új centrumok, főúri központok, nemesi rezidenciák.” In Reneszánsz látványtár. Edited by Buzás Gergely, Domokos György, Kiss Etele, et al., 119–129. Budapest: Magyar Nemzeti Múzeum, 2009.
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  171. Innovative summary article on the private architecture, headquarters, and residences of Hungarian aristocracy in the 16th century from the battle of Mohács to the Long Turkish War emphasizing the increasing defensive importance of the residences.
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  173. Kovács, Gyöngyi, ed. Weitschawar–Bajcsa-Vár: Egy stájer erődítmény Magyarországon a 16. század második felében. Zalagerszeg, Hungary: Zala Megyei Múzeumok Igazgatósága, 2002.
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  175. Exciting collection of studies by Hungarian and Austrian archaeologists and historians on the findings of the excavation of a quickly abandoned typical Styrian border fortress in Hungary called Weitschawar–Bajcsa in the second half of the 16th century.
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  177. Kovács, András. “Gyulafehérvár, Site of the Transylvanian Princely Court in the 16th Century.” In Studies in the History of Early Modern Transylvania. Edited by Gyöngy Kovács Kiss, 319–358. Boulder, CO: Social Science Monographs, 2011a.
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  179. A short study on the construction of the new Transylvanian capital in the middle of the 16th century emphasizing its defensive role during the short-lived Habsburg dominance.
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  181. Kovács, Klára P. “Bastion-System Fortification in the 16th Century Transylvania.” In Studies in the History of Early Modern Transylvania. Edited by Gyöngy Kovács Kiss, 359−395. Boulder, CO: Social Science Monographs, 2011b.
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  183. The best modern summary on the spreading of the “Trace Italian” system in Transylvania.
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  185. Kovács, Klára P. “Fortress-Building in 16th-Century Transylvania: The Recruitment of Labour Force.” Transylvanian Review 21 (2012): 163−181.
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  187. An important study on the construction of modern Transylvanian fortresses.
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  189. Marosi, Endre. “Partecipiazione di architetti militari Veneziani alla construzione de sistema delle fortezze di confiene in Ungheria tra il 1541 e il 1593.” In Rapporti veneto-Ungheresi all’Epoca del Rinascimento. Edited by Tibor Klaniczay, 195–215. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1976.
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  191. A summary of the establishment of the Hungarian border defense system in the 16th century based on secondary Hungarian literature.
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  193. Military and Chivalric Culture
  194.  
  195. The culture of chivalry had been adopted most effectively in warfare, and the military nature of court culture remained tangible throughout the 14th-century rule of the Angevins, convincingly proved by Kurcz 1988. Fügedi 1985 researches the role of knightly ceremonies, while Kerny published a series of studies on the medieval and early modern cult of the great chivalric king, Ladislas I of Hungary; see Kerny 1990). As Lővei 2006 and Veszprémy 2011 argue, this process culminated in the foundation of the Hungarian secular military orders of the 14th and 15th centuries.
  196.  
  197. Fügedi, Erik. “Turniere im mittelalterlichen Ungarn.” In Das ritterliche Turnier im Mittelalter. Edited by Josef Fleckenstein, 390–400. Göttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck, 1985.
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  199. A short presentation of the problems of chivalric ceremonies in Hungary.
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  201. Kerny, Terézia. “Der Ladislaus-Kult in Ungarn.” In Die Ritter. Katalog der Burgenländischen Landesausstellung 1990 auf der Burg Güssing vom 4. Mai bis 28. Oktober 1990. Edited by Harald Prickler, 60–63. Eisenstadt: Amt der Burgenländischen Landesregierung, Landesarchiv—Landesbibliothek, 1990.
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  203. The cult of the Hungarian “Holy Kings” (St. Stephen, Prince Emeric, St. Ladislas) played a central role in the diffusion of courtly ideas.
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  205. Kurcz, Ágnes. Lovagi kultúra Magyarországon a 13-14. században. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1988.
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  207. The first modern monograph on courtly culture, the chivalric culture in Hungary in the 13th–14th centuries, offers statistical figures and lists of the courtly personal as well.
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  209. Lővei, Pál. “Hoforden im Mittelalter, unter besonderer Berücksichtigung des Drachenordens.” In Sigismundus Rex et Imperator: Kunst und Kultur zur Zeit Sigismunds von Luxemburg 1387–1437; Ausstellungskatalog; Budapest, Szépművészeti Múzeum, 18. März–18. Juni 2006; Luxemburg, Musée National d’histoire et d’art, 13. Juli–15. Oktober 2006. Edited by Imre Takács, 251–263. Mainz, Germany: Philip von Zabern, 2006.
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  211. The history of the Order of the Dragon founded in 1408 by King Sigismund. This catalogue is the most up-to-date comprehensive handbook on the history and art history of the reign of the Luxemburg house in Hungary.
  212. Find this resource:
  213. Veszprémy, László. “A Szent György-lovagrend: A kutatás állása.” In Károly Róbert és kora. Edited by Terézia Kerny and András Smohay, 86–100. Székesfehérvár, Hungary: Egyházmegyei Múzeum, 2011.
  214. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  215. The history of the short-lived Hungarian military order the St. George Military Order, which was founded in 1326 by the first Angevin king on the Hungarian throne.
  216. Find this resource:
  217. Military Orders, Crusades
  218.  
  219. King Andrew II (r. 1205–1235) was the only Hungarian ruler to have gone on a campaign to the Holy Land—the Fifth Crusade of 1217–1218, according to the detailed surveys of Sweeney 1981 and Veszprémy 2002. King Andrew II recognized the challenges posed by defense of the kingdom’s southern borders; consequently, he settled Teutonic Knights in southern Transylvania in 1211, although later he expelled them by force of arms in 1225, which is discussed by a wide range of papers, including Hunyadi 2008 and Zimmermann 2011. The Hospitaller order was most influential in Hungary; its history is analyzed by the recent monograph Hunyadi 2010 and a series of studies (Hunyadi 2003, Hunyadi 2007). There was a misleading confusion about the identification of the single orders in Hungary, as all of them were called just “crusaders.” It is Hunyadi 2003 that definitively clears up the question.
  220.  
  221. Hunyadi, Zsolt. “Military-Religious Orders in the Medieval Kingdom of Hungary: A Historiographical Overview.” Chronica 3 (2003): 50–57.
  222. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  223. A very informative overview of the state of research on this topic.
  224. Find this resource:
  225. Hunyadi, Zsolt. “The Military Activity of the Hospitallers in the Medieval Kingdom of Hungary (Thirteenth to Fourteenth Centuries).” In The Hospitallers, the Mediterranean and Europe. Festschrift for Anthony Luttrell. Edited by Karl Borchardt, Nikolas Jaspert, and Helen J. Nicholson, 193–203. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2007.
  226. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  227. The paper confronts the economic and military aspects of the Hospitallers’ activity, and explains the reasons for their limited military role in the country.
  228. Find this resource:
  229. Hunyadi, Zsolt. “The Teutonic Order in Burzenland (1211–1225): new re-considerations.” In L’Ordine Teutonico tra Mediterraneo e Baltico: incontri e scontri tra religioni, popoli e culture. Edited by Hubert Houben and Kristjan Toomaspoeg, 151–170. Acta Teutonica 5. Galatino, Italy: Mario Congedo, 2008.
  230. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  231. Bari-Lecce-Brindisi, 14–16 September 2006. It is an old problem why the Teutonic knights were expelled from Hungary even though they worked professionally. The author offers a new interpretation concerning the Cuman and Mongol relations.
  232. Find this resource:
  233. Hunyadi, Zsolt. The Hospitallers in the Medieval Kingdom of Hungary, c.1150–1387. Budapest: METEM, CEU, 2010.
  234. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  235. The first comprehensive book on the activity of the Hospitallers in Hungary based on new source material from Malta, with a useful appendix of issued charters in Hungary with a catalogue of seals.
  236. Find this resource:
  237. Sweeney, James Ross. “Hungary in the Crusades, 1169–1218.” International History Review 3 (1981): 467–481.
  238. DOI: 10.1080/07075332.1981.9640258Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  239. The history of crusading activity in Hungary discussed in an international context.
  240. Find this resource:
  241. Veszprémy, László. “The Crusade of Andrew II, King of Hungary, 1217–1218.” Jacobus 13–14 (2002): 87–110.
  242. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  243. A history of the only Hungarian crusade as part of the Fifth Crusade.
  244. Find this resource:
  245. Zimmermann, Harald. Der Deutsche Orden in Siebenbürgen. 2d ed. Cologne: Böhlau, 2011.
  246. DOI: 10.7788/boehlau.9783412213589Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  247. The standard summary of the activity of the Teutonic Order in Hungary.
  248. Find this resource:
  249. War and Society, Immigrants, Auxiliaries
  250.  
  251. It is far from clear in all details what kind of feudalism with military obligations was developing in Hungary. Rady 2000 is a fine overview of the development of the Hungarian nobility and their landownership from the 11th century to the 16th. Fügedi 1992 tries the same with a different topic, to find the place of the Hungarian nobility in the wider history of the European nobility. Medieval Hungary was characterized by ethnic diversity and was a meeting point of many cultures. From the 11th and 12th centuries, the non-Christian groups formed separate communities, just like the Pechenegs, and later the Muslims; the settlements of a bigger, privileged non-Christian group, like the Cumans and Iasians, followed the invasion of the Mongols (Göckenjan 1972, Pálóczi Horváth 1989). The first pioneering monograph on the multicultural and, until the end of the 13th century, tolerant medieval society is Berend 2001.
