3400 Exam 1 Topics 1-3

Topic 1

World of Work: What Was, What Is and What's Coming

Career decisions are among the most important choices that you will ever make. They shape your lifestyle and contribute significantly to how you define yourself. Among the critical questions that you may be asking are: "What do I want to do with my life?" "What do I want to become?" "How will I earn my living and where will I work?"

Each of us has a different set of concerns and a distinct set of values, interests, personality traits, abilities, and skills. These affect who we are and the decisions that we make, including the directions we take in our careers. In turn, our environment and interactions with other people produce a virtually incalculable number of variables that influence career and lifespan development.

This course is designed to help you learn and think more about yourself and the ever-changing world of work. You are living in a world that is dramatically different from that which shaped the careers of your parents and ancestors. Yet, there seems to be some truth in the paradoxical statement: "The more things change, the more they remain the same." The world around us seems so different from even a few years ago, but there are still some familiar elements about life. The nature of jobs might change but people still work for a living.

The history of the United States is both brief and dynamic. American innovation, practicality, and technology contributed to both the dramatic growth of our economy and the emergence of the United States as a world leader. Let's take a brief look at some historical roots that shaped the American economy and the world of work. Using information from the U.S. Department of Labor, we can find some clues as to how we arrived at this point in career and lifespan development and what the future may hold.

The 18th and 19th Centuries: A Growing and Changing America

When our nation was first settled, the economy was driven by the exportation of goods. English
merchants financed the colonies, hoping that their investments would be profitable. To ensure
profits, navigational laws restricted American manufacturing and mandated the markets for exports of crops. The colonists not only grew most of their own food but also made many of the crude tools they used in production. Self-sufficiency was a goal.

Agriculture Helps Birth the Nation

At least 80% of all colonists were farmers, which included family members and slaves. The rest, such as shopkeepers, blacksmiths, and carpenters, worked at providing essential services for farm communities. A few towns developed in the 18th century-Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Charleston-but they served mostly to collect agricultural goods from the countryside and disperse English manufactured goods to farmers. Such commercial activity, based on rural needs, not only employed merchants but also such artisans as coopers (repairing of barrels and tubs) and shipbuilders. As trade grew, town populations increased, and the internal life of towns (newspapers, government, and shops) rose as well. But since most manufacturing and credit came from England, towns stayed small. Philadelphia, the largest town, and its suburbs counted less than 40,000 people on the eve of the American Revolution.

At the beginning of the 19th century, the United States was still an overwhelmingly rural and
agricultural nation. 90% of the population in the Northeast and 95% of the people in the South lived on farms or in villages with fewer than 2,500 inhabitants. The nation's population was small, just 5.3 million compared to Britain's 15 million and France's 27 million. Moreover, it was scattered over a vast geographical area.

Transportation and communications had changed little over the previous half century. A coach ride from Boston to New York took three days. In the Southern states the situation was far worse. Except for a single stagecoach that traveled between Charleston and Savannah, very little public transportation of any kind could be found. It took 20 days to deliver a letter from Maine to Georgia.

American houses, clothing, and agricultural methods were surprisingly primitive. Fifty miles inland, half the houses were log cabins, lacking even glass windows. Farmers planted their crops in much the same way as their parents and grandparents. Few farmers practiced crop rotation or used fertilizers or drained fields. They made plows out of wood, allowed their swine to run loose, and left their cattle outside except on the coldest nights. In the rural areas, farm families grew their own food, produced their own soap and candles, wove their own blankets, and constructed their own furniture.

After the War of 1812, however, the American economy grew at an astonishing rate. The United States overcame a series of serious obstacles that had stood in the way of sustained economic expansion. The development of steamboats, canals and ultimately railroads reduced transportation costs and speeded communications.

Transportation Transforms the Nation

At the outset of the 19th century, the lack of reliable, low-cost transportation was a major barrier to American industrial development. The stagecoach, slow and cumbersome, was the main form of transportation. Twelve passengers, crowded along with their bags and parcels, traveled at. Just 4 miles an hour. In Connecticut and Massachusetts, Sunday travel was still forbidden by law.

Wretched roads plagued travelers. Larger towns had roads paved with cobblestones; and, in major highways, potholes were filled with stones. But most roads were simply dirt paths left muddy and rutted by rain. The presence of tree stumps in the middle of many roads posed a serious obstacle to carriages. Charles Dickens aptly described American roads as a "series of alternate swamps and gravel pits."

The success of the Erie Canal led states to embark on expensive programs of canal building. But
some cities, like Baltimore and Boston, were unable to reach the West with canals and the railroad appeared to be a novel solution. At first, a railroad was simply a highway lined with a double track of wood ra11s along which a horse or mule pulled a stagecoach or wagon.

Early railroads suffered from nagging engineering problems and vociferous opposition. The first train rails were wooden beams with a metal strip nailed to the surface. The strips frequently curled up, cutting through the train's floor. Brakes were wholly inadequate, consisting of wooden blocks operated by a foot pedal. Boilers exploded so frequently that passengers had to be protected by bales of cotton. Engine sparks set fire to fields and burned unprotected passengers.

Opposition to railroads was widespread. Vested interests, including turnpike and bridge companies, stagecoaches, ferries and canals, sought laws to prohibit trains from carrying freight. A group of Boston doctors warned that bumps produced by trains traveling at 15 or 20 miles an hour would lead to many cases of "concussion of the brain." An Ohio school board declared that "such things as railroads ... are impossibilities and rank infidelity." In spite of such objections, it became clear that railroads were destined to become the nation's chief means of moving freight. With an average speed of 1 0 miles an hour, railroads were faster than stagecoaches, canal boats and steamboats, and, unlike water-going vessels, could travel in any season. The transportation revolution sharply reduced the cost of shipping goods to market and stimulated agriculture and industry.

Communication Bonds the Nation

Poor communications had also impeded economic development. During the 1790s, it took 3 weeks for a letter to travel from New York to Detroit and 4 weeks to arrive in New Orleans. In 1799, it took one week for news of George Washington's death to reach New York City from Virginia. A decade and a half later, it still took 49 days for word of the peace treaty ending the War of 1 B12 to reach New York from London.

By the early 1830s, a decade before Samuel F.B. Morse invented the telegraph, the transmission of information had improved considerably as a result of improved roads and faster sailing ships. The volume of information transmitted also increased considerably.

In 1790, the United States had just 92 newspapers, with a total annual circulation of less than 4 million. By 1820, the number of papers published had jumped to 512, with an annual circulation of 50 million. By 1835, there were 1258 newspapers in the United States with a circulation of over 90 million. When Alexis de Tocqueville, a French observer, visited the United States in 1831, he was shocked at the amount of information available even in frontier regions: "I do not think that in the most enlightened rural districts of France there is an intellectual movement either so rapid or on such a scale as in this wilderness."

Innovation Characterizes the Nation

A series of technological innovations, highlighted by the development of the "American system" of mass production and interchangeable parts, stimulated productivity.

Initially, however, the lack of skilled mechanics was a barrier to innovation. In 1805, Robert Fulton, the inventor of the steamship, found only one mechanic in New York who could follow his plan. When he needed an engine to propel the Clermont up the Hudson River, he had to import a steam engine from England, since American craftsmen could not construct such a complicated machine.

The inadequate state of higher education slowed technological innovation. At the beginning of the 19th century, Harvard, the nation's most famous college, graduated just 39 men a year, no more than it had graduated in 1720. Harvard's entire undergraduate faculty consisted of the college president, a professor of theology, a professor of mathematics, a professor of Hebrew and four tutors. All the nation's libraries put together contained barely 50,000 volumes. Noah Webster, author of the nation's first dictionary, admitted grudgingly: "Our learning is superficial in shameful degree ... our colleges are disgracefully destitute of books and philosophical apparatus."

Even in educated circles, resistance to technological change was widespread--despite the
well-known and widely publicized experiments of Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson. At the end of the 18th century, Jedidiah Morse, a graduate of Yale College and pastor of a church near Boston, expressed the widespread hostility toward change. "Let us guard against the insidious encroachments of innovation," he wrote, "the evil and beguiling spirit which is now stalking to and fro through the earth, seeking how he may destroy." But, Americans were far too ambitious, creative and diligent to ignore the potential and promise of technology. It simply made work easier and more productive.

Within a few decades, the United States largely overcome resistance to technological innovation. When Friedrich List, a German traveler, visited the United States in the 1820s, he was astonished by the amount of public interest in technology. "Everything new is quickly introduced here," List wrote. "There is no clinging to old ways; the moment an American hears the word 'invention' he pricks up his ears."

How had Americans overcome resistance to technological innovation? The answer lies in the efforts of literally hundreds of inventors, tinkerers and amateur scientists, who transformed European ideas into practical technologies. Their inventions inspired in Americans a boundless faith in technology. For the most part, it was self-taught amateurs who pioneered early American technology, and self-assurance led them to create inventions that trained European scientists did not attempt.

In the 1820s and 1830s, America became the world's leader in adopting mechanization, standardization and mass production. Manufacturers began to adopt labor-saving machinery that allowed workers to produce more goods at lower costs. So impressed were foreigners with these methods of manufacture that they called them the "American system of production."

The single most important figure in the development of the American system was Eli Whitney, the inventor of the cotton gin. In 1798, Whitney persuaded the U.S. government to award him a contract for 1 0,000 muskets to be delivered within two years. Until then, skilled artisans, who made individual parts by hand and then carefully fitted the pieces together, had manufactured rifles. At the time Whitney made his offer, the federal arsenal at Springfield, Massachusetts, was capable of producing only 245 muskets in two years.

Whitney's idea was to develop precision machinery that would allow a worker with little manual skill to manufacture identical gun parts that would be interchangeable from one gun to another. The first year he produced 500 muskets. In 1801, in order to get an extension on his contract, Whitney demonstrated his new system of interchangeable parts to President John Adams and Vice President Thomas Jefferson. He disassembled ten muskets and put ten new muskets together out of the individual pieces. His system was a success. In actual fact, the muskets used in the demonstration were not assembly line models; they had been carefully hand-fitted beforehand.

Other industries soon adopted the American system of manufacturing. As early as 1800,
manufacturers of wooden clocks began to use interchangeable parts. Makers of sewing machines used mass production techniques as early as 1846, and the next year, manufacturers mechanized the production of farm machinery.

Innovation was not confined to manufacturing. During the years following the War of 1812, American agriculture underwent a transformation nearly as far-reaching as the changes taking place in industry. During the 18th century, most farm families were largely self-sufficient. They raised their own food, made their own clothes and shoes, and built their own furniture. Cut off from markets by the high cost of transportation, farmers sold only a few items, like whiskey, corn and hogs, in exchange for such necessities as salt and iron goods.

Farming methods were primitive. With the exception of plowing and furrowing, most farm work was performed by hand. Few farmers applied ma1ure to their fields as fertilizer or practiced crop rotation. As a result, soil erosion and soil exhaustion were commonplace. As the market grew and demand for production increased, farmers began to call for improved farm technology. A shortage of farm labor encouraged many farmers to adopt labor-saving machinery.

During the 1820s and 1830s, the nation's cities grew at an extraordinary rate. The urban population increased 60% a decade, five times as fast as that of the country as a whole. In 1810, New York City's population was less than 100,000. Two decades later it was more than 200,000.

The chief cause of the increase was the migration of sons and daughters away from farms and
villages. The growth of commerce drew thousands of farm youth to the cities to work as
bookkeepers, clerks and salespeople. The expansion of factories demanded thousands of laborers, mechanics, teamsters and operatives.


As urban areas grew, many problems were i1tensified, including the absence of clean drinking water, the pressing need for cheap public transportation, and most importantly, poor sanitation. Sanitation problems led to heavy urban mortality rates and frequent typhoid, dysentery, typhus, cholera, and yellow fever epidemics.

The Working Class Shapes The Nation

By 1850, the older household-based economy, in which assistants lived in the homes of their
employers, had disappeared. Young men moved out of rooms in their masters' homes into hotels and boarding houses in distinct working-class neighborhoods. The view that each worker should be attached to a particular master, who would supervise his behavior and assume responsibility for his welfare, declined. The older paternalistic view was replaced by a new conception of labor as a
commodity, like cotton, that could be acquired or disposed of according to the laws of supply and demand.