  252.  
  253. Berend, Nora. At the Gate of Christendom: Jews, Muslims and “Pagans” in Medieval Hungary, c. 1000–c. 1300. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2001.
  254. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511523106Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  255. A thoroughly researched study of the complex social, judicial, and economic situation of non-Christians in medieval Hungary.
  256. Find this resource:
  257. Fügedi, Erik. The Elefánthy. The Hungarian Nobleman and His Kindred. Budapest: CEU, 1992.
  258. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  259. Fügedi covers the history of the Elefanthy kindred of the Nyitra County (Nitra, in present-day Slovakia), first of all the process of turning “noble” warriors into landowners and familares.
  260. Find this resource:
  261. Göckenjan, Hansgerd. Hilfsvölker und Grenzwächter im mittelalterlichen Ungarn. Wiesbaden, Germany: Steiner, 1972.
  262. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  263. Discusses the ethnic structure of medieval border defense system based on immigrant and privileged ethnic groups.
  264. Find this resource:
  265. Pálóczi Horváth, András. Pechenegs, Cumans, Iasians: Steppe Peoples in Medieval Hungary. Budapest: Corvina, 1989.
  266. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  267. A standard popular summary of these immigrant ethnic groups, based on archaeological research. Also in German.
  268. Find this resource:
  269. Rady, Martyn. Nobility, Land and Service in Medieval Hungary. London: Palgrave, 2000.
  270. DOI: 10.1057/9780333985342Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  271. A basic account of medieval noble society in Hungary, focusing on the legal background of relationships between king and the nobles, and within the noble society, referring to direct parallels between medieval Hungary and its better-known Western neighbors.
  272. Find this resource:
  273. 960s–1000, Hungarian Raids, Conquest of the Carpathian Basin
  274.  
  275. The events of the conquest of the Carpathian Basin and those of the raids have been interwoven in Western historiography, because the Hungarians entered the area with raiding troops invited either by the East Frankish court (862, 892) or their Moravian opponents (881, 894). The place of the raiding Hungarians in Western diplomatic relations was first emphasized by Vajay 1968. In a broader sense, the beginning of the raids goes back to the middle of the 9th century; in a strict sense the classical raids took place between the final years of the Landnahme, 896 and 970. Kristó 2000 establishes the standard chronology for this period, which influenced even the latest survey, Bíró and Langó 2013. There is a latent dispute on the scale of the destruction and effectiveness of the raiding in the international literature, represented here by Kellner 1997 and Bachrach 2000. Besides the written sources the archeological are the most important, this large and growing segment is reviewed by Németh 1996; battle tactics are covered in Bóna 2000. The most important event during the raids was the battle of Lechfeld, analyzed in Scherff 1985 and more recently and convincingly in Bowlus 2006.
  276.  
  277. Bachrach, Bernard S. “Magyar-Ottonian Warfare: À propos a New Minimalist Interpretation.” Francia 27.1 (2000): 211–230.
  278. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  279. The author reflects on the debate about the damages caused by the Hungarians, and in a broader view about the dimension of the Hungarian “raids” to Western Europe.
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Bíró, Gyöngyvér, and Péter Langó. “‘Deo odibilis gens Hungarorum’ oder’auxilium Domini’—Die Ungarn und die christliche Welt im 10: Jahrhundert.” In Rauben, Plündern, Morden—Nachweis von Zerstörung und kriegerischer Gewalt im archäologischen Befund: Tagungsbeiträge der Arbeitsgemeinschaft Spätantike und Frühmittelalter 6. Zerstörung und Gewalt im archäologischen Befund (Bremen, 5.–6.10. 2011). Edited by Orsolya Heinrich-Tamaska, 265–335. Studien zu Spätantike und Frühmittelalter 5. Hamburg: Verlag Dr. Kovač, 2013.
  282. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  283. A chronological guide with source references covering the whole period of Hungarian raids.
  284. Find this resource:
  285. Bóna, István. “Die ungarische Kampftechnik in den Feldzügen gegen Europa.” In Europas Mitte um 1000: Beiträge zur Geschichte, Kunst und Archäologie. Vol. 1. Edited by Alfried Wieczorek and Hans-Martin Hinz, 225–233. Stuttgart: Theiss, 2000.
  286. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  287. Provides a good general introduction written by an excellent Hungarian archaeologist.
  288. Find this resource:
  289. Bowlus, Charles R. The Battle of Lechfeld and Its Aftermath, August 955: The End of the Age of Migrations in the Latin West. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2006.
  290. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  291. For the reconstruction of the phases of the 955 campaign Scherff 1985 is still useful, but the standard comprehensive monograph is this one (In German: Ostfildern: Thorbecke, 2012).
  292. Find this resource:
  293. Kellner, Maximilian Georg. Die Ungarneinfälle im Bild der Quellen bis 1150: Von der “Gens detestanda” zur “Gens ad fidem Christi conversa.” Munich: Ungarisches Institut, 1997.
  294. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  295. A well-written book about the image of the Hungarians in Western sources, attaching some neglected sources for the German-speaking area.
  296. Find this resource:
  297. Kristó, Gyula. Az Árpád kor háborúi. 2d ed. Szeged, Hungary: Szukits, 2000.
  298. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  299. This is the standard handbook of the medieval military history in Hungary, the wars of the Arpad age 896–1301,written in a rather conservative chronological way, with an individual chapter by László Kovács about the armament.
  300. Find this resource:
  301. Németh, Péter. “The Archeology of the Conquest Period: A History of Research.” In The Ancient Hungarians: Exhibition Catalogue: Budapest, Hungarian National Museum, 16 March–31 December 1996. Edited by István Fodor, 19–26. Budapest: Hungarian National Museum, 1996.
  302. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  303. A useful historiographical overview of archaeological research on the topic in a historical and ideological context. The whole catalogue is interesting for military historians.
  304. Find this resource:
  305. Scherff, Bruno. Studien zum Heer der Ottonen und der Salier (919–1056). Bonn: Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelm Universität, 1985.
  306. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  307. A neglected but original analysis of the surviving sources on the Lechfeld campaign.
  308. Find this resource:
  309. Vajay, Szabolcs de. Der Eintritt des ungarischen Stämmebundes in die europäische Geschichte (862–933). Mainz, Germany: Hase and Koehler, 1968.
  310. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  311. A pioneering work arguing that the raids were not simply ravaging attacks, but in some cases surely part of a larger diplomatic game, in which they were used as mercenary troops.
  312. Find this resource:
  313. 1000–1301
  314.  
  315. These three centuries were a very dynamic period of military development. In the first half of the 11th century a radical social and administrative transformation took place with the help of Western, mostly German, settlers. Later, nomad forces were incorporated into the royal military system, especially with the arrival of the Cumans after the Mongol invasion. The Hungarian troops were seldom defeated; the battle of Muhi against the Mongols is the most striking exception. In spite of the diminishing royal power during the second half of the 13th century, the fame of the Hungarian military remained unchallenged.
  316.  
  317. Foundation of the Kingdom
  318.  
  319. For the peripheral lands joining Christian Europe the adoption of heavy cavalry and the associated tactics was a striking development in the military. Although the military reform during the reign of King Stephen is symbolized by the double-edged sword (see also Bíró 2013, cited under Weapons and Technology), its greatest advance was to build up the western border defenses, a solid military organization based on the county and the castle district system, summarized by the concise monograph Györffy 1994, and updated by Zsoldos 2002. This efficiently protected the kingdom against external attacks right up to the Tartar Invasion of 1241–1242. A very intriguing and much debated subject is the combination of the traditional Eastern combat tactics with the imported Western warfare, studied by Szabó 2001 and Szabó 2010.
  320.  
  321. Györffy, György. King Saint Stephen of Hungary. Atlantic Studies on Society in Change 71. Boulder, CO: Social Science Monographs, 1994.
  322. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  323. An abridged version without footnotes of the standard monograph of the author on King Stephen the First, the longer version originally published in Hungarian, 1977, later also in Polish (Król Stefan i jego dzieło. Warsaw: Rytm, 2005). (The shorter version also in German, König Stephan der Heilige. Budapest: Corvina, 1988.)
  324. Find this resource:
  325. Szabó, János B. “Gondolatok a XI-XIV. századi magyar hadviselésről: A fegyverzet, a harcmód és a taktika összefüggéseinek kérdései.” Hadtörténelmi Közlemények 114 (2001): 75–102.
  326. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  327. Although the Hungarian kingdom, in all probability, disposed of considerable heavy cavalry in the 12th century, Hungarian forces seem to have kept their basic character of light cavalry until the end of the 14th century. According to the author’s reflections on Hungarian warfare during the 11th–14th centuries, including the questions of armor, strategy, and tactics, it seems to be obvious that light cavalry was not applied independently as a decisive striking force, in spite of the customs of the steppe nomads and Hungarian commanders of the 10th century.
  328. Find this resource:
  329. Szabó, János B. A honfoglalóktól a huszárokig: A középkori magyar könnyűlovasságról. Budapest: Argumentum, 2010.
  330. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  331. A comprehensive overview of the Hungarian light cavalry tactics from the 11th century up to the beginning of the 16th century.
  332. Find this resource:
  333. Zsoldos, Attila. “First Centuries of Hungarian Military Organization.” In A Millennium of Hungarian Military History. Edited by Béla Király and László Veszprémy, 3–25. Boulder, CO: Social Science Monographs, 2002.
  334. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  335. The founding and development of medieval military organization until the end of the 13th century.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. Tartar (Mongol) Invasion 1240–1241, Battle of Muhi (11 April 1241)
  338.  
  339. Thanks to the chronicles of Thomas of Spalato/Split and Rogerio, an Italian eyewitness, the Hungarian campaign, with its decisive battle at Muhi, belongs to the best-documented phases of the Tartar wars in Europe (see Bak, et al. 2010). In Hungarian translation all the sources and the scientific papers are available, collected in Nagy 2003. The evaluation of the Hungarian mobilization, the battle tactics, its outcome, and the dimensions of destruction caused by the Tartars are still debated, though recently new findings have come to light, referred to by Kovács 2007, and Laszlovszky 2012. Szabó 2007 offers a useful summary, and a look at the battle of Legnica in Poland is provided by Göckenjan 2007.
  340.  
  341. Bak, János M., Martyn Rady, and László Veszprémy, eds. Anonymous, Notary of King Béla, The Deeds of the Hungarians, Master Roger’s Epistle to the Sorrowful Lament about the Destruction of Hungary by the Tartars. Budapest and New York: CEU, 2010.
  342. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  343. This is the first English translation of Master Roger’s work on the Tartar invasion.
  344. Find this resource:
  345. Göckenjan, Hansgerd. “Der Westfeldzug (1236–1242) aus mongolischer Sicht.” In Ungarn, Türken und Mongolen: Kleine Schriften von Hansgerd Göckenjan. Edited by Michael Knüppel and Eberhard Winkler, 179–218. Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz, 2007.
  346. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  347. A massive summary of the Hungarian and Polish campaign of the Tartars.
  348. Find this resource:
  349. Kovács, Tibor S. “A magyarok fegyverzete a tatárjárás idején.” In A tatárjárás. Edited by Ágnes Ritoók and Éva Garam, 27–28. Budapest: Hungarian National Museum, 2007.
  350. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  351. A short look at the armament of the Hungarians in the middle of the 13th century, mostly based on archaeological findings.
  352. Find this resource:
  353. Laszlovszky, József. “Material Remains of the Mongolian Invasion in Hungary and Development-led Archaeology.” Hungarian Archeology E Journal (Spring 2012).
  354. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  355. During the 1990s, while building new motor highways, important excavations opened up traces of the Tartar destruction and hidden treasures.
  356. Find this resource:
  357. Nagy, Balázs, ed. Tatárjárás: Nemzet és emlékezet. Budapest: Osiris, 2003.
  358. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  359. A representative anthology on the Tartar invasion with all the sources, papers, and commemorative publications with an extensive bibliography about the Tartar invasion in Hungarian translation.
  360. Find this resource:
  361. Szabó, János B. A tatárjárás. Budapest: Corvina, 2007.
  362. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  363. A short and already influential survey of the events put into a world historical dimension, unfortunately without footnotes.
  364. Find this resource:
  365. Wars up to 1301
  366.  
  367. After the events of 1241–1242, Hungary became militarily very active, characterized by the Austro-Hungarian wars for the Babenberg heritage against the Bohemian king, Ottakar II. The quick recovery of the Hungarian armed forces is testified to at the battle of Leitha (Dienst 1978). The Hungarian troops were defeated several times by King Ottakar, but finally at the battle of Dürnkrut their help to the German king, Rudolf, turned out to be decisive. All the sources are carefully listed and presented by Kusternig 1978–1979 and Peball 1992.
  368.  
  369. Dienst, Heide. Die Schlacht an der Leitha 1246. Vienna: Österreichischer Bundesverlag, 1978.
  370. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  371. The Hungarian participation in the battle is decisive proof of the very quick recovery of the Hungarian kingdom and army after the Mongol invasion.
  372. Find this resource:
  373. Kusternig, Andreas. “Probleme um die Kämpfe zwischen Rudolf und Ottokar und die Schlacht bei Dürnkrut und Jedenspeigen am 26 August 1278.” Jahrbuch für Landeskunde von Niederösterreich 44–45 (1978–1979): 226–311.
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  375. The most detailed study on the battle, based on the analysis of the Latin and German sources, edited in a separate volume by the same author earlier.
  376. Find this resource:
  377. Peball, Kurt. Die Schlacht bei Dürnkrut am 26 August 1278. Vienna: Bundesverlag, 1992.
  378. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  379. A popular summary of the events that shaped the future of central Europe with the victory of the Habsburgs. The Hungarian military support to Rudolf of Habsburg was without question important, though its relevance is traditionally overestimated by the Hungarians.
  380. Find this resource:
  381. 1301–1387
  382.  
  383. Under the Angevins of Naples Charles Robert (r. 1308–1342) and Louis I the Great (r. 1342–1382), the kingdom played a more prominent role on the international stage than at any time in the past. The abundance of warriors and horses, and the excellence of its generals often tempted Hungarian rulers to a bold foreign policy, based also on inner military reforms described by Engel 1989. The basic political and military chronology is offered by Kristó 1988. Louis the Great deployed his army in five theaters: Dalmatia; South Italy for possession of Naples, hiring mercenaries in great numbers, as analyzed by Bárány 2002 and Guerri dall’Oro 2008; North Italy during the conflict between Venice and Padua, presented by Bárány 2002; the Balkans; and the Polish front against the Lithuanians. It is an old, never-ending debate, where and when the Hungarians first confronted the Ottomans in the Balkans, and whether their advance was correctly estimated by King Louis or not, recently taken up by Housley 2001, which offers a very negative assessment concerning Louis’s responsibility. Sure, from the 1390s the Ottoman-Hungarian rivalry became the most important issue, first for the defense of Hungarian interests and later for the defense of Hungarian borders. Szakály 1979, Rázsó 1997, and Papp 2004 provide detailed analyses of the Ottoman advance, while Imber 1990 references the Ottoman history and historiography.
  384.  
  385. Bárány, Attila. “The Communion of English and Hungarian Mercenaries in Italy.” In The First Millennium of Hungary in Europe. Edited by János Barta and Klára Papp, 126–141. Debrecen, Hungary: Debrecen University Press, 2002.
  386. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  387. The story of the famous Alba Societas in Italy, with a strong Hungarian participation.
  388. Find this resource:
  389. Engel, Pál. “‘Honor, castrum, comitatus’: Studies in the Government System of the Angevin.” Questiones Medii Aevi Nova 1 (1989): 91–100.
  390. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  391. A basic paper to understand the military reforms of the Angevin dynasty in Hungary.
  392. Find this resource:
  393. Guerri dall’Oro, Guido. “Les Mercenaires dans les Campagnes Napolitaines de Louis le Grand, Roi de Hongrie, 1347–1350.” In Mercenaries and Paid Men: The Mercenary Identity in the Middle Ages. Proceedings of a Conference Held at University of Wales, Swansea, 7–9 July 2005. Edited by John France, 61–88. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2008.
  394. DOI: 10.1163/ej.9789004164475.i-415Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  395. An overview of the activity of mercenaries paid by the Hungarian king, Louis in Italy, based on the contemporary history by Domenico da Gravina.
  396. Find this resource:
  397. Housley, Norman. “King Louis the Great of Hungary and the Crusades, 1342–1382.” In Crusading and Warfare in Medieval and Renaissance Europe. Edited by Norman Housley, 192–208. Aldershot, UK: Variorum, 2001.
  398. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  399. The Hungarian participation in the later crusades reached its peak between 1342 and 1490. After several long-lasting campaigns the Angevins’ efforts to get Naples failed. After 1353 the Hungarian auxiliary troops became the most important foreign allies of the Popes in Avignon, as Hungarians were mentioned as mercenaries in the troops of the Cypriote king Peter I.
  400. Find this resource:
  401. Imber, Colin: The Ottoman Empire 1300–1481. Istanbul: Isis, 1990.
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  403. A standard monograph that is still necessary to put the events of the Hungarian-Ottoman front into an international context.
  404. Find this resource:
  405. Kristó, Gyula. Az Anjou-kor háborúi. Budapest: Zrínyi, 1988.
  406. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  407. The wars of the Angevin age, 1301–1387 is the standard handbook of late medieval military history in Hungary, written in a traditional chronological way, with an individual chapter by Attila Pandula about the armament.
  408. Find this resource:
  409. Papp, Sándor. “Hungary and the Ottoman Empire (From the Beginnings to 1540).” In Fight against the Turk in Central-Europe in the First Half of the Sixteenth Century. Edited by István Zombori, 37–90. Budapest: Metem, 2004.
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  411. A practical guide to the Hungarian-Ottoman diplomatic and military relations, as special attention is paid to the first clashes of the two countries. Papp argues in favor of the authenticity of the Mariazell foundation legend; consequently, he dates the first Hungarian-Ottoman war to 1365.
  412. Find this resource:
  413. Rázsó, Gyula. “Hungarian Strategy against the Ottomans (1365–1526).” In Von Crécy bis Mohács: Kriegswesen im späten Mittelalter (1346–1526): Acta, XXII. Kongreß der Internationalen Kommission für Militärgeschichte Vienna, 9–13 September 1996, 226–237. Vienna: HGM, 1997.