The quickening pace of trade and finance during the early 19th century not only increased the
demand for middle-class clerks and shopkeepers, it also dramatically increased demand for unskilled workers, such as carters, coal heavers, day laborers, delivery people, dockworkers, draymen, longshoremen, packers, and porters. Such unskilled workers earned extremely low incomes 3nd led difficult lives. In many of these families, wives and children were forced to work to maintain even a low standard of living.

Typically, a male laborer earned just two-thirds of his family's income. Wives and children earned the other third. Many married women performed work in the home, such as embroidery and making artificial flowers, tailoring garments, or doing laundry. The wages of children were critical for a family's standard of living. Children under the age of 15 contributed 20% of the income of many working-class families. These children worked, not because their parents were heartless, but because children's earnings were absolutely essential to the family's survival.

At the beginning of the 19th century, only about 5,000 immigrants arrived in the United States each year. During the 1830s, however, immigration climbed sharply as 600,000 immigrants poured into the country. This figure jumped to 1.7 million in the 1840s, when harvests all across Europe failed, and reached 2.6 million in the 1850.

Most immigrants came from Germany, Ireland, and Scandinavia, pushed from their homelands by famine, eviction from farmlands by landlords, political unrest, and the destruction of traditional handicrafts by factory enterprises. Attracted to the United States by the prospects of economic opportunity and political and religious freedom, many dispossessed Europeans braved the voyage across the Atlantic. Each immigrant group migrated for its own distinct reasons and adapted to American society in its own unique ways.

The nation's richest individuals, unlike Europe's aristocracy, were not ostentatiously rich; they were a working class, engaged in commerce, insurance, finance, shipbuilding, manufacturing, landholding, real estate, and the professions. Even more importantly, wealthy Northerners publicly rejected the older Hamiltonian notion that the rich and well-born were superior to the masses of people.

During the early decades of the 19th century, wealthy Northerners shed the wigs, knee breeches, ruffled shirts, and white-topped boots that had symbolized high social status in colonial America and began to dress like other men, signaling their acceptance of an ideal of social equality. One wealthy Northerner succinctly summarized the new ideal: "These phrases--the higher orders and lower orders--are of European origin, and have no place in our Yankee dialect."

Above all, it was the North's relatively high rates of economic and social mobility that gave substance to a widespread belief in equality of opportunity. Although few rich men were truly "self-made" men who had risen "from rags to riches," there were many dramatic examples of upward mobility and countless instances of more modest climbs up the ladder of success.

Even at the bottom of the economic hierarchy, prospects for advancement increased markedly after 1850. During the 1830s and 1840s, less than one unskilled worker in ten managed in the course of a decade to advance to a white-collar job. After 1850, the percentage doubled. The sons of unskilled laborers were even more likely to advance to skilled or white-collar employment. Even the poorest unskilled laborers often were able to acquire a house and a savings account. It was the reality of physical and economic mobility that convinced the overwhelming majority of Northerners that they lived in a uniquely open society, in which differences in wealth or status were the result of hard work and ambition.

In the meantime, before the Civil War, the South was one of the richest regions in the world, not far behind Britain. More than half of the richest 1% of Americans were Southerners. Yet, by the late 19th century, the South had come to symbolize rural poverty. There was very little industrialization and, because urban markets were few, the demand for manufacturing goods was low.

The South's elite business leaders were less interested in business investment than their northern counterparts. The South's merchants and landowners had no tradition of industrial innovation or of applying science-based technologies to production. They had a strong stake in preserving the economic status quo. As landowners, they benefited from the low wages and limited mobility of black and white workers. This was an economic heritage that lasted for decades.

The 20th Century: A Time of Rapid Change

The 20th century was a time of unprecedented growth and economic progress. It was a time when individuality and personal needs and interests were emphasized. So many things happened that impacted careers and the world of work that it is not possible to even highlight all that had a profound affect. There are, of course, some skeptics who are quick to point out that such growth and progress also produced unprecedented problems for the well-being of the nation's citizens.

A Century of Prosperity

Despite an economic depression of great depth, the 20th century was one of extraordinary
improvements in health and increases in prosperity. The average lifespan increased by 30 years,
from 47 to 77. Infant mortality decreased by 93% and heart disease deaths were reduced by more than half. The number of households with electricity went from 10% to nearly universal. In addition, the average American in 1900 had to work six times as many hours to pay his electric bill than did an America a century later.

During the 20th century, the number of telephone calls per capita increased 5,600%. The number of households with cars increased 9Q.fold. The percentage of people completing college quadrupled. Today, more people (28%) have bachelor's degrees than the number of Americans who held high school degrees in 1900 (22%).

At the beginning of the century, 40 to 50% of all Americans had income levels that classified them as poor. At the end of the century, that was cut to between 10 and 15%. Until the twentieth century, large numbers of working class men and women faced the "poor house" at the conclusion of their working lives. Today, thanks to social security and retirement plans, most Americans can expect a period of more than a decade when they are financially secure and no longer have to work.

A Century of Revolutions

The twentieth century was a century of revolutions. We usually think of revolutions in terms of
banners and barricades, and the twentieth century certainly witnessed social and political upheavals, including the Russian and Chinese Revolution:;. But many of the twentieth century's most last ng revolutions took place without violence. There was the sexual revolution, women's liberation, as well as the rise of the giant corporation, big Iabor, and big government. Revolutions in technology, science and medicine utterly transformed the way people lived.

The scientific revolution produced compelling changes and developments. During the 1B90s, physics and medicine radically changed our view of the world. The discovery of X-rays, radioactivity, sub-atomic particles, relativity, and quantum theory produced a revolution in how scientists view matter and energy. After physicians, just before the turn of the century, identified the first virus, laboratory-based science reshaped the practice of medicine. Beginning with a cure for yellow fever, scientific medicine went on to eliminate polio and smallpox.
During the twentieth century, humankind developed air transport, invented antibiotics and computing, split the atom, and broke the genetic code. With the telephone, the radio, and the Internet, the technology of communication was revolutionized. Medicine continued to undergo radical transformations and heightened moral and political issues, such as more sophisticated and effective contraceptives that separated sex from procreation. There was also a revolution in the technology of ground transportation, with the rapid spread of the automobile and the modern highway system.

Equally important was the rise of mass communication and mass entertainment. In 1900, each person made an average of 38 telephone calls. By 1997, the figure had grown to 2,325. In 1890, there were no billboards, no trademarks and no advertising slogans. There were no movies, no radio, no television, and few spectator sports. No magazine had a million readers. The 1890s saw the advent of the mass circulation newspaper, the national magazine, the best-selling novel, many modern spectator and team sports, and the first million dollar nationwide advertising campaign. In 1900, there were 6,000 new books published. By the end of the century, the number had increased more than 10-fold.

A Century of the Young

Among the new words that entered the English language during the twentieth century were
"adolescence," "dating," and "teenager." For the first time there was a gap between puberty and incorporation into adult life. Because they were no longer pressured to work in the field and factories, adolescents were encouraged to continue their education and attend schools.

In 1900, children and teenagers under the age of 16 accounted for 44% of the population. Today, the young make up 29%. In 1900, less than 2% of young people graduated from high school, while today that percentage has risen to 78%.

A Century of Women in the Workforce

American women in 1900 could vote in only four western states. Just 700,000 married women (6%) were in the paid labor force. Today the figure is 34 million, representing 64% of married women.

In 1900, women accounted for 1% of lawyers and 6% of doctors. At the end of the century, those percentages had risen to 29% and 26%, respectively. The number of women with bachelor's degrees increased by half with women now earning almost 60% of such degrees. However, women with work and work histories comparable to men earn only 76 cents for every dollar men do.

One of the most dramatic sociological changes this century has been the increased participation of women (age 16 and over) in the nation's workforce. The proportion of women in the workplace tripled from 19% in 1900 to 58% in 2012.

A Century of an Aging Population

Some scientists argue that the most significant change in the 20th century has been the extended aging of the human species. From the beginning of human beings' first presence on the planet until 1900, the total proportion of those over 65 to those under that age remained a constant 1%. Through technology, lifestyle changes, healthier environmental conditions, medical research and the eradication of infectious childhood diseases, humanity significantly altered its longevity on earth. Extending the lifespan has resulted in a veritable population explosion.

In 1900, life expectancy in the United States was 47 years, and only 4% of the population was 65 or older. Today, life expectancy is 78 years and getting longer. By 2025, it is estimated that about 20% of the U.S. population will be 65 or older. For the first time, a generation of adults must plan for the needs of both their parents and their children.

Only recently has there been a gradual turning toward older adults, primarily in the development of specialty products and pharmaceuticals. Automobile companies, sporting goods manufacturers and others have yet to fully realize the growing presence of the over 65 population, as witnessed by their advertising.

Women outlive men by a significant margin of years. At age 8O, there are two women alive for every man. There are substantial and profound consequences to this aspect of longevity. One interesting phenomenon is that more of the wealth of the nation is transferring to women.

Moreover, it appears that women make many of the important buying decisions in families regardless of age and may make all of the decisions in old age. Older people vote in elections at a much higher proportion of eligibility than do other age segments (70% voting over 65 vs. 4% voting under 25). The combination of age and gender will have an increasing impact upon American society as the new millennium progresses.

A Century of Education

At the beginning and even in the middle of t1e century, high school diplomas were rare. Back in
1900, for instance, only 6% of 17-year-olds graduated from high school. By 1940, 25% of people
age 25 and over had at least a high school diploma. Today, a diploma is the rule rather than the
exception: 90% of people age 25 and over had at least a high school diploma in 2012.

The number of degrees conferred by the nation’s colleges and universities now is more than 70
times higher than it was at the century's start: fewer than 30,000 were awarded in the 1B99-1900 school year, compared with 1.6 million in 2010.

Coming to America

The nation's foreign-born resident populatio1 totaled 1 0.3 million at the start of the century-- 13.6% of the total U.S. population. One hundred years ago, most immigrants were from Europe. Germany (2.7 mil.), Ireland (1.6 mil.), Great Britain (1.2 mil.), Canada (1.2 mil.), Sweden (582,000), Italy (484,000), Russia (424,000), Poland (383,000), Norway (336,000) and Austria (276,000) were the leading contributors to the foreign-born population in 1900.

By 1997, Latin America and Asia accounted for eight of the top 10 countries of birth for the
foreign-born population. These eight included Mexico, the Philippines, China, Cuba, Vietnam, India, the Dominican Republic and El Salvador.

The 20th Century is viewed as the most tumultuous 100 years in the history. There were massive shifts in economies, two worldwide wars, mind-boggling developments in technology, and social upheavals that changed the way people live and interact with one another. No other period in history has been so imbued with change as a way of life.

The opportunities that you have to work in the occupation of your choice are directly influenced by societal, economic, technological, and political trends. Knowledge of the past helps us understand the present. It also reminds us that change is inevitable and that significant changes are a result of human choice, actions, and struggles. Knowing our past reminds us of our successes and our shortcomings, and helps us to remember how far we have come and how far we have yet to go.

The 21st Century: The Changing Workplace

As you look down the road toward an occupation of your choice, you can only see so far ahead. You might be able to see as far as how much education is required. You might see others at work and imagine yourself in a similar workplace. Or, you might take note of people who are happily working in a particular job and think that you would like to work there too someday. But, you aren't going to be able to peer over the hill in front of you, around the bend or over the horizon and be sure of the future. At the same time, many factors just beyond your vision can impact your options and your future.

It seems a little risky to make plans for a future occupation or career without regard to a predicted outlook. You might spend a considerable amount of time, energy, and money preparing yourself for something that has a limited job opportunity. It's not the only consideration, but it makes sense to include this kind of information when making career choices. Predicting the future is not without risk. The best predictions are frequently affected by factors that one cannot anticipate. To have a healthy respect for the unpredictability of life can serve you well, as all of the variables that figure into a prediction are typically in constant flux and defy precise identification. Nevertheless, an educated guess appears to be better than none at all.

Gary Harr (1995), a specialist in career guidance said, "Prediction allows anticipation. Anticipation allows planning. Planning allows preparation. And preparation helps assure success."