  414. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  415. A general, often-cited overview of Hungarian anti-Ottoman strategy.
  416. Find this resource:
  417. Szakály, Ferenc. “Phases of Turco-Hungarian Warfare before the Battle of Mohács (1365–1526).” Acta orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 33 (1979): 65–111.
  418. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  419. A standard breakdown of the Hungarian-Ottoman fights, based on the Serbian literature as well, not often used by Hungarian historians.
  420. Find this resource:
  421. 1387–1437
  422.  
  423. In 1396, as Cristea 2009 summarizes, at the head of one of the strongest international crusading armies of all time, King Sigismund of Hungary set himself responsible for the defeat and the Ottomans’ subsequent advance in the Balkans. The military reforms started after the defeat of the Christians at Nicopol (1396), and King Sigismund really transformed and shaped a more effective mobilization and border defense system, as emphasized by Bak 2006, Veszprémy 2009, and Veszprémy 2010. The rule of King Sigismund in a Hungarian context was first covered by Mályusz 1990, which is an important contribution to the international Sigismund literature as well. The effectiveness of the Hungarian military reforms is questioned by DeVries 1999.
  424.  
  425. Bak, János. “Sigismund and the Ottoman Advance.” In Sigismund von Luxemburg: Ein Kaiser in Europa. Edited by Michel Pauly and François Reinert, 89–94. Mainz, Germany: Zabern, 2006.
  426. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  427. The author describes the process from the first unexpected defeats of King Sigismund through the consolidation of the Hungarian-Ottoman borders until the organization of the border-line defense system. A king is presented who, without any military success in the field, stopped and delayed the Ottoman advance.
  428. Find this resource:
  429. Cristea, Ovidiu. “La croisade de Nicopolis (1396): Controverses autour d’une bataille.” In Church Union and Crusading in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries. Edited by Christian Gastgeber, Ioan-Aurel Pop, Oliver Jens Schmitt, et al., 31–56. Cluj-Napoca, Romania: Center for Transylvanian Studies, 2009.
  430. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  431. A detailed discussion of the different narratives and later interpretations of the tragic crusade.
  432. Find this resource:
  433. DeVries, Kelly. “The Lack of a Western European Military Response to the Ottoman Invasions of Eastern Europe from Nicopolis (1396) to Mohács (1526).” Journal of Military History 63 (1999): 539–560.
  434. DOI: 10.2307/120494Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  435. The author suggests that the Hungarian military success (like in 1456 at Belgrade) caused an illusion in the West, exaggerating the military capabilities of Hungary and hindering a rapid military response against the Turkish expansion in east and central Europe.
  436. Find this resource:
  437. Mályusz, Elemér. Kaiser Sigismund in Ungarn: 1387–1437. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1990.
  438. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  439. Standard monograph on Sigismund’s rule, written from a Hungarian perspective.
  440. Find this resource:
  441. Veszprémy, László. “King Sigismund of Luxemburg at Golubac (Galamboc).” In Church Union and Crusading in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries. Edited by Christian Gastgeber, Ioan-Aurel Pop, Oliver Jens Schmitt, et al., 291–308. Cluj-Napoca, Romania: Center for Transylvanian Studies, 2009.
  442. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  443. The most important campaign of King Sigismund on the south front after 1396. Though a humiliating defeat in 1428, it was properly organized and still serves as the first example of amphibious warfare in Hungarian history.
  444. Find this resource:
  445. Veszprémy, László. “The State and Military Affairs in East Central Europe, 1380–c. 1520s.” In European Warfare, 1350–1750. Edited by Frank Tallett and D. J. B. Trim, 96–109. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
  446. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511806278Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  447. The military system of the country as a whole failed to come up to the increased requirements of the 15th–16th centuries, in spite of the mercenary system, the general professionalization of the warfare, the appearance of firearms, and adaptation to the castle-building practice, and that became the reason for accepting the Habsburg rule and letting Hungarian warfare integrate into the imperial border defense system.
  448. Find this resource:
  449. 1437–1458
  450.  
  451. The hero of these years is John Hunyadi, for a time governor of the country, whose career was clarified by Engel 1982. His most successful campaign was in the winter of 1443–1444, when he avoided the main Ottoman army and reached several passes in the Balkan Mountains, and finally the successful defense of Belgrade in 1456. In 1444, he advanced as far as Varna on the coast of the Black Sea, where he suffered a defeat at the hands of the talented Ottoman Sultan Murad II. After long years of silence, several volumes have recently been published: Imber 2006, a new source collection on the Varna crusade; Jefferson 2012, a fresh monograph; and Bak 2004, an overview of the crusading ideas in Hungary. The unexpectedly successful defense of Belgrade in 1456, with mostly undisciplined crowds of crusaders, turned the direction of the Turks toward the East (Persia, Egypt) and the Mediterranean. Interestingly, very little attention was paid to the events at Belgrade; for a long time mostly Hungarians were interested in it, like Held 1984, Ágoston 2000, and Spremić 1999. The subject remained largely unknown for language reasons, until it was brought to a wider audience by the international research of Housley 2004.
  452.  
  453. Ágoston, Gábor. “La strada che conduceva a Nándorfehérvár (Belgrade). L’Ungheria, l’espansione ottomana nei Balcani a la vittoria di Nándorfehérvár.” In La campana di Mezzogiorno. Saggi per il Quinto Centenario della bolla papale. Edited by Zsolt Visy, 203–250. Budapest: Mundus, 2000.
  454. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  455. A popular, but precise study of the events of 1456 and the siege.
  456. Find this resource:
  457. Bak, János. “Hungary and Crusading in the Fifteenth Century.” In Crusading in the Fifteenth Century: Message and Impact. Edited by Norman Housley, 116–127. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave, 2004.
  458. DOI: 10.1057/9780230523357Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  459. The author emphasizes the ideological background of crusading in central Europe.
  460. Find this resource:
  461. Engel, Pál. “János Hunyadi: The Decisive Years of His Career, 1440–1444.” In From Hunyadi to Rákóczi: War and Society in Late Medieval and Early Modern Hungary. Edited by János M. Bak and Béla K. Király, 103–123. Boulder, CO: Social Science Monographs, 1982.
  462. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  463. Hunyadi’s career was the most exceptional in medieval Hungary, based on his anti-Ottoman campaigns.
  464. Find this resource:
  465. Housley, Norman. “Giovanni da Capistrano and the Crusade of 1456.” In Crusading in the Fifteenth Century: Message and Impact. Edited by Norman Housley, 94–115. Houndmills, UK, and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004.
  466. DOI: 10.1057/9780230523357Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  467. Examines the reasons for the unexpected victory of John Hunyadi and the untrained crusader masses, led by a 70-year-old Franciscan friar over the mighty Ottoman army.
  468. Find this resource:
  469. Imber, Colin. The Crusade of Varna, 1443–45. Ashgate, UK: Aldershot, 2006.
  470. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  471. A fine selection of sources on the Varna campaign with an excellent introductory study.
  472. Find this resource:
  473. Jefferson, John. The Holy Wars of King Wladislas and Sultan Murad: The Ottoman-Christian Conflict from 1438–1444. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2012.
  474. DOI: 10.1163/9789004229259Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  475. The author gives an unprecedented overview of the turbulent years, using hitherto forgotten Polish sources and literature. He seems to be sure that the campaign of 1444 had good chances of being victorious and turning the tide of the Ottoman advance.
  476. Find this resource:
  477. Spremić, Momčilo. Despot Đurađ Branković i njegova doba. 2d ed. Belgrade: Clio, 1999.
  478. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  479. An excellent, and, for the non-Serbian audience unknown, monograph on Despot George Branković and his times, based on formerly not used sources on Despot Branković, a key figure in central Europe and in Hungary.
  480. Find this resource:
  481. 1458–1490
  482.  
  483. The Hungarian military build-up was based on a double defense line of castles with Belgrade at the center, where about 10,000 permanently paid soldiers were stationed, furthered by the adaptation of firearms, spreading these arms of smaller and larger caliber out in the 700 bigger castles all over the country; the recruitment of a professional layer of gun-masters in the royal cities; and the new mobilization methods based on the ratio of peasants and paid on a yearly average sum. Fairly recent summaries of the king’s military reforms are Rázsó 2002 and Pálosfalvi 2008. The most spectacular outcome of Matthias-era military organization was the establishment and maintenance of the professional “Black Army,” whose Bohemian soldiers brought with them the refined fighting tactics of the Hussites. Kubinyi 2008 is essential for understanding the military organization and diplomatic maneuvers. The king led numerous campaigns in central Europe against his Austrian, Czech and Polish rivals, as well as against the Ottomans to the Northern Balkans (Bosnia, Serbia, Wallachia, Moldavia), and once he exceptionally sent an expeditionary troop to Otranto, South Italy. Among these campaigns, the Austrian and the Moldavian theater of war is analyzed in detail by Rázsó 1997 and Papp 2009. The political and military use of these campaigns is controversially esteemed by modern historians, as discussed by Kubinyi 2008.
  484.  
  485. Kubinyi, András. Matthias Rex. Budapest: Balassi, 2008.
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  487. Standard monograph of the period, unfortunately without footnotes. (In German Matthias Corvinus. Die Regierung eines Königreichs in Ostmitteleuropa 1458–1490. Herne: Schäfer, 1999.)
  488. Find this resource:
  489. Pálosfalvi, Tamás. “King Matthias’ Army.” In Matthias Corvinus, the King. Tradition and Renewal in the Hungarian Royal Court 1458–1490. Exhibition catalogue. Edited by Péter Farbaky, Enikő Spekner, Katalin Szende, et al., 295–297. Budapest: Budapest History Museum, 2008.
  490. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  491. A short but precise summary of the organization and tactics of Matthias’s army. Unfortunately this excellent and comprehensive catalogue pays limited attention to the military affairs.
  492. Find this resource:
  493. Papp, Sándor. “Stephen the Great, Matthias Corvinus and the Ottoman Empire (1475–1478).” In Church Union and Crusading in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries. Edited by Christian Gastgeber, Ioan-Aurel Pop, Oliver Jens Schmitt, et al., 367–390. Cluj-Napoca, Romania: Center for Transylvanian Studies, 2009.
  494. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  495. The strategic importance of the Romanian principalities was clear both for Hungary and the Ottoman Empire, and it led to a long and vicissitudinous struggle.
  496. Find this resource:
  497. Rázsó, Gyula. Die Feldzüge des Königs Matthias Corvinus in Niederösterreich 1477–1490. Vienna: Bundesverlag, 1997.
  498. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  499. Matthias’s main adversary in central Europe was Frederick III of Habsburg, finally defeated, and its central city, Vienna, invaded by Hungarians in 1485.
  500. Find this resource:
  501. Rázsó, Gyula. “Military Reforms in the Fifteenth Century.” In A Millennium of Hungarian Military History. Edited by Béla Király and László Veszprémy, 54–82. Boulder, CO: Social Science Monographs, 2002.
  502. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  503. A study on the reforms of King Matthias concerning the standing army “Black Army” and the border defense system.
  504. Find this resource:
  505. 1490–1526
  506.  
  507. Traditionally, this period is described by historians as the decades of decadence, full of military and political failures, recently summarized by Rady 2005. In reality, even though the country lost its most important castle, Belgrade, in 1521, Szakály 1982 proves that the defense system was supplied, there was a very active foreign policy between the Habsburgs and the Jagiellonians, and even Hungarian royal troops were often successful in small conflicts with Ottomans, as in 1523 (Kubinyi 2000). It was largely a dissatisfaction with the kingdom’s defenses and a longing for action stirred by religious agitation that motivated the 1514 peasant war, which grew out of the call for a holy war. The former class struggle concept of the peasant war was refuted by Perjés 1977, and finally put into an international context by Housley 2001. The 30,000- or 40,000-strong army could not have set off to fight the Ottomans without the support of the royal army, but it did hold out against the royal troops sent against it for three months.
  508.  
  509. Housley, Norman. “Crusading as Social Revolt: The Hungarian Peasant Uprising of 1514.” In Crusading and Warfare in Medieval and Renaissance Europe. Edited by Norman Housley, 1–28. Aldershot, UK: Variorum, 2001.
  510. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  511. Examines the contribution of the anti-Ottoman crusading ideology and expectations to the peasant war in Hungary.
  512. Find this resource:
  513. Kubinyi, András. “The Battle of Szávaszentdemeter-Nagyolaszi (1523): Ottoman Advance and Hungarian Defence on the Eve of Mohács.” In Ottomans, Hungarians, and Habsburgs in Central Europe. Edited by Géza Dávid and Pál Fodor, 71–115. Leiden, The Netherlands, and Boston: Brill, 2000.
  514. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  515. There was an important Hungarian victory over the Ottomans in 1523, but it revealed the problems of the Hungarian military organization as well.
  516. Find this resource:
  517. Perjés, Géza. “Versuch eines Vergleiches der militärischen, ideologischen Ziele des Bauernkrieges von 1514: Begründung und Vorteile der Kriegsgeschichtlichen Analyse.” In Aus der Geschichte der Ostmitteleuropäischen Bauernbewegungen im 16–17 Jahrhundert: Vorträge der internationalen wissenschaftlichen Konferenz aus Anlass der 500 Wiederkehr der Geburt von György Dózsa, Budapest, 12–15 September 1972. Edited by Gusztáv Heckenast, 227–249. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1977.
  518. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  519. The story of the Peasant War in Hungary was a much-discussed topic especially during the communist period, and the study is pioneering, as it drops the former ideological patterns and refers to the relevant ideological, military, and social reasons.
  520. Find this resource:
  521. Rady, Martyn. “Rethinking Jagiełło Hungary 1490–1526.” Central Europe 3 (2005): 3–18.
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  523. A positive reassessment of the Jagiellonian period in Hungary, from a military historian’s aspect as well.
  524. Find this resource:
  525. Szakály, Ferenc. “The Hungarian-Croatian Border Defense System and Its Collapse.” In From Hunyadi to Rákóczi: War and Society in Late Medieval and Early Modern Hungary. Edited by János M. Bak and Bela K. Király, 141–158. Boulder, CO: Social Science Monographs, 1982.
  526. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  527. The author presents the road to the final military disaster in the battle of Mohács from a military historian’s point of view.
  528. Find this resource:
  529. Battle of Mohács, 1526
  530.  
  531. The young Hungarian-Bohemian king Louis II Jagiello (r. 1516–1526) was unable to organize the defense of the country, so in 1526 the imperial Ottoman army, led by Sultan Suleiman I, defeated within a few hours not only the royal army, but the medieval Hungarian kingdom itself, leaving the king and most of the country’s dignitaries and prelates dead. After having entered the evacuated Castle of Buda, the Turks temporarily left the country, and occupied only a smaller strip of land in the south. In spite of this fact, the year 1526 is accepted and followed by all handbooks as the end of the Middle Ages in Hungary. It was Perjés 1989 that adopted modern methodology in the military history of 1526, recently updated in a more balanced and convincing interpretation in Szabó 2004 and Szabó and Tóth 2009. There is an immense academic and popular literature on the battle in Hungarian; one can get in impression of it in Szabó 2006.
  532.  
  533. Perjés, Géza. The Fall of the Medieval Kingdom of Hungary: Mohács 1526, Buda 1541. Boulder, CO: Social Science Monographs, 1989.
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  535. The battle of Mohács is still a topic of public discussion in Hungary, with many questions on responsibility, fatality, and the mentality of the different social components and layers. This was the first modern monograph written by the best military historian at that time.
  536. Find this resource:
  537. Szabó, János B. “A mohácsi csata és a ‘hadügyi forradalom.’” The Battle of Mohács and the ‘Military Revolution’. Parts 1–2. Hadtörténelmi Közlemények 117 (2004): 443–480.
  538. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  539. The author argues that the Hungarian army was open to the military reforms of its time, and the main reason for the final defeat was not the formerly supposed backwardness of the Hungarian military system and the narrow-minded mentality of the ruling classes. Volume 118 published in 2005 (pp. 573–630).
  540. Find this resource:
  541. Szabó, János B., ed. Mohács: Nemzet és emlékezet. Budapest: Osiris, 2006.
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  543. (The battle of Mohács: Nation and memory.) A representative anthology with all the sources in Hungarian translation, papers and commemorative publications with an extensive bibliography about the Ottoman invasion. It also includes some new Ottoman sources on the campaign.
  544. Find this resource:
  545. Szabó, János B., and Ferenc Tóth. Mohács (1526): Soliman le magnifique prend pied en Europe centrale. Paris: Économica, 2009.
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  547. The most updated overview of the period and the battle, based on Szabó’s former studies and books.
  548. Find this resource:
  549. 1526–1568, Hungarian Kingdom
  550.  
  551. The consequences of the election of two kings following the battle of Mohács in 1526, and of the civil war between sides backed by the Habsburg and Ottoman powers, were long neglected by historians. Only a few specific aspects—such as the sieges of Buda and conflicts along the southern borders—received significant attention (Iványi 1941, Barta 1994, Szakály 1978). Fodor 1991 examines the motivations for the Ottoman advance into Hungary, and Korpás 2001, Korpás 2004, and Korpás 2008 uncover Hungary’s role between 1526 and 1541 and how events there were connected with the Habsburg Empire’s defensive policy. Recent research on the defensive castle actions that held up subsequent waves of Ottoman invasion—key themes of Hungarian historical consciousness—has been reviewed by Bariska 2007 and Szántó 1985. By comparison, the Habsburg-Szapolyai conflict of the middle third of the century has received little treatment (Pálffy 2011).
  552.  
  553. Bariska, István. A Contribution to the History of the Turkish Campaign of 1532. Szombathely and Kőszeg, Hungary: Institute for Social and European Studies, 2007.
  554. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  555. A good introduction to the defense of Kőszeg Castle and the significance of the Austrian border defense during the great Ottoman campaign in 1532.
  556. Find this resource:
  557. Barta, Gábor. “A Forgotten Theatre of War 1526–1528 (Historical Events Preceding the Ottoman-Hungarian Alliance of 1528).” In Hungarian-Ottoman Military and Diplomatic Relations in the Age of Süleyman the Magnificent. Edited by Géza Dávid and Pál Fodor, 90–130. Budapest: Loránd Eötvös University Department of Turkish Studies, 1994.
  558. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  559. A collection of short but important studies about the decisive years of the Hungarian theater of war after the battle of Mohács.