The Bureau of Labor Statistics

The Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) is an independent national statistical agency that serves as the primary fact-finding agency for the federal government in the field of labor economics and statistics.

The BLS also provides its essential statistical data to the American public, state and local
governments, business, and labor. It serves as a statistical resource to the Department of Labor.
The BLS takes many things into consideration, including possible economic changes, world trade pat terns, labor force needs, developments in technology, market analyses and so forth. The projections by this agency are updated every two years and are available in various government publications, such as the Occupational Outlook Handbook ( OOH).

The Occupational Outlook Handbook

The Occupational Outlook Handbook is a nationally recognized source of career information, designed to provide valuable assistance to individuals making decisions about their future work lives. Revised every two years, the Handbook describes what workers do on the job, working conditions, the training and education needed, earnings, and expected job prospects in a wide range of occupations.

Making informed career decisions requires reliable information about trends and opportunities in the future. Career and job opportunities result from the relationships between the population, the labor force, and the demand for goods and services. Examining the past and projecting changes in these relationships is the foundation of the Occupational Outlook Program.

The websites for the Bureau of Labor Statistics http:/ /www.bls.gov/home.htm and the Occupational Outlook Handbook http:/ /www.bls.gov/oco/home.htm provide a wealth of data that you may want to visit for an in-depth look at certain trends and career opportunities.

Future Trends

The economy of today will not be the economy of tomorrow. There are powerful forces at work that will change the shape of things and these are given more attention in the final Topic of the course (Topic 12). Some of the major factors that will affect trends in the world of work are highlighted in the Occupational Outlook Handbook. Areas of particular interest include population growth, labor force changes, education and training requirements, job openings, and economic trends.

The following information about the forces shaping the world of work is summarized from a chapter of the Occupational Outlook Handbook called "Tomorrow's Jobs." You can read the projections for 200B-201B and see the accompanying charts and tables by visiting the OOH website http://www.bls.gov/oco/oco2003 htm(external link 01 ).

Population

The Unites States population pushed through the 300 million mark, according to the 201 0 census data. The total number of people living in the US was reported as 30B,745,53B. That means the country has added about 27 million residents over the previous 1 0 years. Continued growth means more consumers of goods and services, affecting workers in a wide range of occupations and industries. However, the types of goods and purchases may change as the population is altered. For example, there will be significant shifts in the population profile in terms of age, which will in turn affect the types of goods and services needed.

It is worth noting that the youth population, aged 16 to 24, will grow about 7% during this time. The fabled generation of Baby Boomers will continue to age and increase the age group of 55-64 by almost 46% or 11.5 million persons. This is more than any other age group. Those in the age group of 35 to 44 will actually decrease in size, reflecting the smaller birth rate following the baby boom generation.

Minorities and immigrants will also constitute a larger share of the population in 2012. It is predicted that the number of Hispanics in the general population will grow faster than all other ethnic groups.

Labor Force

The labor force consists of working individuals and those looking for work. Its size determines the quantity of goods and services that can be produced. The demand for goods and services will influence which industries expand or contract. In turn, industries respond by hiring the workers necessary to produce goods and provide services. However, the size of the labor force and the number of workers needed to perform certain tasks can be heavily affected by technology and it's relationship to the need for workers to perform work-related tasks.

In the OOH 2010 - 2011 Edition http://www.bls.gov/oco/oco2003 htm(external link 02) there are projections for job openings, as related to population, labor force, and demand for goods and services. The book presents highlights of population, labor force, and occupational and industry employment projections for 2008-2018.

The single most important factor in determining the size and composition of the U.S. labor force is population, and we will see it becoming more diverse. While still remaining the largest in the labor force, the white, non-Hispanic group will continue to comprise a decreasing share of the labor force. In the near future, Hispanics will constitute a larger proportion of the labor force than will blacks. Asians will continue to be the fastest growing of the four labor force groups.

The numbers of men and women in the labor force will grow, but the number of women will grow more than 4% faster than the number of men. At the same time, the youth labor force, aged 16 to 24, is expected to slightly decrease. The primary working age group, between 25 and 54 years old, also will decline.

Workers 55 and older, on the other hand, are projected to increase from 14.3% to 19.1% of the
labor force due to the aging of the Baby-Boom generation. This has caused many people to worry about the stability of the Social Security system, which depends upon younger workers contributing to the welfare of older ones.

In the next few years, total employment is expected to increase by 14.B%, adding 21.6 million jobs. The long-term shift from goods-producing to service-providing employment is expected to continue. Service-providing industries are expected to account for approximately 20.B million of the 21.6 million new wage and salary jobs.

The fastest growing service-providing industries reflect the changing nature of our population and its needs and interests. Services are economic activities - such as transportation, tanking,
insurance, tourism, telecommunications, advertising, entertainment, data processing, and
consulting-that normally are consumed as they are produced. Services are contrasted to economic goods, which are more tangible. The growth changes in the major industry sectors include:

Education and health services employment is projected to grow fastest, 31.8%, and add more jobs than any other industry sector. About 1 in 4 new jobs created will be in either healthcare, social assistance or private educational services.

Professional and business services will grow by 30.4% and add nearly 5 million new jobs. Employment services is the fastest growing industry in this sector and is projected to be among those that will provide the most new jobs to the economy.

Professional, scientific, and technical services will grow by 27.8%. This sector will add about 1.9
million new jobs, driven by the growing complexity of business.

Information sector employment is expected to increase by 18.5%. Within this sector, information publishing and broadcasting employment is projected to grow by 67.9%, demonstrating the fast-growing strength of computer related industries.

Leisure and hospitality employment will grow by 17.8%, due in part to increasing incomes, leisure time and awareness of the health benefits of physical fitness.

Trade, transportation and utilities employment will increase by 14.1% overall. Retail trade and
transportation and storage industries will grow while utilities employment will actually decrease.

Financial activities will grow by 12.3% with machinery and equipment leasing and rental leading the way. Real estate, investment, and insurance related jobs will increase with the growing population and increasing number of baby boomers in the peak savings years.

Government employment, including that in public education and hospitals, will increase by 11.8%. Only about 1% of this growth will be in federal government as it continues to shift more responsibilities to state and local governments and to contract out many government jobs to private companies.

Other services (excluding government) employment will grow by 15.7%, with stronger growth in personal care services and religious organizations.

Meanwhile, most goods-producing industry divisions, including manufacturing,
agriculture/forestry/fishing, and mining, will experience little growth in employment overall.
Construction employment is the exception, with a 15.1% expected growth.

Expansion of service-providing industries is expected to continue, creating a demand for many
occupations. The projected job growth will Iikely vary among occupational groups and will net
necessarily show the same growth figures as within their industry sectors.

Data on changes in total employment by major occupational groups suggest that the professional and related occupations of medical assistants and network system and data communications analysts will be in greatest demand.

Those occupations with largest numerical increases in employment are service-related. They include registered nurses, post secondary teachers, salespersons, and customer service representatives.

Some examples of occupations that are projected to decease are farmers and ranchers, sewing
machine operators, word processors and typists, and telemarketers.

Education and Training

Education is almost essential in getting a high-paying job. In fact, for all but 1 of the 50 highest
paying occupations, a college degree or hig1er is the most significant source of education or
training. Air traffic controller is the only occupation of the 50 highest paying jobs for which this is not the case.

In 1973, only 28% of prime-age workers had any post-secondary education. In 2000, 59% had at
least some college. In fact, the proportion of workers with an associate degree, certificate, or some college has more than doubled from 12% to 28% of the workforce. The proportion of workers with bachelors' degrees has more than doubled in the same time period.

These educational changes might be attributed to two labor market shifts: 1) a shift in job creation toward occupations that tend to require at least some college; and 2) increasing postsecondary skill requirements in all jobs, many of which formerly required high school or less. There has been an "ups killing," where employers demand higher skills for jobs that previously did not require any college or advanced skill training.

Among the fastest growing occupations, a bachelor's or associate degree is the most significant
source of education or training for most of them:

- network systems and data communications analysts
- physician assistants
- medical records and health information technicians
- computer software engineers, applications
- computer software engineers, systems software
- physical therapist assistants
- database and financial administrators
- veterinarians and veterinary technologists and technicians
- dental hygienists
- computer systems analysts

On-the-job training is the most significant source of education or training for other fast growing
occupations: medical assistants, social and human service assistants, home health care aides,
physical and occupational therapy aides, hazardous materials removal workers, dental assistants. Furthermore, on-the-job training is the most significant source of education or training for 17 of the 20 occupations with the largest numerical increases. Three of these 20 occupations-registered nurses, postsecondary teachers, and general and operations managers-have an associate or higher degree as the most significant source of education or training.

At the other end of the scale, on-the-job training also is the most significant source of education or training for 19 of the 20 occupations with the largest numerical decreases. Only one of these 20 occupations-travel agents-has a postsecondary vocational award as the most significant source of education or training.

Career success often depends upon knowledge and skills learned at a job site. However, the
entry-level jobs in many of the hottest areas will require post secondary education or perhaps a
degree from an accredited college or university.

Job Openings

Job openings stem from both employment growth and replacement needs. Replacement needs arise as workers leave occupations. Some transfer to other occupations while others retire, return to school, or quit to assume household responsibilities. Replacement needs are projected to account for 60% of the approximately 56 million job openings between 2002 and 2012. Thus, even occupations projected to experience little or no growth or to decline in employment still may offer many job openings.

What then and where are the hottest jobs for college graduates? The College Board
http://www.collegeboard.com/student/csearch/majors careers/236.html(external link 03) provides a list of occupations that are projected to have the most job openings for college graduates between 2008 and 2018. They also are sorted by degree or level of education. For example, in terms of having a graduate degree, it appears that postsecondary teachers are and will be in great demand, as will medical doctors, pharmacists, physical therapists, and personal counselors. For Bachelor's Degree, the list is headed by teachers at all levels, accountants, computer specialists, and marketing analysts.

Perhaps the fastest growing jobs are found in health related fields. Health aides, for instance, lead the list with an expected increase of 56% by the year 2014. This is followed by a 52% projected increase for medical assistants. As expected, the demand for registered nurses will be very high, as the baby boomer population ages (Doyle, 2011 ). The hottest jobs in information technology will focus on a wide range of computer projects and applications This includes a need Java and .Net developers, database administrators, software architects and implementation analysts, and systems security.

A list of the top 30 fastest-growing jobs appeared in Boston.com & Monster
http://www.bostoncom/bostonworks/bighelp2010/fastest growing jobs by 2018(external link 04). The list cites the number of workers in a particular occupation, using data for 2008, along with median pay, and then the projected number projected for 2018. The aging of the population and a growing focus on health issues is viewed as a major driving force for jobs and the top half of the list is dominated by jobs in the medical field. In addition, as businesses implement more and newer technology, more professionals will be needed to monitor efficiency and set up networks. As the financial industry grows in size and complexity, so will the demand for analysts, particularly those involved with mutual funds. Job prospects should also be good for athletic trainers in the healthcare industry.

Professional and related occupations are projected to grow faster and add more jobs than any
other major occupational group. It is the only major group that is projected to generate more
openings from job growth than from replacement needs. Three-fourths of the job growth in
professional and related occupations is expected in computer and mathematical occupations,
healthcare practitioners and technical occupations, and education, training and library occupations.

As most studies indicate, service occupations are projected to have the largest number of total job openings. A large number of replacements will be necessary as young workers leave food
preparation and service occupations for further education or other jobs. Replacement needs
generally are greatest in the largest occupations and in those with relatively low pay or limited
training requirements.

Office automation will significantly affect many individual office and administrative support
occupations. Overall, these occupations are projected to grow more slowly than average, and some will even decline. Office and administrative support occupations rank third behind service and professional and related occupations in terms of projected job openings.

Farming, fishing and forestry occupations will have the fewest job openings. Because job growth is expected to be slow and levels of retirement and job turnover high, more than 85% of these projected job openings will be due to replacement needs.

Economic Trends

In addition to the projection that services will continue to expand and that goods production and manufacturing in the United States will decline, it is becoming increasingly clear that the various national economies of the world will become more intertwined. There is a growing interdependence among nations. Our nation, for example, depends on imported oil for its energy. When the oil-producing nations change policies, there is an immediate impact on the American economy. There are very few, if any, truly independent national economies.