  560. Find this resource:
  561. Fodor, Pál. “Ottoman Policy towards Hungary, 1520–1541.” Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 45.1–2 (1991): 271–345.
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  563. A very important work to the discovery of the background of the conquest of Hungary from an Ottoman perspective.
  564. Find this resource:
  565. Iványi, Béla. “Buda és Pest sorsdöntő évei.” Tanulmányok Budapest Múltjából 9 (1941): 54–62.
  566. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  567. The first detailed description of the important sieges of Buda and Pest in the first half of the 16th century.
  568. Find this resource:
  569. Korpás, Zoltán. “La frontera oriental de la Universitas Christiana entre 1526–1532.” In Carlos V, Europeísmo y Universalidad: El Congreso Internacional, Granada, 1–5 de mayo, 2000. Vol. 3. Los Escenarios del Imperio. Coordinated by Dr.Juan Luis Castellano y Castellano and Francisco Sánchez-Montes González, 321–337. Madrid: Sociedad Estatal para la Conmemoración de los Centenarios de Felipe II y Carlos V, 2001.
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  571. A useful sketch of the events of the period and of this particular theater of war so little known and so often misunderstood by Western European literature.
  572. Find this resource:
  573. Korpás, Zoltán. “Las luchas antiturcas en Hungría y la política oriental de los Austrias, 1532–1541.” In Fernando I, 1503–1564: Socialización, vida privada y actividad pública de un Emperador del Renacimiento. Edited by Alfredo Alvar Ezquerra and Friedrich Edelmayer, 335–370. Madrid: Sociedad Estatal de Conmemoraciones Culturales, 2004.
  574. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  575. A short but useful overview of the Anti-Turkish wars in Hungary and the eastern policy of the Habsburgs.
  576. Find this resource:
  577. Korpás, Zoltán. V. Károly és Magyarország. Budapest: Századvég, 2008.
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  579. The most recent overview of the period based on the author’s former studies on Hungary under the anti-Ottoman policy of Charles V, 1526–1538.
  580. Find this resource:
  581. Pálffy, Géza. “Un penseur militaire alsacien dans la Hongrie au XVIe siècle: Lazare baron von Schwendi (1522–1583).” In La pensée militaire hongroise à travers les siècles. Edited by Hervé Coutau-Bégarie and Ferenc Tóth, 41–59. Paris: Institut de Stratégie Comparée, 2011.
  582. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  583. A fresh overview of the activities in Hungary of the great German general, military thinker, and reformer, Lazare Schwendi.
  584. Find this resource:
  585. Szakály, Ferenc. “Remarques sur l’armée de Iovan Tcherni.” Acta Historica Academiae Scientiarium Hungaricae 24.1–2 (1978): 41–82.
  586. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  587. An important analysis of the role of Serbs who moved to the southern confines of Hungary in the struggle between Hungarian kings Ferdinand of Habsburg and John Szapolyai.
  588. Find this resource:
  589. Szántó, Imre. Küzdelem a török terjeszkedés ellen Magyarországon: Az 1551–52 évi várháborúk. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1985.
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  591. A classic handbook about the successful great Ottoman offensive in 1551–1552 with “anti-Habsburg” overtones.
  592. Find this resource:
  593. 1568–1699, Hungarian Kingdom
  594.  
  595. The great changes in Hungarian historiography after 1990 can be illustrated by a series of works related to questions of the new Habsburg power and military system. Prior to 1990, military affairs of the kingdom of Hungary belonged to neglected areas of Hungarian military scholarship, although plenty of unknown sources were waiting to be analyzed. But when researchers including Pálffy, Kenyeres, and Agoston –managed to break the one-sided, anti-Habsburg attitude, tremendous work began (see Pálffy 1999, Pálffy 2000, Pálffy 2004, Pálffy 2011, Kenyeres 2009, and Ágoston 2010. The development of modern border defense and the unusual degree of the militarization of the Hungarian society raise many questions to be answered (Nagy 1983, Czigány 2004). Some recent research in military history actually carries on some old traditions of social history, such as Varga 1981 and Végh 2007.
  596.  
  597. Ágoston, Gábor. “Empires and Warfare in East-Central Europe, 1550–1750: The Ottoman–Habsburg Rivalry and Military Transformation.” In European Warfare, 1350–1750. Edited by Frank Tallett and D. J. B. Trim, 110–134. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
  598. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511806278Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  599. Comparative study of the interactions and long-term effects of military affairs of two neighboring superpowers in the Danube Basin.
  600. Find this resource:
  601. Czigány, István. Reform vagy kudarc? Kísérletek a magyarországi katonaság beillesztésére a Habsburg Birodalom haderejébe. Budapest: Balassi, 2004.
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  603. A thorough review of how the Habsburg government—from the end of the Long War until the expulsion of the Ottomans—tried to maintain its border defense capabilities in the by-then secondary Hungarian theater, how straitened finances following the Thirty Years War forced the introduction of new elements of defense, and finally, how the regime tried to suppress Hungarian feudal influence in the defense organization.
  604. Find this resource:
  605. Kenyeres, István. “Die Kriegsausgaben der Habsburgermonarchie von der Mitte des 16 Jahrhunderts bis zum ersten Drittel des 17 Jahrhunderts.” In Kriegführung und Staatsfinanzen: Die Habsburgermonarchie und das Heilige Römische Reich vom Dreißigjährigen Krieg bis zum Ende des habsburgischen Kaisertums 1740. Edited by Peter Rauscher, 41–80. Münster, Germany: Aschendorff, 2009.
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  607. A comprehensive study, packed with data, on the significance of the kingdom of Hungary in the military budget of the Habsburg monarchy. It covers the financing of the Long War against the Ottomans and the initial period of the Thirty Years War.
  608. Find this resource:
  609. Nagy, László. “Kuruc életünket megállván csináljuk . . .”: Társadalom és hadsereg a XVII századi kuruc küzdelmekben. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1983.
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  611. This monograph, “Society and Army in the Kuruc uprising in the second half of the 17th century,” tries to answer from a wider perspective the old question of why some segments of the Hungarian society participated in the anti-Habsburg movement in the second half of the 17th century.
  612. Find this resource:
  613. Pálffy, Géza. A császárváros védelmében: A Győri Főkapitányság története. Győr: Győr–Moson–Sopron Megye Győri Levéltára, 1999.
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  615. An exemplary monograph about the key district of Győr in the Hungarian border defense system between 1526 and 1598 written by an outstanding Hungarian historian.
  616. Find this resource:
  617. Pálffy, Géza. “The Origins and Development of the Border Defence System against the Ottoman Empire in Hungary (Up to the Early Eighteenth Century).” In Ottomans, Hungarians, and Habsburgs in Central Europe: The Military Confines in the Era of the Ottoman Conquest. Edited by Géza Dávid and Pál Fodor, 3–69. Leiden, The Netherlands, and Boston: Brill, 2000.
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  619. The most detailed and recent overview on the evolution of the Hungarian border defense system.
  620. Find this resource:
  621. Pálffy, Géza. “Kriegswirtschaftliche Beziehungen zwischen der Habsburgermonarchie und der ungarischen Grenze gegen die Osmanen in der zweiten Hälfte des 16 Jahrhunderts: Unter besonderer Berücksichtigung des königlichen Zeughauses in Kaschau.” Ungarn-Jahrbuch: Zeitschrift für interdisziplinäre Hungarologie [München], 27 (2004): 17–40.
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  623. An important case study on the new early modern military support system in Hungary.
  624. Find this resource:
  625. Pálffy, Géza. A haditérképészet kezdetei a Habsburg Monarchiában: Az Angielini várépítész-família rendszeres térképészeti tevékenysége a horvát-szlavón és a magyarországi határvidéken az 1560–1570-es években/Die Anfänge der Militärkartographie in der Habsburgermonarchie: Die regelmäßige kartographische Tätigkeit der Burgbaumeisterfamilie Angielini an den kroatisch-slawonischen und den ungarischen Grenzen in den Jahren 1560–1570. Budapest: Magyar Országos Levéltár, 2011.
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  627. A very important (bilingual) case study on the role of an Italian cartographer family in the reorganization of the border defense system in Central Hungary.
  628. Find this resource:
  629. Varga, J. János. Szervitorok katonai szolgálata a XVI–XVII: Századi dunántúli nagybirtokon. Budapest: Magyar Tudományos Akadémia, 1981.
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  631. The first serious analysis of the household troops of Hungarian magnets’, the military service of “servitors” on the West Hungarian latifundium in the 16th–17th century, which played a very important role in the Hungarian theater of war.
  632. Find this resource:
  633. Végh, Ferenc. Birodalmak határán—a Balaton partján: Keszthely végvárváros a XVI–XVII században. Budapest: Históriaantik Könyvesház Kiadó, 2007.
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  635. Exemplary monograph of a phenomenon of military urban historical importance of early modern Hungary, namely the so-called “presidium-city” of the borderland, Keszthely in the 16th –17th century.
  636. Find this resource:
  637. 1591–1606, the Long Turkish War
  638.  