It is also evident that technological advances will affect every sector of our economy. The pervasive power of microcomputers, for instance, will expand their scope and play a major role in how people work and live at home.

Out-sourcing the production of goods will continue to be a way of meeting increased competition in the existing markets. Cheap labor in underdeveloped nations will continue to lure investors and, ironically, enhance these nations' industrial capacities. As always, the businesses that can effectively deliver the best quality products at the lowest cost will be the survivors in a growing free-market economy.

Finally, there is a growing awareness of worldwide ecological problems and responsibilities.
Disregard of ecological considerations can jeopardize all the people of the world. For example, there is increasing evidence that global warming and depletion of the atmosphere's ozone will haunt us for many years to come. Industrial practices and existing technologies must be modified and new technologies developed.

The Labor Market

In the next economy, there will be some significant changes in the labor market. We will be discussing them throughout the different sections of this course. Here are a few that most experts agree upon:

- In the new economy, people will be expected to have a range of skills, rather than specializing
in one or two.
- More and more people will have their work base at home, using technology such as e-mail, the Internet and teleconferencing.
- Many people will work on short-term contracts with companies, rather than permanent ones.
- There will be an increase in the number of self-employed people.
- Using the Internet and other communication devices will replace traveling nationally and
internationally for many workers.
- Different working patterns will become even more common as people require flexible jobs to
fit in with the rest of their lives.
- There will be fewer jobs for those without specific skills.
- It is likely that people will change jobs several times. The idea of a job-for-life is fading away.
A career may involve a range of different jobs.
- New technology also means that there are new occupations today that didn't exist 1 0 years
ago and this trend will continue in the future.

Where Do We Go From Here?

What then of career development? How does it fit into your expected lifespan? To help answer
these questions, we must take a closer look at how the world of work is organized, including some common language that is often used when talking about careers (Topic 2). Through self-assessment (Topic 3) you can discover how you currently match up with different occupations.

As part of career choice, it can be helpful to know more about career theories and some of the
personal factors that influence one's decision-making (Topics 4-6). Thereafter, we will examine ways to search for job opportunities (Topic 7), make decisions and commitments (Topic 8) and become more aware of what employers are looking for, including education requirements. We will explore some practical job hunting techniques, including job interview strategies (Topic 9).

We will conclude by looking at special issues and changes in the work place (Topics 10-11 ), such as gender roles, cultural diversity, stereotypes, and government regulation. Because most careers involve working relationships, it is important to think more about those issues too. Finally, we will conclude with a look at the forces that are shaping careers in the 21st Century.

At this point, you will want to go to View Presentations, which is at the Main Menu. Once there, you can view some slides and hear some mini-lectures that are intended to highlight some of the ideas presented in this Topic. Thereafter, go to Exercises & Assessments, where you will find practice tests that will help you prepare for the online exercises (exams) used to determine your course grade.






Topic 2

The Career Chase

You might be getting tired of people asking you, "What are you going do after college?" Answering
this question isn't always easy, since there are so many factors that influence your choices. Some will
want to know the job you intend to take, where it is and when you plan to start. Others will be
satisfied when you tell them what occupation you are seeking. Still others will be curious about your
career plans.

You might be asking yourself, but aren't a "job" and a "career" really the same thing? The terms job,
occupation, and career are often used interchangeably. But there are important differences that go
beyond dictionary definitions. They could affect how you view work in your lifetime and the goals that
you set for yourself.

Rewarding careers don't just happen. They are the result of planning, experiencing, working with
mentors, making choices and putting together the building block jobs that eventually become a
career. Job success and satisfaction lead to productive and meaningful careers.
Knowing the language of the world of work can help you in the "career chase." There are certain
terms than help explain and clarify ideas and plans.
Career development and planning are shaped, in part, by how we define terms. At times it can be
confusing because of the use and misuse of terminology among people who are trying to help and
those being helped. For instance, it is not uncommon for professional counselors to use the terms
career and work interchangeably. Sometimes there is even confusion about the terms career
guidance and career counseling. The lack of precision in language usage by people who work in the
area of career development could suggest that terminology does not matter. In fact, language is a
powerful tool when conceptualizing, clarifying, making plans, and taking action.

Key Terms Related to Career Development

Some distinctions in terms can help you better see the overall structure of your career as well as
the components that go into building it. In this session, we define key terms related to career
development as explained in the following paragraphs.

Work

We hear people saying such things as, "I've got to go to work." "I work for the local newspaper." "I
work for the Jennings Construction Company." Sometimes people ask, "Where do you work?" "What
kind of work do you do?" "What's your line of work?" "Are you looking for work?"

Strictly speaking, work is a task or set of actions or activities that are performed to reach a goal or
obtain an objective. It can be performed in a paid or unpaid job that is either short term or long term
in duration. There is an intended set of outcomes, from which the person hopes to derive some
personal satisfaction and make some kind of contribution for a greater goal. Meanings of the term
have shifted across time. Currently, the term has been used synonymously with employment, trade,
profession, or other means of making a livelihood.

Job

A job is a position of employment within an occupation. One can have a succession of jobs in the
same occupation. A job also involves a set or collection of worker tasks that, when performed, tend
to describe a work activity. Jobs are often a means to an end. You need to help pay for your college
tuition, so you find a part-time job at a restaurant. Or, you take on a summer job as a salesclerk at
the mall to earn some extra money.

A job refers to a position in which one is employed. It is built around specific work tasks and duties
and is typically performed for an employer. For example, bank teller works at a particular station in
the bank, receives deposits and disburses money according to bank rules, regulations, and
procedures. The job has some clearly defined tasks, requiring certain attributes and skills that
enable the teller to perform the duties.

A job involves many things beyond the work content or tasks to be performed. It includes sJch
factors as the role expectations of others, the social status often ascribed to the job, and :he
"perks" that are made available. These factors may then influence a person's satisfaction with a
particular job. Even the amount of time given for vacation and when that occurs can affect one's
leisure activities and impact a person's job satisfaction.

Job satisfaction, then, involves more than one's work tasks and compensation. A person's jcb
satisfaction is significantly influenced by the "work culture." Many factors help to define a pa·ticular
work culture. These may include close or distant supervision, work setting, continuing education
requirements, and even the clothing than ca1 be worn. Additionally, some jobs have more benefits
than others, such as health, insurance, investment, and retirement plans for employees.

Sometimes jobs lead to careers. Jobs are often task-oriented positions that help meet the goals of
an organization or business. Sometimes one job can lead to another, perhaps one with more
responsibility and compensation. In some cases, an individual is content in a particular job that
doesn't lead to others and will stay with tha: job throughout the remainder of her or his working
career.

Occupation

An occupation tends to have a broader scope than a job. An occupation consists of a group of jobs
where similar tasks or work activities are done. For instance, teacher is an occupation. Similarly,
nurse, bookkeeper, and police officer are occupations. An  occupation might be viewed as an
endeavor that is more than a job but not fully a career.

Field

A field is a group of occupations that have similar job goals and worker tasks. A nurse (occupation)
is in the field of medicine. Bookkeeper is part of the field of accounting but is not the same as a
certified public accountant. Likewise, a police officer is one occupation that can be found in the field
of law enforcement. Sometimes people know what field they want to work in but are unsure of the
occupation or job that might be involved. Still others know that they want to work in a particular field
(e.g. law) and also that they want to avoid a particular occupation or line of work within the field
(e.g. trial attorney). They realize that there are some occupations within a field that meet their
interests, abilities, and skills more than others.

Vocation

The term vocation is sometimes used synonymously with occupation. It is an older and more
traditional term that is not used as much in current language. When used, it often implies that it is an
occupation that one feels especially drawn toward and where one is gainfully employed. For instance,
a man who is a pastor or minister of a church may talk about feeling a divine calling or being
summoned to his vocation.

Profession

Some fields, such as law, medicine and engineering, require considerable training and specialized
study and are regarded as professions. Beyond the specialized knowledge and skills required,
professionals have obtained academic degrees based on intensive preparation and successfully
passed examinations that certify their competencies.

Avocation

An avocation is an activity pursued for enjoyment that is in addition to one's regular work or
occupation. It might be described as a hobby. Sometimes hobbies help people learn and master
certain skills and then their interests and refined skills prompt them to pursue related jobs or
occupations.

A woman who enjoyed collecting recipes for her church decided to publish them in a cookbook,
which in turn led her to form a company that published books about cooking and preparing for
holiday events. Later, her small company expanded to publish other books. In another example, a car
salesman, who liked to go fishing as part of his recreation, decided to open his own fish and bait
store on a lake where he enjoyed fishing and talking with others.

Career

Often, the term career is associated with one's working life. For example, you may read about
someone who had "a long and distinguished career in medicine." Or, it may be said that a person
completed one career, in the military perhaps, and then went on to establish a career in another
field, such as politics or education.

In its broadest sense, however, a career is something you build over the course of your lifetime. It
includes all of a person's paid and unpaid work activities, including education, training, occupations,
and jobs over time. This seems to be the most accepted definition among most career counselors
and experts.

Career Path

There was a time when people talked about a "career path" as if there were a road with a beginning
and ending point. You simply needed to get started right. Then follow the path and take advantage
of opportunities along the way. The path was based on the assumption that one thing led to another
and it was only a matter of time before reaching retirement and the end of the road.

Currently, the concept of a straight career path is, for the most part, a thing of the past. T~ere are
too many twists and turns in the career chase to think in terms of a linear approach to career
development and to assume that a person will enter and stay in one area of work forever.

We can look at a career path in a broader sense, perhaps as all the routes that lead to a career
goal, whether it be a job, occupation or an overall career scheme. Some describe it as a rocd to
success, while others view it as toll road where dues must be paid along the way with success
always on the horizon. There are always dilemmas and decisions to be made at different turning
points and crossroads. There are potholes and pitfalls to be avoided as well.

Career Ladder

Perhaps you have asked yourself, "What will I be doing five years from now? Ten years from now?"
Most people are interested in ways to adva1ce in their present field of work. Advancement and
promotions usually mean a higher salary, more benefits, more flexible time, and more control over
different work tasks. A "career ladder" implies that there is a certain sequence or set of rungs to be
climbed as one moves up and advances in an occupation.

In college level academic jobs, for example, the sequence is from instructor, to assistant professor,
to associate profession and then full professor. After a distinguished career the last step is that of
professor emeritus. In an automobile plant, the ladder may go from assembly-line worker to foreman
to general foreman to supervisor to superintendent and on up. In the corporate world, there may be
many rungs in a management career ladder.

Some studies of managers with AT&T and a large manufacturing company suggested several
generalizations about the progression of work experiences in early adulthood. First, college
education makes a very large difference. Even when the effects of differing intellectual ability are
accounted for, the research showed that these with college educations advance farther and faster.

Second, early promotion is associated with greater advancement over the long haul. In the
manufacturing company, 83% of those who were promoted within the first year eventually moved up
as far as lower management, while only 33% of those who were first promoted after 3 years of
employment got that far.

Third, and perhaps most important, most work advancement occurs early, after which a plateau is
reached. This is not so unique to business career ladders. Research with women suggests that their
work histories are much less continuous than men's and that time-in-career rather than age may be
the critical variable for the timing of promotions. There may be a window of 10-15 years between the
time you enter a profession and the time you reach a plateau. If you begin in your 20's, you are likely
to have peaked by your mid-30's. If you begin when you are 40, you may still have 15 years to
advance.

Awareness of career ladders can be an important component in career planning. Such a ladder
provides goals, offers incentives, and can give a person a sense of direction. Many companies
provide information that describes how one can advance to a higher level. Then again, the decision
to pursue advancement beyond the entry level is an individual choice based on interest and
willingness to accept more responsibility and accountability.

Some people prefer to find a place on the ladder that is comfortable and where they can make a
decent living without sacrificing other interests and pleasures. "Some people live to work. I work to
live," said one person who chose not to pursue advanced positions in a company because they are
more stressful and demand more time on the job. Career ladders can identify opportunities and
suggest the steps that must be taken to advance or to achieve one's optimal level.

Career Planning

Given the history of a changing economy, it is not surprising that in the early part of the 20th
century, there was very little in the way of career planning. Emphasis was placed on helping people
identify occupational options and make vocational choices.

Career guidance, for the most part, was about making a job choice and that decision-making process
was considered a single, point-in-time event. It amounted to job-placement services, using a process
of matching people to jobs based on the person's characteristics or traits. The requirements of the
occupation were the primary considerations to helping people identify their career options.

Since that time, career planning has taken on a broader perspective. There are more experts in the
field, including career counselors. There are more related theories and more research studies. If you
visit a local bookstore you will probably see numerous paperback books designed to help people
think about how to get jobs and to make plans for a career.

Career planning gives you the ability to look ahead and think about where you are going anc what
steps you need to take to get there. A career is something that motivates you, provides
opportunities to use your best skills and talents, and fits your lifestyle. Your career grows with you
as you mature and change throughout your working lifetime.

By looking at the bigger picture of work life, you can start building a resume that will help you along
in your own career chase. You still might need to get a summer job. But as you look at the kinds of
jobs available, consider how a particular job could help you in your career development. What kinds
of skills will you gain that you can use later?

By shifting your thinking to a broader view, you can lay the building blocks for planning a career.
Otherwise, you may end up with a hodgepodge of unrelated jobs and experiences that contribute
little toward getting you where you want to go in your life's work.

Career Development

Career development refers to the lifelong psychological and behavioral processes, as well as
contextual influences, that shape one's career over the lifespan. As such, it involves a person's
pattern of jobs, decision-making style, integration of life roles, expression of values, and
self-concept.

Career development refers to the lifelong psychological and behavioral processes, as well a:;
contextual influences, that shape one's career over the lifespan. As such, it involves a person's
pattern of jobs, decision-making style, integration of life roles, expression of values, and
self-concept.

Career development is not something that just happens in a career class or when you begin looking
for a job. A career unfolds over your lifetime, with bits and pieces of it happening every day. In the
end, a career is the sum of all of one's work acquired through various jobs or occupations. 1: is
characterized by job experiences and, often, longevity in a particular field. In general, a career
frequently has a benchmark or an anchoring point that highlights a field of interest or specialization.

Career Clusters

A career cluster is a group of occupations according to predominant commonalties. Knowing more
about career clusters can help in career planning. Most of the well-known publications that describe
occupations and the job market use the method of clustering careers in order to discuss job
requirements and opportunities.

One trend in organizing careers into clusters is the sheer variety. Clusters vary in number,
nomenclature and organization among career and technical education departments throughout the
50 United States. For example, Alaska has six, and Indiana uses eight while Massachusetts uses
seven career clusters. Career clusters are used, not only for organizing instructional programs and
curricula, but also to structure career exploration and planning.

There are still other words and terms that make up the language of the world of work. They will be
introduced and highlighted as we move through the various sections of this course. Some focus on
the job market, others on personal assessment, and still others on ways to describe the working
conditions in an occupation.

Knowing how the world of work is organized increases one's awareness in career planning. Career
terminology helps identify and clarify the complex issues and processes related to career choices.
Together they provide you with a set of tools to build a foundation for your own career
development.

Occupational Classification Systems

Given the large number of jobs that are available in the United States, it is almost impossible to list
them all. Even then, a listing wouldn't be of much valuable unless it were categorized in some way to
provide meaningful guidance for those who want to know more about a particular job or occupation.

Even people in ancient times attempted to classify occupations. Some primitive societies classified
workers in to two categories: physical laborers (workers) and non-laborers (such as priests, chiefs
and medicine men). There was also a three-class system: peasants, nomads and the priestly or
educated classes.

As society became more complex, so did work and its classification systems. Systems varied but
usually found a common dimension such as by industry, by socio-economic group (such as blue
collar-white collar or lower, middle and upper classes), by ability and aptitudes, by occupation, or by
interests. Some systems focused on income, type of work, educational requirement:;, duties
performed, age, and worker attributes.

Let's take a brief look at the most common occupational classification systems that have been used
to organize the world of work.

The USOE Clusters

The career education and planning movement stimulated the development of an occupational system
by the U.S. Office of Education. First, it was assumed that all work could be classified as involving
either the production of goods or the provision of services. These two activities were further
organized into 16 career clusters. Within these clusters there is a hierarchy of occupations ranging
from professional to unskilled.

The USOE 16 Career Clusters

Agriculture & Natural Resources
Architecture & Construction
Arts, Audio/Video Technology, & Communications
Business & Administration
Education & Training
Finance
Government & Public Administration
Health Science
Hospitality & Tourism
Human Services
Information Technology
Law & Public Safety
Manufacturing
Retail/Wholesale Sales & Service
Scientific Research & Engineering
Transportation, Distribution, & Logistics

Although one may challenge the theoretical assumptions underlying the categories, the primary
concern is the problem of overlap. A number of occupations can be located in more than one cluster,
which is also the criticism of other category systems.

Census Classifications

Since 1970, the U.S. Census Bureau has tried to provide an accounting of the nation's demographics
by conducing periodic census investigations. To provide a framework within which to classify the
world of work, the Bureau devised two distinct systems. One is descriptive of industries in which
people work and the other is related to occupational categories.

The 2010 Standard Occupational Classification (SOC) system is used by Federal statistical agencies
to classify workers and jobs into occupational categories for the purpose of collecting, calculating,
analyzing, or disseminating data. It replaces the 2000 edition, which attempted to create a
classification system to allow all government agencies and private industry to produce comparable
data.

The occupational structure showing the different levels of aggregation is described in the 2010
manual http://www.bls.gov/soc/(external link 01) as well as the occupation titles and definitions.
Illustrative examples of job titles used in an occupation are listed.

To facilitate classification, occupations are combined to form 23 major groups or clusters, 96 minor
groups and 449 broad occupations. The broad occupations each include detailed occupations
requiring similar job duties, skills, education, or experience. These classifications are valuable to the
Bureau when it periodically updates the distribution of workers into occupational categories and by
industry. The Census Bureau then provides data to a variety of consumers and interest groups.

The implementation of the 2000 SOC meant that for the first time, all major occupational data sources
produced by the Federal statistical system provided data that are comparable, greatly improving the
usefulness of the data. The 201 0 SOC continues to serve this purpose and has been revised to
improve data collection and maintain currency.

The Dictionary of Occupational Titles

Perhaps the most widely used occupational classification system in print was published by the U.S.
Department of Labor in the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT). It was developed to meet the
needs of public employment services and as a means of standardizing occupational information for
job placement. First published in 193B, the DOT emerged during an industrial economy and
emphasized blue-collar jobs.

Updated periodically, the DOT provided useful occupational information for many years. But its
usefulness waned as the economy shifted toward information and service and away from heavy
industry. The need for occupational information that is more relevant to the modern workplace
spurred the creation of O*NET.

Perhaps two of the most useful contributions of the DOT were its numbering system and the concept
that occupations could be categorized into job functions (data, people, things). It is a useful way of
analyzing the primary work tasks that are performed at a job site. A jeweler, for example, tends to
work primarily with "things" and needs finger dexterity. If the jeweler also greets and makes sales to
customers, then "people" might be viewed as the second major job function. In another instance, an
insurance salesperson might list "people" first and then "data", followed by "things", as the order of
primary job tasks or functions in that occupation.

The DOT is still found in most libraries, especially those with career resource centers. Even with the
help of a career counselor, it is a cumbersome book to use in terms of gaining information about
jobs, but it can be used to help identify jobs and their basic functions.

The DOT is still available from a wide range of non-government sources and on the Internet as well.
The Department of Labor does not endorse, takes no responsibility for and exercises no control
over entities that have posted versions of the DOT. Nor does it vouch for the accuracy of the
information contained on those sites. Furthermore, with the advent of the O*NET, updates for the
DOT have been discontinued.

The O*NET

The O*NET Project is administered and sponsored by the U.S. Department of Labor's Employment and
Training Administration. The O"NET system, using a common language and terminology to describe
occupational requirements, takes the place or supersedes the seventy-year-old Dictionary of
Occupational Titles with current information. Unlike the DOT, O*NET is not meant to be used in print
form. It was specifically developed to be accessed by CD or online.

The O*NET database contains several hundred variables that represent descriptors of work and
worker characteristics, such as skill requirements, tasks, work context, interests and work values or
needs. It describes about 1000 occupations that are key to our economy.

The O*NET Database is available as an interactive web application at O*NET Online.
http://online.onetcenter.org/( external link 02).

The Content Model is the conceptual foundation of O*NET. It provides a framework that identifies the
most important types of information about work and integrates them into a theoretically and
empirically sound system.

The Content Model organizes O*NET information into six domains. Within each domain, information is
organized by different levels. In essence, it creates a staircase that leads users step by step to the
depth of information and detail they want. Each occupation is described by over 275 O*NET
variables.

The vast information available in the DOT and in the O"*NET can be overwhelming. There are other
publications that one may find more practical to use, such as the Guide for Occupational Exploration
(GOE) that will be discussed in Session 7.

The World of Work MAP

The World of Work MAP was devised by the American College Testing Program (ACT) and is used in
its Career Planning Program (CPP). The MAP adds another job function dimension (ideas) to the three
in the DOT (data, people, things).

According to the ACT, data/ideas form one similar set of work task dimensions, whereas
people/things constitute another. For example, in a circular arrangement, things lead into data and
things on one side and ideas and things on the other. The remaining dimensions flow into neighboring
realms.

The MAP system uses six job clusters can be located with the eight work task combinations:
business contact, business operations, technical, science, arts, and social service. Each of these, in
turn, can be further refined. The social service cluster, for example, consists of general health care,
education and related services, social and government services, and personal/customer services. All
of these are located in Regions 1, 2, and 12 of the World of Work MAP
http://www.act.org/wwm/( external link 03).

Although it does offer some refinement of the DOT /O"*NET classifications, the MAP appears complex,
And it may not appeal to those who want to learn more about occupations. The MAP is an attempt to
develop a classification system that can be used in career planning in conjunction with ACT
assessment options.

Occupational classification schemes provide ways of examining the occupational structure in the
United States. Out of the abundance of avail3ble information, they also provide frameworks for
helping us understand and investigate the nature of work in our society.

Holland's System: Work Environments and Personality Types

John Holland, one of the nation's most renowned career theorists, proposed that work environments
could be associated with combinations of six different personality types:

- Realistic -- R
- Investigative -- I
- Artistic -- A
- Social-- S
- Enterprising --E
- Conventional -- C

There seems to be considerable evidence that individuals tend to prefer or select work
environments that match their personality types. Moreover, it seems to hold true for both men and
women and across ethnic populations.

It is possible to view the six types in terms of more definitive personality characteristics. Go to
Figure 2.1 (external link 04) (Holland's Hexagon). Click on the six types for more descriptions.

The descriptors of behaviors, values and perceptions are generalities that reflect people more often
than not. Using such labels, of course, is not without problems. While generalities can provide some
cues or leads that help us better understand a situation, we should always keep in mind that there
are exceptions and that individual personalities are complex.

Holland further suggested that some types mesh better with each other than others. Therefore, he
arranged the six types in a special order around a hexagon (See Figure 2 1 (external link 05)), which
enables one to note the types that are closest together and likely to be more compatible. For
example, Realistic types are much more likely to be aligned with Conventional and investigative types
than they are with Social or Enterprising types.

Holland did not believe that people could be compartmentalized as only one of these six types. He
suggested that most people would have a dominating type plus one or more additional types of less
influence. A person could have a dominant Conventional personality profile and also substantial
characteristics and interests similar to those categorized as Realistic and Social.

Thus, a coding system was devised to indicate a person's primary and secondary personality types.
The codes are given in three-letter combinations, with each letter corresponding to the first letter
of one of the six types. For instance, a code of RIA would indicate that the person is most like the
Realistic type; next most like Investigative and third most like Artistic.

Holland took the next step and classified hundreds of occupations according to the same
three-letter code system. For instance, for the code RIA, the occupations architectural draftsman
and dental technician are listed. It's possible that a person could begin to explore these two
occupations by going to standard publications such as the DOT and the Dictionary of Holland Codes,
which alphabetically list occupations that are related to the various codes.