  639. Since 1990 the integration of the kingdom’s military organization into the Habsburg Empire has become a topic of great importance, in focus with the Long Turkish War. This topic was really exciting for historians because the pressure of the Ottoman Empire converted Hungary into an important “laboratory” of military organization of early modern Europe. Tóth 2000 is the only monograph on the military history of the war. It has been supplemented at many points by subsequent research (for example, Pálffy 2008). More recently, foreign participants in the war have received more attention (Niederkorn 1993). Bagi 2011a and Bagi 2011b examine the imperial military organization, and Sahin Tóth 2006 the Catholic Wallonian/Lorraine French involvement. József Kelenik, studying the equipment of the imperial army, has reached important conclusions concerning the “military revolution” debate (see Kelenik 2000). The military history anti-Habsburg movement that flared up at the end of the war, the Bocskai Rebellion, is one of the most-studied aspects, and is covered by a monograph (Nagy 1961), an English-language review (Makkai 1982), and detailed studies (Négyesi 2004).
  640.  
  641. Bagi, Zoltán Péter. “Das deutsche Fussvolk in den ungarischen Feldzügen zur Zeit des langen Türkenkrieges.” In Geteilt Vereingt: Beiträge zur Geschichte des Königreichs Ungarn in der Frühneuzeit (16.–18. Jahrhundert). Edited by Krisztián Csaplár Degovics and István Fazekas, 135–156. Berlin: Osteuropa-Zentrum Berlin, 2011a.
  642. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  643. An important contribution to the history of the Habsburg armies in the Long Turkish War.
  644. Find this resource:
  645. Bagi, Zoltán Péter. A császári-királyi mezei hadsereg a tizenöt éves háborúban: Hadszervezet, érdekérvényesítés, reformkísérletek. Budapest: Históriaantik Könyvesház Kiadó, 2011b.
  646. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  647. This monograph on a neglected subject, the Imperial-Royal Army in the Long Turkish War, its military organization, interests, and reform efforts is a comprehensive monograph based on the author’s former studies.
  648. Find this resource:
  649. Kelenik, József. “The Military Revolution in Hungary: Ottomans, Hungarians, and Habsburgs in Central Europe.” In Ottomans, Hungarians, and Habsburgs in Central Europe: The Military Confines in the Era of Ottoman Conquest. Edited by Géza Dávid and Pál Fodor, 117–159. Leiden, The Netherlands, and Boston: Brill, 2000.
  650. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  651. A wider and innovative overview on the phenomena of the military revolution in Hungary.
  652. Find this resource:
  653. Makkai, László. “István Bocskai’s Insurrectionary Army.” In From Hunyadi to Rákóczi: War and Society in Late Medieval and Early Modern Hungary. Edited by J. M. Bak and B. K. Kiraly, 275–295. New York: Columbia University Press, 1982.
  654. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  655. A short summary based on older pieces of Hungarian scholarship, i.e., mostly of László Nagy’s works.
  656. Find this resource:
  657. Nagy, László. A Bocskai szabadságharc katonai története. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1961.
  658. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  659. A slightly outdated but very informative basic monograph on the anti-Habsburg Bocskai uprising, 1604–1606.
  660. Find this resource:
  661. Négyesi, Lajos. “Az 1604: Évi diószegi és osgyáni ütközet.” Hadtörténelmi Közlemények 117 (2004): 1288–1305.
  662. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  663. A very smart study on the “military logic” of the two battles of Diószeg and Osgyán, 1604, from a professional soldier’s perspective.
  664. Find this resource:
  665. Niederkorn, Jan Paul. Die europaischen Mächte und der “Lange Turkenkrieg” Kaiser Rudolfs II, 1593–1606. Archiv für Österreichische Geschichte 135. Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1993.
  666. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  667. A very important book on the attitudes of the European great powers toward the Long Turkish War.
  668. Find this resource:
  669. Pálffy, Géza. “Scorched-Earth Tactics in Ottoman Hungary: On a Controversy in Military Theory and Practice on the Habsburg–Ottoman Frontier.” Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 61.1–2 (2008): 181–200.
  670. DOI: 10.1556/AOrient.61.2008.1-2.16Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  671. The article discusses the contrast between the interests of Hungarian people living in a divided country and the necessities of war on the Ottoman frontier.
  672. Find this resource:
  673. Sahin Tóth, Péter. Ad Astra: Sahin-Tóth Péter tanulmányai/Études de Péter Sahin-Tóth. Edited by Oborni Teréz Szerk. Budapest: ELTE Eötvös Kiadó, 2006.
  674. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  675. A very remarkable collection of the studies of a young and talented Hungarian historian, who sadly passed away at a very young age, mostly on the participation of the francophone armies and officers in the Long Turkish War.
  676. Find this resource:
  677. Tóth, Sándor László. A mezőkeresztesi csata és a tizenöt éves háború. Szeged, Hungary: Belvedere Meridionale, 2000.
  678. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  679. The first major monograph dedicated to the Long Turkish War and especially to the battle of Mezőkeresztes, 1596, based on the author’s articles and on a great amount of other Hungarian works.
  680. Find this resource:
  681. 1606–1699, Hungarian Kingdom
  682.  
  683. For the 1606–1699 period, research into the affairs of the kingdom of Hungary pales by comparison with that concerned with the principality of Transylvania. The focus has traditionally been on the principles and activities of Miklós Zrínyi, the first Hungarian-language writer on military science. Géza Perjés has made remarkable new findings in this field (Perjés 1982, Perjés 2002). In the past, perceptions of General Montecuccoli have been responsible for heated debates in German-language historiography (Wagner 1964 versus Tóth 2007) concerning the 1661 Transylvanian campaign and the 1663–1664 Ottoman War. By contrast, important issues such as the participation of Hungarian forces on the Habsburg side in the Thirty Years War (Zachar 1998) and in the Ottoman War of 1683–1699 (Szakály 1986) have been almost completely neglected, although work has been done on details such as the involvement of the Bavarian army (Varga 2008). The Hungarian aspects of the events leading up to the Siege of Vienna of 1683, however, have been greatly clarified by Varga 2007.
  684.  
  685. Perjés, Géza. “The Zrínyi-Montecuccoli Controversy.” In From Hunyadi to Rákóczi: War and Society in Late Medieval and Early Modern Hungary. Edited by J. M. Bak and B. K. Kiraly, 335–349. New York: Columbia University Press, 1982.
  686. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  687. A very thoughtful study about two military writers and commanders of the mid-17th century and the afterlife of their controversy.
  688. Find this resource:
  689. Perjés, Géza. “Count Miklós Zrínyi (1620–1664).” In A Millennium of Hungarian Military History. Edited by Béla K. Kiraly and Laszlo Veszprémy, 136–158. Boulder, CO: Social Science Monographs, 2002.
  690. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  691. A short biography of a significant Hungarian magnate and military writer and commander of the 17th century.
  692. Find this resource:
  693. Szakály, Ferenc. Hungaria Eliberata: Die Rückeroberung von Buda im Jahr 1686 und Ungarns Befreiung von der Osmanenherrschaft, 1683–1718. Budapest: Corvina Kiadó, 1986.
  694. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  695. A very useful book on the recapturing of the Hungarian capital Buda and the anti-Ottoman campaigns at the end of the 17th century.
  696. Find this resource:
  697. Tóth, Ferenc. Saint Gotthard 1664: Une bataille Européenne. Panazol, France: Lavazuelle, 2007.
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  699. The most recent book about the battle, based on lesser-known Hungarian and French sources and secondary literature.
  700. Find this resource:
  701. Varga, J. János. Válaszúton: Thököly Imre és Magyarország 1682–1684-ben. História Könyvtár 23. Budapest: História, 2007.
  702. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  703. (On the crossroads: Emeric Thököly and Hungary, 1682–1684.) A rare monograph on political dilemmas and actions of the Hungarian elite caught between the Ottoman and Habsburg empires before and after the last Ottoman siege of Vienna.
  704. Find this resource:
  705. Varga, J. János. “Die Teilnahme Bayerns am Türkenkrieg in Ungarn (1683–1699).” In München–Budapest, Ungarn–Bayern: Festschrift zum 850 Jubiläum der Stadt München (Danubiana Carpathica. Jahrbuch für Geschichte und Kultur in den deutschen Siedlungsgebieten Südosteuropas) Edited by Gerhard Seewann and József Kovács, 55–82. Munich: Oldenbourg Verlag, 2.49, 2008.
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  707. A short overview on the primary role of the Bavarian army in the great anti-Ottoman war at the end of the 17th century.
  708. Find this resource:
  709. Wagner, Georg. Das Türkenjahr 1664: Eine europäische Bewährung Raimund Montecuccoli, die Schlacht von St. Gotthard-Mogersdorf und der Friede von Eisenburg (Vasvar). Eisenstadt, Austria: Burgenländische Forschungen, 1964.
  710. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  711. A reference work based mostly on basic important sources and German scholarly literature.
  712. Find this resource:
  713. Zachar, József. “Ungarn in den Heeren der Habsburger zur Zeit des Dreissigjährigen Kriges.” In Bellum tricennale: The thirty years’ war: XXIIIrd Colloqium of the International Commission of Military History, Prague, 24–29 August 1997. Edited by Jan Vilim and Ann Bryson, 225–232. Prague: Historic Institute of the Army of Czech Republic, 1998.
  714. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  715. A short but very important presentation of the questions of the participation of Hungarian soldiers on the Habsburg side in the Thirty Years War.
  716. Find this resource:
  717. 1568–1699, Transylvanian Principality and Its Military Organization
  718.  