The Party Game
Go to Figure 2.2( external link 06) and play The Party Game. Have fun and let your imagination fill in
the blanks.

After playing the game and determining a Holland Career Code for yourself, go to Figure 2
3(external link 07). and Figure 2.4(external link 08). Here you will find the people environments and
some sample occupations and career choices that match with your codes from The Party Game. You
will see a range of jobs or occupations. Some will require more education than others as an
entry-level position. The purpose is to obtain some idea of how personality types match with
occupational environments.

Although the complexity of personality types is not fully accounted for in Holland's system, it is a
notable attempt to simplify matters so that people can gain some personal insights about
themselves and others in the world of work.

Holland's system will also be discussed in Session 4, where theoretical assumptions and implications
will be given more attention. The system is mentioned here because it is one of the most popular
classifications used in career counseling and it is distinctly different from the others cited.

Lifespan Development

Historically, developmental specialists have argued about "nature versus nurture," but now most
believe that every developmental change is a product of both. In addition, today's developmental
specialists recognize that change happens throughout the lifespan. They look at three kinds of
changes: universal, group-specific and individual.

We play many roles in our lifetime. Along with the roles of employee, colleague or supervisor at work,
we will find ourselves playing roles in other "theaters." Throughout our lives, these might include
those of student, classmate or athlete at a school. It might be child, parent, sibling or spouse within
our families and leader, volunteer or neighbor in our communities. The centrality of work in one's life,
along with the roles in other life domains, constitutes a fundamental focus of career and lifespan
development.

Sometimes these roles are complementary and at other times they are in conflict.

When we are able to envision and then implement our life roles in complementary rather than
conflicting ways we can more optimally achieve the rewards of life-role balance. There is less stress
and a greater satisfaction in life.

One of the challenges for individuals pursuing a career throughout their lifespans is how to maintain a
high level of competence. As the composition of the workforce changes and new technologies are
developed, workers are faced with changing job demands and pressures. A major issue for the new
millennium is how long a worker's skills will remain current. Workers will likely find it necessary to
continually update their knowledge, skills and abilities or risk becoming obsolete. Career
development over the lifespan is a concept that is only now being embraced and recognized as
essential in the 21st Century.

Erickson's Developmental Stages

It might be helpful to note that there are also stages during a person's lifespan, and each stage has certain characteristics that influence the success of the ones that follow. For example, Erick
Erickson, a world-renowned developmental psychologist, proposed that development resulted from
the interaction between internal drives and cultural demands. He described eight life or psychosocial
stages that characterize one's lifespan, which can be seen in Figure 2.5(external link 09).

Erikson believed that an individual must successfully resolve a crisis at each of the eight stages of
development. Each crisis is defined by a pair of opposing possibilities, such as trust versus mistrust
or integrity versus despair. Successful resolution of a crisis results in the development of positive
characteristics. This does not mean moving completely to one side of each dichotomy. For instance,
an infant needs to have experienced some mistrust in order to learn to identify people who are not
trustworthy. However, healthy development requires a favorable ratio of positive to negative.

A study of the stages reveals that the early stages of development play a vital role in career
decision-making and career success. During their 30's, most adults begin to focus on occupational
achievement. A person's elder years are characterized by a life review in which one comes to terms
with basic identity and self-acceptance, both of which are directly related to successfully achieving a
career.

Career Lifespan Development

Donald Super (Columbia University) also provided a perspective of career development over the
lifespan. His theory is discussed more in Session 4. At this point it is enough to recognize that he
believed that people begin developing their career interests in childhood and build skills that allow
them to take further interest and explore occupations and careers as they move into adolescence.
Thereafter, people go through an exploration period, when they are tentative and there is some trial
and error in terms of finding a career fit.

This is followed by an establishment stage curing which they settle into a field of work and go
through career ladder steps. Then, there is a maintenance period that involves updating and
avoiding stagnation before a person enter into a stage of disengagement, when there is less
pursuit of career interests and goals. Finally there is a retirement stage when people disengage
themselves from their work and careers to pursue other interests before they die.

The lifespan developmental perspective on careers emphasizes continuity and a progressive and
dynamic process of maturation and adaptation. When people recognize this perspective as an
important dimension in their career planning and development, there is a greater chance they will
experience a satisfying career and personal life.

The Career Chase and Risk

Are you a risk-taker? Of course you are, even if you don't see yourself as one.

Like it or not, taking risks is an inevitable and inescapable part of life. Whether you're grappling with
getting married, starting a business, making a high-stakes investment, or starting a career, you'll
ultimately confront your own personal high dive. The primary issue is the degree to which you are
willing to consider risks - and actually take them.

What is risk?

Risk refers to the possibility of incurring loss or misfortune, to taking a serious chance. It has
sometimes been described as the probability of an unwanted event occurring. For our purposes, the
concept of risk has two elements: the probability or likelihood of an undesirable event occurring and
the severity of potential consequences. There are career-related risks.

Risk exists when something of value is put in a position to be hurt, damaged or lost. It is something
that is perceived as a threat, even though it may also be associated with a potential reward or
contain opportunities. Risks vary, depending on the degree that a person feels in control.

Defining a significant risk is a slippery task because of its phenomenological nature based on
individual perceptions. In other words, risk is typically in the eye of the beholder. However, it is clear
that certain behaviors involve a higher degree of risk than other options when we compare them in
terms of the likelihood and the severity of potential consequences, whether they are physical,
psychological, social or economic in nature.

We know that the perception of risk triggers a cascade of physiological changes that are
experienced as high arousal and anxiety. Those who actively seek risks often explain that these
intense feelings make them feel more alive, more fully engaged in living. For most of the rest of us,
however, those feelings of discomfort help explain why we are motivated to avoid risks and make us
wonder why people take risks at all.

Researchers have postulated that there are three different risk-taking types. These are:
- Risk Avoiders--who avoid activities due to the risks involved
- Risk Reducers--who participate in high risk activities in spite of the risks involved
- Risk Optimizers--who participate in high risk activities in part because of the risks involved

In theory people may move between these different approaches to risk, although existing evidence
suggests that risk taking is a personality trait, and as such people's attitudes toward risk are
reasonably stable over time. Risk avoiders may venture out of their comfort zones on occasion, but
it isn't easy.

There was a time when psychoanalytic theorists stressed the importance of our needs for safety.
They concluded that people who deliberately chose to take risks were illogical or even pathological.
However, there is no evidence to support these speculations. It is evident that risk takers tend to
be higher in the sensation seeking personality trait, but, beyond this shared influence, the
psychological profiles of individuals who take different kinds of risks are very different.

Like other personality traits such as shyness or perfectionism, the appetite for risk taking seems to
be a combination of factors related to both nature and nurture. Some experts believe that birth
order could play a part since some studies show second-born children to be more adventurous than
their older siblings suggesting the influence of nurture over nature. Other studies indicate some
people are genetically more predisposed to taking risks than others.

Risk and Fear

Learning to take risks, we are told emphatically, is one of the best ways to get ahead and t1riving,
or even to survive, today's tumultuous, ever-changing, tentative workplace. And yet, there are
millions of people who do not pursue their dream jobs or open their own businesses simply because
well meaning friends and family remind them of how "risky" it would be.

For example, suppose you are unhappy in your current job, but after talking with friends and family,
you convince yourself that you cannot risk leaving your job. You worry that you could never find
another job in a "down economy" or one with such good benefits. Both of these arguments may be
valid and worth consideration. But, are they worth risking your long-term psychological and physical
health and happiness? A better question to ask may be: What am I risking by staying in my current
job or situation?

Fears are endless. What if I fail? What if I make a fool of myself? What if everyone sees how
incompetent I am? There are imagined fears as well as real ones when it comes to assessing risk.

Most of us fear failure, but the fear of success- of surpassing out parents or siblings, of breaking
away from our past, of receiving awards and developing a new self-image-can also be scary to some
people. Any change, even a positive one, means we must let go of the past and cope with that loss
before we can embrace the future.

For example, some students who are in their last year of study and are getting ready to enter the
world of full-time work might worry that they won't find the camaraderie and security in their future
occupations that they did while in college. "Going to school is all I've ever done and it's all I really
know how to do." This fear alone has kept some students avoiding graduation, by not taking courses
needed to graduate or perhaps considering another major or academic program. One senior said,
"My home-the university--! really don't want to leave what I found here."

There are a million reasons not to change or to avoid doing something that feels scary. But at some
point, letting things stay the way they are c3n result in feeling smothered and constricted. Wanting
to experience something more yet not doing anything about it eventually becomes painful. For
instance, a person who feels stuck in a job but won't risk seeking another position could someday
find that going to work is almost unbearable. A person who is afraid to take a stand and speak up in
a business meeting may later feel guilty or even angry as others take the lead and make decisions
that are binding.

Types of Risks

There are several categories of risks, and each has specific associated fears. Here are some that
can be related to the career chase.

Intellectual or creative risks. Applying for a new job, going back to school, learning a new skill,
accepting a promotion, making a high-profile presentation or quitting a job-can bring up fears of
failure, of having the world discover inadequacies and of being humiliated. "They will find out what an
imposter I am."

Emotional or interpersonal risks. Answering an online personal ad, leaving an unsatisfying relationship,
or trying to deepen the level of intimacy in an existing relationship-can make one feel vulnerable or
needy and stir up fears of dependency. The idea of confronting an annoying co-worker or standing
up to an unreasonable boss can generate anxiety and dread. Even asking for help can sometimes be
scary, especially if we think that letting others see us as we really are will drive them away. "If they
knew me better, they wouldn't like me."

Physical risks. Learning to scuba dive, driving too fast for conditions, going bungee jumping or having
a baby-can bring up fears of injury, pain or even death. I here are physical risks associated with just
about any type of work, but some occupations are more hazardous than others, such as working as
a firefighter, a law enforcement officer or with toxic materials. We might worry that we're not agile
enough or that we lack stamina and endurance. "I'll make a fool out of myself if I mess up and I'll
probably end up getting hurt."

Risk and Consequences

Despite the fact that these risks are highly varied, they have one thing in common: the possibility of
negative consequences. The level of risk corresponds directly to the consequences of failure and
the likelihood of that occurring.

Although some people are undeniably "riskier" than others, it can be argued that we have evolved as
a species because of taking risks in order to survive and advance. Our ancestors often risked by
giving up the familiar in order to gain more opportunities for the future, by giving up the certainty of
how things were to discover how things might be.

The truth is that each of us is amazingly capable of doing things outside of our comfort zones.
People take risks all the time-committing to a relationship, deciding to have children, investing money,
or even taking a job. All of these choices come with some risk, yet we do it anyway. Why? It's
because the pay off seems to offset the risk.

When it comes to our jobs and careers, many of us tend to stick with the status quo unless we can
be sure of the benefits that a change would bring. To do otherwise may seem foolish, impulsive or
irresponsible. Having grown up with messages like "A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush" and
"A penny saved is a penny earned" and "Don't count your chickens before the eggs hatch," it is no
wonder that many people shy away from situations with unclear outcomes.

On the other hand, some people make changes without taking the time to think things through. In so
doing, they actually increase the level of risk and the likelihood of failure. Just as much as some
people need to push themselves to take more risks, there are those who could benefit from holding
themselves back and thinking things through.

Calculated and successful risk taking entails practice. It seems to work better if we start with
mini-risks first and then move up to the bigger ones. Sometimes this might involve making a change in
stages or working your way up to a major change. For example, suppose you've lived in your
hometown all your life and you're feeling stuck and bored. Rather than quitting your job, selling your
house and moving across the country all at once, you might first look at taking some intermediate
steps. Perhaps finding a different job within your company or community might be enough for a start.
Or, you might explore the idea of venturing into a new career area by taking some courses locally.
You could look for places where you could transfer within your company. These less drastic options
can give you some experience with risk and pave the way for that great big "go for broke" risk.

Taking Risks Successfully

Successful risk takers typically are far more calculating and likely to plan ahead. They use strategies
to minimize risk and have back-up plans. This is true whether you are going to climb Mount Everest
or start a new career.

So, how do you know if a risk is right for you? And, if it is right, how do you find the wisdom and the
courage it takes to succeed? Here are some guidelines that may make your risk taking more
successful:

- Start by asking yourself why you want to take the risk. How important is the new activity, job or
move to you? What motivates you?
- Leave yourself some options. Have a Plan 3 in case things don't work out.
- Take small steps at first. For example, take classes or attend professional association meetings or
interview others to learn more about a potential new career before jumping ahead and committing
yourself to a situation.
-Focus on the successful risks you have taken in the past. List them. Remember how you were able
to move forward in those situations and helped you along the way.
- Play the "what if" game. Ask yourself if you do take this risk, what is the worst-case scenario? If
that happened, then what would you do? Repeat the game until you have listed everything you might
do and all the resources you would need to be successful.
-Talk with people around you who seem to be at ease with similar risks. Ask them how they do it
and ask for their advice. Surround yourself with healthy risk-takers, people who motivate and inspire
you rather than hold you down through discouraging doubts.
-Remember, in life as in sports, you miss 100% of the shots you do not take!

The comfort zone is seductive. We all desire comfort; it's human nature. However, too much comfort
does not serve us well. An inability to step out of your comfort zone will profoundly limit your
performance. So how do you do it-step out of your comfort zone-when the thought of taking risks
can be so paralyzing?

Here are a few more ideas shared by successful risk-takers.

If you are someone who wants to take more risks in order to be more successful, sometimes you
might need to hush some of the external and internal noise in your life in order to hear your intuitive,
innermost voice. Seek solitude and silence in big and small ways-from retreating to a quiet, sacred
place once a year to turning off the radio on your commute to work. Listen for your negative
thoughts and challenge them. Reframe those negative thoughts into ones that motivate or
encourage you. Instead of thinking, "That's too hard, I won't be able to do it," try thinking something
like, "It would be difficult but I can still give it a try."

Take responsibility for writing your life scripts. Put an end to the old negative messages about
yourself, no matter where they might come from. It's useless baggage. Whether it's "I am not good
enough," "I am unlovable," or some other outdated line, revise your old, limiting scripts with a new
positive thoughts. Then "walk the talk" by seeking out risks that affirm your future, not your past.

If you really want to risk doing something, then defy inertia. Give up the "status quo" of your comfort
zone. Take some action. Hire a coach to help you learn the needed skills. Then, once you've made
your plan, create a little desperation with a sink-or-swim approach. Make taking a risk the vehicle
that moves you from where you are to where you want to be.

Turn up the pressure. Push yourself a little-or a lot. You can ask family, friends and colleagues to
nudge you, too. Spend more time with people who support you and ward off well-meaning but
negative advice. Create the kind of purposeful anxiety that gives you little choice but to take the
risk. Put yourself on the line.

Accept the process of trial and the error. Embrace the messiness and the mistakes. Surrender to
the loss of control that comes with the risk-taking territory. Learn to be comfortable with the
uncomfortable. When that doesn't work, learn that sometimes being uncomfortable is okay, even
good for you.

Acknowledge the emotional aspects of risk. You will reveal yourself to others when you take risks.
Be honest. Be vulnerable. Take the risk of sharing your true feelings to build deep, enduring
relationships.

Change can be frightening. It confronts us with one of the most fear provoking of situations: the
unknown.

When new things are invented and first introduced to the public, it often takes time before people
can understand and embrace their use. For example, watch this funny sketch of when the book was
first introduced and replaced the use of scrolls in the medieval ages.

http·//www.youtube.com/watch7v-4pxjRj3! IMRM( external link 10)

Even though we tend to focus on the dangers lurking in the unknown, opportunities reside there as
well. Although it is perfectly normal to be fearful of change, it can also immobilize us. Show courage.
As Mark Twain once said, "Courage is resistance to fear, mastery of fear, not absence of fear."

Make fear work for you. Use your fear to sharpen your focus and arouse your spirit. Fear can fuel
your ability to take and even enjoy the risk. Discover your capacity for fear-more than too little and
less than too much-and transform your fear into action. Know that courage is full of
fear-knee-knocking, teeth-chattering fear. At the same time, courage is determined, insisting that
you take the risk anyway.

If you are extremely cautious, you may learn the truth behind the old saying "Nothing ventured,
nothing gained." On the other hand, if you tend to be rather impulsive, you may regret those times
when you ventured too much or too quickly.

Your typical risk-taking style probably varies, depending on the type or level of risk. For example,
you may think nothing of buying lottery tickets or buying a new car, but have problems committing to
personal relationships. Or, you may be quick to take emotional risks but fairly cautious when it comes
to taking physical risks. Then again, you may ride all the thrill rides at the park but would not even
consider skydiving.

Consider the following questions in relation to taking risks.
- Do you make decisions very slowly? Very quickly? Or somewhere in between?
- Do you ask yourself "What is the worst that could happen if I do this?" or "What could go wrong?"
- Do you also consider the consequences of doing nothing?
- Do you look for ways to reduce the degree of risk?

How you answer these questions tells you something about the way you make decisions related to
risk. Whatever level or intensity of risk you take, including these considerations in your approach can
improve your odds of success.

You can make your risk-taking style support your career decisions. Taking calculated risks means
boldness with forethought. It means weighing the outcome and avoiding unwise actions. When we're
confident, we can survive change and new ideas and this, then, allows us to try even more new
things.

The career chase is about taking risks, but whenever possible they should be calculated and based
on knowledge of yourself and others. "Why not go out on a limb? That's where the fruit is," said Mark
Twain, one of many who has suggested that a life without risks is not a life worth living.



























Topic 3

Taking Stock: Self-Assessment

If you've put off career planning until now, it's time to take stock of your situation-to figure out
where you are now and where you'd like to go beyond graduation. In fact, this may be the best time
to do it. In this topic we will take a look at self-assessment in terms of career and lifespan
development.

Historically, assessment and evaluation have played a significant role in career planning. Assessments
are still used by the military to evaluate recruits and make placements. School counselors administer
and use them to help determine academic potential and career interests. Large companies often use
them to identify skills, aptitudes and personal qualities that match a company’s needs and mission.
Individuals use them to reach a better self-understanding and to consider how they match up with
career opportunities.

Assessment instruments and activities can help you know yourself better. It is assumed that the
greater self-understanding you have, the more likely you are to make satisfying educational and
career choices. Although self-understanding does not guarantee good decision-making, the best
decisions are generally a result of having a realistic picture of one's personal attributes.

You have already spent a great deal time in your life taking tests. You took them in high school. You
took required state tests to demonstrate minimum competencies in math, reading and language
skills. You took more tests, such as the SAT or ACT, to show that you were ready to pursue
secondary education at college or university level. You are taking tests in college courses that can
lead to a degree. You might have taken some admission and entry-level tests in your major field of
interest. You could not have survived in the academic world without being familiar with test taking.

Career assessment, however, is a little different. It goes beyond assessment of academic
achievement, and self-appraisal has a broader base. In addition to academic skills, there are other
considerations such as aptitudes, personality, interests and values. Besides the use of standard
tests, inventories and activities can also be effective. Let's take a closer look at measurement and
career assessment instruments.

Measurement is Essential

It's hard to imagine a day when we did not use measurement and measuring instruments in some way.
Measurement is essential to commerce, making things, selling products, and purchasing goods and
services. It is the fundamental process of science and technology. It permeates learning and working
environments. We use measurement when we operate our cars, prepare our meals and play sports.
We use measurement in nearly everything that we do.

Measurements enable us to estimate, describe and compare phenomena. The concepts of uniformity,
units and standards are basic to the process. They influence the tools or instruments we select to
measure things and help determine the degree of accuracy required or desired. Accepted formulas,
procedures in measurement, and the power of reasoning are applied to problem solving.

Of course, when applied to our personal lives and the choices we make, the human element and
practical considerations will also come into play. "How long a minute is depends on which side of the
bathroom door you're on."

Measurement experts agree that good assessment information provides accurate estimates and
that some measuring instruments are better than others for making decisions. This is based on their
accuracy and how consistent they are.

For our purposes, there are two major categories of assessment tools: Formal (standardized) and
informal (non-standardized).

For mal Measurement Tools

For mal assessments or measurement devices are standardized. They are commonly called tests.
Standardization is derived from having available some reliable and valid test data from which
conclusions can be made and generalized. Scientific research procedures are used to collect
supportive data that are reported in a test administration manual.

For the most part standardized tests offer a multiple-choice format in which a respondent tries to
pick the best possible choice in a given test item. Typically, the best answer is found among four or
five options presented on a linear scale (e.g. a,b,c,d) scores can then be quantified and used in
statistical analyses. From these analyses, it is possible to make comparisons to others who also took
the test (normative groups) and to arrive at some generalizations. The best tests are proven to be
valid and reliable.

Test reliability refers to the degree to which a test is consistent and stable. If a test is reliable then
it is consistent within itself and when administered from time to time. To understand the basics of
test reliability, think of how you rely on your bathroom scale to dependably show numbers that
reflect your weight. If it gave you drastically different readings every time you stepped on it,
regardless of any weight gain or loss, you wouldn't be able to trust it. You might discard it as
worthless, providing it hadn't sent you into shock. You want a scale that is reliable, one that you can
count on every time to show what you weigh on that particular scale, no matter if you cheer or scowl
at the results.

Test validity refers to the degree to which a test actually measures what it claims to measure. It is
also the extent to which inferences, conclusions and decisions made on the basis of test scores are
appropriate and meaningful. It answers the question: Does this test really measure what it says it
does?

Test validity is essential to test reliability. If a test is not valid, then reliability is a moot point. There
is no reason to discuss reliability without test validity because you won't know what you are
measuring and what you can conclude or talk about. You have nothing to consider in any meaningful
way. Likewise, if a test is inconsistent and n::>t reliable it cannot be valid.

Validity is traditionally subdivided into three categories: content, construct, and criterion-related
validity.

Content validity includes any validity strategies that focus on the content of the test. For instance,
to demonstrate content validity, test developers investigate the degree to which a test is a
representative sample of whatever objective the test is designed to measure. Do test items reflect
the basic nature of the concept being measured? To investigate the degree of match, test
developers often enlist well-trained colleagues or experts to make judgments about the test items.
They offer their opinions in terms of items being representative and matched to the test's
objectives.

Construct validity is an experimental demonstration that a test is measuring the construct it claims to
be measuring. A construct may be a theoretical concept, a specific skill or a psychological trait or
feature. Such an experiment could take the form of studying certain effects on different groups. For
example, the performances or results on the test from two groups might be compared: one that has
the construct, specific training perhaps, and one that does not have the construct. If the group with
the construct performs better than the group without the construct, that result is said to provide
evidence of the construct validity of the test.

An alternative strategy is called an intervention study, wherein a group that is weak in the construct
is measured using the test, then taught the construct, and measured again. If a non-trivial difference
is found between the pretest and posttest, that difference can be said to support the construct
validity of the test. Still other strategies can be used to study the construct validity of a test, but
the basic idea is that items on the test have proven to be able to tap into the construct that is
being measured.

Criterion-related validity is based on the correlation of the test with some other well-respected
measure of the same objectives. For instance, if a group were trying to develop a new test for
measuring academic achievement, they might make comparisons to results obtained from the
Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT). If statistical analyses indicate a high correlation, then the new test
might be considered to have high criterion validity. Conclusions, of course, also depend upon the
validity and reliability of the criterion instrument that is being used for comparison (:he SAT, in this
case).

Another version of criterion-related validity is called predictive validity. Predictive validity is the
degree of correlation between the scores on a test and the criterion that the test is designed to
predict.

For example, a number of studies have been conducted to examine the relationship between
students' Graduate Record Examination (GRE) scores and their grade point averages (GPA) after two
years of graduate study. The correlation between these two variables represents the degree to
which the GRE predicts academic achievement as measured by two years of GPA in graduate school.
Ironically, because predictive validity for the GRE is low in terms of GPA, many college and universities
are moving away from the tradition of using a high GRE score as the only determining factor for
admission into advanced degree programs.

High school GPAs tend to be better predictors of success in universities than performance on
achievement tests such as the SAT or ACT exams; yet, most students must take one of these exams
as part of their admission to college requirements. Test performance, more often than not, is simply
a convenient way for many college programs to reduce the number of applicants that they have to
consider. Nevertheless, measures of academic ability and achievement continue to be the most
widely accepted indicators of success.