  719. In original geographical terms, Transylvania spans the drainage basin of the Rivers Szamos, Maros, and Olt (and their tributaries) framed by the bend of the southern and eastern Carpathians and the lower ranges of the Transylvanian Mountains. This territory was in the Middle Ages under the sovereignty of the kingdom of Hungary. Lying far from the royal center, the province was governed by voivodes of Transylvania, officials appointed by the kings of Hungary. In the course of the 16th century, events of great importance in Hungary changed Transylvania’s situation too. After the battle of Mohács and the capture of Buda, Suleiman decided to turn it into a protectorate, which was not to be incorporated territorially in the empire but was suitable for preserving the division of the country in the long run. The new principality was endowed with a perfect inner autonomy and was able to defend some Hungarian interests even within the Hungarian kingdom ruled by Habsburgs, e.g., the Thirty Years War. The existence of this Ottoman vassal state was actually attributable to the fact that neither great power could fully pursue its military conquest or territorial inclusion, and accordingly it ceased to exist when, late in the 17th century, the Habsburg empire began its offensive to expel the Ottomans and was able to re-annex the principality to the kingdom of Hungary ruled by Habsburgs. Despite the well-established significance of the subject, many aspects of it were taboo in socialist Romania and Hungary prior to 1989 (Benkő, et al. 1979). The question of Transylvanian military organization, for example, has only recently gained momentum (Sunkó 1998, Szabó and Somogyi 1996, Szabó 2013b, Tüdősné Simon 1991, and Ardelean 2011). There is still only patchy treatment of Transylvania’s military and political options regarding even its principal adversaries, the Habsburg and Ottoman empires (Szabó 2013a).
  720.  
  721. Ardelean, Florin Nicolae. “Military Justice, Regulations and Discipline in Early Modern Transylvanian Armies (XVI–XVII Century).” Studia Universitatis Cibiniensis. Series Historica 7 (2011): 185–191.
  722. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  723. The work of a young Romanian military historian on the early modern Transylvanian army with a new nontraditional Romanian viewpoint.
  724. Find this resource:
  725. Benkő, Samu, Lajos Demény, and Károly Vekov, eds. Székely felkelés (előzményei, lefolyása, következményei). Bucharest: Kriterion, 1979.
  726. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  727. Standard handbook of the most important Szekler uprising of 1595–1596 in Transylvania, with a wide overview of the Long Turkish War and an analysis of the Szekler society.
  728. Find this resource:
  729. Kármán, Gábor. “György Rákóczi II’s Attempt to Establish a Local Power Base among the Tributaries of the Ottoman Empire, 1653–1657.” In Power and Influence in South-Eastern Europe 16th–19th Century. Edited by Maria Baramova, Plamen Mitev, Ivan Parvev, and Vania Racheva, 229–243. Berlin: LIT, 2013.
  730. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  731. A study with an insight into the complex political and military problems of east and central Europe in middle of the 17th century.
  732. Find this resource:
  733. Meinolf, Arens. Habsburg und Siebenbürgen, 1600–1605. Cologne: Böhlau Verlag, 2001.
  734. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  735. A very informative overview of a short transitional but lively period in Transylvanian history.
  736. Find this resource:
  737. Sunkó, Attila. “Az Erdélyi Fejedelemség udvari hadai a XVI században.” Levéltári Közlemények 69 (1998): 100–106.
  738. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  739. A very important contribution to the history of the Transylvanian standing army, the household troops of the Transylvanian principality in the 16th century.
  740. Find this resource:
  741. Szabó, János B. “‘Splendid Isolation’? The Military Cooperation of the Principality of Transylvania with the Ottoman Empire (1571–1688) in the Mirror of the Hungarian Historiography’s Dilemmas.” In The European Tributary States of the Ottoman Empire in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. Edited by Gábor Kármán and Lovro Kunčević, 301–339. Leiden, The Netherlands, and Boston: Brill, 2013a.
  742. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  743. A most recent and basic overview of Transylvania’s military cooperation with the Ottoman empire.
  744. Find this resource:
  745. Szabó, János B. “Bethlen Gábor, az újjászervező.” Hadtörténelmi Közlemények 4 (2013b): 963–988.
  746. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  747. A short summary of the reorganization of the army of the Transylvanian principality by Gábor Bethlen at the beginning of the 17th century, after the Long Turkish War, from a wide east-central European perspective.
  748. Find this resource:
  749. Szabó, János B., and Győző Somogyi. Az Erdélyi Fejedelemség hadserege. Budapest: Zrínyi Kiadó, 1996.
  750. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  751. A pioneering work on the whole military organization of the Transylvanian principality with a shorter version in German.
  752. Find this resource:
  753. Tüdősné Simon, Kinga. “A háromszéki hadköteles székelység társadalmi rétegződése 1635-ben.” Történelmi Szemle 28.3–4 (1991): 224–238.
  754. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  755. An exemplary sociohistorical analysis on the social stratification of an important segment of the Transylvanian army, the Szeklers in “Háromszék” in 1635.
  756. Find this resource:
  757. 1591–1699 Transylvanian Army in War
  758.  
  759. There are fairly thorough treatments of the anti-Habsburg aspects of the wars fought by the principality of Transylvania. László Nagy devoted a whole monograph to the era of Gábor Bethlen (Nagy 1969). Zahirović 2010 provides an almost unique account of Bethlen’s Ottoman alliances. György Rákóczi’s wars of 1644–1645 have been examined from the Habsburg (Czigány 2000) and Swedish (Kármán 2000) sides. The Transylvania campaigns that formed part of the Thirty Years War have of course also been examined by Austrian historians of the subject (Broucek 1993, Broucek 1995.). The Transylvanian part in the anti-Habsburg Thököly Rebellion in Hungary has been treated by Trócsányi 1972. There has been very little treatment, however, of the prince’s other wars, such as those with the Ottomans (Szabó 2001).
  760.  
  761. Broucek, Peter. “Der Feldzug Gabriel Bethlens gegen Österreich 1623.” In Otto Friedrich Winter zum 75 Geburtstag: Jahrbuch für Landeskunde von Niederöstereich. Edited by Willibald Rosner, Helmuth Feigl, Peter Broucek, and Gertrud Buttlar, 7–26. Vienna: Verein für Landeskunde von Niederösterreich, 1993.
  762. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  763. A short description of Transylvanian campaigns in 1621 and 1623 from the point of view of the Habsburgs.
  764. Find this resource:
  765. Broucek, Peter. “Der Feldzug des Schwedischen Heeres und seiner Verbündeten nach Niederösterreich im Jahre 1645.” In Vyroci Bitvy u Jankova 1645–1995 (350th Anniversary of the Battle of Jankov). Edited by Zdeněk Brandl and Josef Petráň, 155–174. Benesov, Czech Republic: Muzeum Okresu Benesov, 1995.
  766. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  767. A basic study on an important Swedish campaign heavily supported by Transylvanian troops at the end of the Thirty Years War.
  768. Find this resource:
  769. Czigány, István. “A harmincéves háború és I. Rákóczi György 1644–45-ös hadjárata.” In Erdély és Patak fejedelemasszonya, Lorántffy Zsuzsanna. I: Tanulmányok születésének 400 évfordulójára. Edited by Edit Tamás, 287–307. Sárospatak, Hungary: 2000.
  770. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  771. A detailed and useful Hungarian study on the last Transylvanian campaign, the 1644–1645 campaign of György Rákóczi I in the Thirty Years War.
  772. Find this resource:
  773. Kármán, Gábor. “A fejedelem és a svédek: Lennart Torstenson emlékirata. I: Rákóczi György 1654–ös hadjáratáról.” In Fejedelmek, forradalmak, vasutak: Tanulmányok Erdély történetéből. Edited by Péter Takáts, 115–160. Debrecen, Hungary: Erdélytörténeti Alapítvány, 2000.
  774. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  775. (The Prince and the Swedes: The memorial of Lennart Torstenson on György Rákóczi I’s 1645 campaign.) An important contribution to the history of the Transylvanian Army from Sweden’s perspective.
  776. Find this resource:
  777. Nagy, László. Bethlen Gábor a független Magyarországért. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1969.
  778. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  779. A standard popular summary of Transylvania’s participation led by Gabor Bethlen in the first half of the Thirty Years War.
  780. Find this resource:
  781. Szabó, János B. “II. Rákóczi György 1658: Évi török háborúja.” Hadtörténelmi Közlemények 114.2 (2001): 231–278.
  782. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  783. A thorough strategic analysis and the most detailed description of “the battle between David and Goliath,” György Rákóczi II’s war against the Ottoman Empire, 1658.
  784. Find this resource:
  785. Trócsányi, Zsolt. Teleki Mihály (Erdély és a kurucmozgalom 1690-ig). Budapest: Akadémia Kiadó, 1972.
  786. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  787. A classic Hungarian monograph on the close relations between the Transylvanian principality, Mihály Teleki, and the Hungarian kuruc rebels until 1690.
  788. Find this resource:
  789. Zahirović, Nedim. Murteza Pascha von Ofen zwischen Panegyrik und Historie: Eine literarisch-historische Analyse eines osmanischen Wesirspiegels von Nergisi (El-vasfü l-kamil fi-ahvali l-veziri l-‘adil). Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 2010.
  790. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  791. A very informative overview of Murteza pasa’s role in the Transylvanian invasion from the Ottomans’ point of view; based on a source from 1626.
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