A test score is never simply a score by itself. It reflects what the test is trying to measure and
requires careful interpretation. Test scores are transformed so that they can be interpreted.
Accuracy of the scores and their possible meaning is important. The following basic measurement
concepts should be reviewed prior to using career assessments: validity, reliability, norms,
Bell-shaped curve, percentiles and grade equivalents, standard scores, stanines, standard error of
measurement, and expectancy tables (See Figure 3.1(external link 01)).

As part of career assessment, there are tests that focus on academic achievement and specific
skills and aptitudes. These involve specific knowledge components where you either know or don't
know the information, the skill or the application. There is a correct or incorrect answer to each
question and it is fairly easy to interpret the test results.

Informal Measurement Tools

Some of the earlier attempts at career assessment concentrated on matching individual abilities with
job requirements. Test performance was related to job performance. A more contemporary
approach is to also consider other aspects of career decision-making, such as interests,
personalities, values, attitudes, academic performance, life style, work experiences and various life
roles (Zunker, 2005). This information involves more self-assessment and is typically collected
through informal assessments, such as inventories and checklists.

There is a difference between tests (formal assessments) and inventories (informal assessments).
Standardized tests attempt to be more objective and are used to measure knowledge and abilities.
Normative populations are used so that statistical comparisons can be made. Inventories are
subjective and tend to be a collection of se !-report items that may reflect interests, values, goals,
preferences or self-perceived competencies. These instruments usually depend less on right or
wrong answers. They are more focused on how people see and describe themselves. It is still
possible to compare one's responses to others. Self-reports from students, for instance, can be
compared to the self-reports of graduates who are working in a particular occupation and statistical
applications can be applied.

Informal assessment may also involve gathering information from observations, reports from
instructors and supervisors, school and work records, personal interviews and conferences, and
computer programs. This input, although still subjective, is designed to introduce some objectivity to
the process.

Take a moment and think about the following questions. What do you like doing? How do you spend
your time? What do you do best? What skills do you already have from previous experiences that
may transfer to new jobs? What are your unique traits and characteristics? What is important to
you? What do you need from a career besides money? How would you describe yourself? These are
the kinds of questions and issues career assessment tools are designed to address.

Conducting an effective self-assessment and self-report is not an easy task. It is difficult since you
are trying to examine how you think and feel or events in your lifetime. It requires personal reflective
efforts, as well as guidance from family members, counselors and teachers.

Formal and informal assessment instruments can help you identify your personal abilities, traits and
preferences related to career choice.

Through the use of carefully selected career assessment tools, you can facilitate an awareness of
yourself and your options and provide a fou1dation for decision-making and career planning. You can
prepare a personal career profile based on your assessments to reinforce your confidence that you
are headed in the right career direction or provide some evidence to help you reconsider plans and
perhaps seek new directions.

In general, career assessment focuses on:

- 1) acquiring information in an organized and systematic fashion
- 2) analyzing the results
- 3) looking at possibilities and making predictions
- 4) linking results to exploring careers
- 5) making a plan based on your insights

The data you collect from formal and informal assessments then become important resources as you
continue in your career and lifespan planning activities.

Assessments can help identify strengths and weaknesses regarding your potential and
preparedness for training or starting work. Goals can be linked to readiness. The predictive uses of
assessment are often restricted and based on limited research. In spite of this, assessments still
can play a valuable role in relating career goals and desires to the probabilities of future success
and satisfaction.

Be cautious regarding the interpretation of results since we rarely find any assessment results to be
definitive and final. While you are hoping that career assessments will provide a quick and easy
answer, the fact is that the measures are only vehicles for career exploration. They can also lead to
personal perspectives by highlighting information or themes and stimulating a person's thinking. In
some cases, you may need to use an instrument more than once to get a feel for it and better
identify your true choices.

Some career counselors use formal and informal assessments to help construct a career profile for a
client. Some counselors view them as exercises or procedures to help stimulate client thinking or
perhaps to motivate exploration. Few counselors see them as the most critical variable in the
decision-making process; rather, they constitute only one source of information about individual
characteristics.

Let's take a look at some common areas for discovery and exploration in career assessment

The Assessment of Achievements, Abilities, and Aptitudes

The terms achievement, ability and aptitude apply to similar or related attributes and are easily
confused. For our purposes, we might summarize their differences in terms of past, present, and
future. Achievement refers to what a person has learned (past); ability, to a person's current
functioning (present); and aptitude to a person's potential ability (future).

Correspondingly, the differences among the tests that purport to measure these traits are often
unclear. In the end, the most important difference is in the way test scores are used. While some of
these different types of tests may actually contain similar or even identical items, the kind of
determinations or decisions that can or should be made from their results is where the tests truly
differ.

Achievement

The term achievement is widely used to refer to what or how much a person has learned from
training or education, usually in school. Of course, what people have learned depends on their
abilities in a particular domain, and some achievement or attainment is required before certain
abilities can even be measured. We need, for instance, certain knowledge of arithmetic before our
mathematical ability can be measured. Therefore, achievement and ability tests are conceptually
linked.

Despite this link, an achievement test cannot be used with confidence to directly infer ability. For
example, we may be tempted to draw conclusions about individuals' scholastic abilities from their
academic achievement test results. In fact, that would be inappropriate considering the many other
potential variables affecting achievement test performance, such as the greater effort given to
learning or taking the test by some students than others.

Achievement tests are retrospective in nature; they provide a picture of what has been attained to
date. More specifically, they are intended to measure the extent to which individuals have learned or
mastered the information or skills that have been taught or presented. They are often used to
determine whether an individual is ready to move on to the next level of instruction or education.

For example, in the state of Florida, students in public postsecondary institutions are required to
pass the College Level Academic Skill Test (CLAST). The CLAST is an achievement test that
measures students' attainment of specified college-level communication and mathematics skills and is
an admissions test for upper level courses.

You may be familiar with the achievement tests offered throughout the country through the College
Level Examination Program (CLEP). CLE P provides students of any age with the opportunity to
demonstrate college-level achievement through a program of exams for undergraduate college
courses and earn college credit for those courses.

Ability

There is no widely accepted definition of the difference between ability and aptitude, and the terms
are often used interchangeably. For our purposes, the term ability is used to describe a person's
present capacity to perform a particular mental or physical task or function. It refers to what one is
currently able to do.

Ability tests are used to asses what someone is current able to do or accomplish. In employment
testing, ability tests might look at the extent to which a candidate is able to carry out the various
aspects of a job or role. For example, in computer programming, applicants might be tested in terms
of their proficiency in specific languages such as Java or Unix.

Perhaps the best examples of work-related ability tests would be those related to physical abilities,
such as vision, hearing or agility. These are not considered medical tests and are intended to assess
a person's fitness to perform job-related tasks. Job-relatedness, in terms of one's ability to perform
tasks competently and safely, is the critical factor in designing and using physical ability tests.
Otherwise, the tests might be viewed as discriminatory.

Cognitive ability tests reflect the hierarchical structure of intelligence that is generally accepted by
most researchers. A complete battery of ability tests would commonly include three main types:
- Tests of General or Global Ability (also called intelligence, IQ, or "g")
- Tests of Specific Cognitive abilities (abstract, verbal and numerical reasoning)
- Tests of Psychomotor and specific abilities (motor dexterity, spatial, mechanical)

Aptitude

The term aptitude refers to a person's potential ability or capacity to readily learn or to develop
proficiency in some particular area if provided appropriate education or training. Some professionals
refer to aptitudes as innate or natural abilities related to heredity rather than knowledge, education,
interests or opportunities.

For our purposes, aptitude tests are instruments used to measure traits that characterize an
individual's potential ability to perform in a given area or to acquire the learning necessary for
performance in a given area. The goal of aptitude testing, then, is to predict a person's capacity to
master a related set of skills or to succeed in a particular course of study or career.

Aptitude tests also tend to be job related and have names that include job titles such as the
Programmers Aptitude Series. Ability tests, on the other hand, are designed to measure the abilities
or mental processes that underlie aptitude and are named after them (e.g. Spatial Ability on the
General Aptitude Test Battery (GATB).

It is interesting to note the name changes of The College Board's SAT. Once referred to as the
Scholastic Aptitude Test and thought to measure a student's innate ability, the college entrance
exam administered by The College Board has been renamed the Scholastic Assessment Test. This
name change illustrates shifts in The College Board's claim about what exactly the SAT measures.
According to Wayne Camara of The College Board, the SAT measures "developed reasoning" linked
directly to the "depth and breadth of learning" acquired over time, both in and out of school. Many
websites and publications, however, still refer to the SAT as the Scholastic Aptitude Test.

The following are some of the major tests used in assessing abilities and aptitudes.

General Aptitude Test Battery (GATB)

The U.S. Department of Labor has conducted comprehensive and continuous studies on the validity
of the GATB, making it the most extensively researched instrument of its type. It enables counselors
to match test scores to aptitude levels published in the National Occupational Classification
Handbook, available in most career counseling centers. It measures nine aptitudes:

- general learning ability
- verbal aptitude
- numerical aptitude
- special aptitude
- form perception
- clerical perception
- motor coordination
- finger dexterity
- manual dexterity

The Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB)

Since 1972, over one million high school students per year have taken the Armed Services
Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB). It consists of eight tests:

- general science
- arithmetic reasoning
- word knowledge
- paragraph comprehension
- mathematics knowledge
- electronics information
- auto and shop information
- mechanical comprehension

There are three special career exploration scores - verbal skills, math skills, and science and
technical skills.

The battery is available to high school students at no cost or obligation to either the school or
student, although the armed services hope for recruitment benefits from this service. The ASVAB
has been extensively researched, and some of that research has raised questions about its
predictive ability.

The O*NET Ability Profiler

The O*Net Ability Profiler is a career exploration tool that uses a paper and pencil format and
computerized scoring to identify personal strengths and areas for which one might want to receive
more training and education. It also identifies occupations that fit a person's strengths.

More specifically, the O*NET Ability Profiler measures nine job-relevant abilities:

- verbal ability
- arithmetic reasoning
- computation
- spatial ability
- form perception
- clerical perception
- motor coordination
- finger dexterity
- manual dexterity

It is available through some university career counseling centers, local employment service offices
and state workforce development agencies. The O*NET Ability Profiler relates to information
compiled by the O*NET, the Occupational Information Network, a comprehensive database of worker
attributes and job characteristics.

The Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT) and American College Testing (ACT)

These are the two most popular tests used by institutions of higher education for admission and
placement, as well as career counseling. One or the other of these tests may have already affected
your initial career planning by influencing your choice of college or degree program.

The Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT) is designed to influence college admissions. It purports to
measure an individual's potential for performing in academic situations and, subsequently, it is often
used to determine entry into certain professional schools or colleges. The SAT measures critical
reading, mathematical reasoning and writing skills. Students may also take SAT Subject Tests to
demonstrate to colleges their mastery of specific subjects like English, history, science and
language.

In similar fashion, the American College Testing (ACT) Assessment is designed to assess academic
aptitude and predict future academic achievement. The ACT tests cover four skill areas: English,
mathematics, reading and science. There is also an optional writing test.

It may seem that aptitude tests would be the measures of choice for assessing individual's potential
in various areas. However, there is a body of research to suggest that cognitive ability testing is the
most credible predictor of job performance and that the validity of this predictor rises as the
complexity of the job rises. Conversely, the lower the job level, the more useful other aptitudes are
(e.g., motor skills) in predicting job performance (Gottfedson 1986; Schmidt, 2002). Furthermore,
while tests such as the SAT and ACT continue to be used for college admissions decisions, research
studies show high school grades have been a more reliable predictor of college success.

It is generally assumed that aptitudes are inherent and that aptitude test scores cannot be
improved, but some research shows that this may not always be the case. While short-term
cramming is not likely to produce improved performance, training in certain learning strategies and
thinking approaches has been shown to make a difference for individuals on some general aptitude
measures.

Although such measures provide insights and information for career planning, you should be wary of
making predictions about success based on aptitude tests alone. It's true that your aptitudes play a
major part in determining the availability of certain options. On the other hand, once you have
developed a more complete career profile for yourself, you will be in a better position to discover all
your options and find the ones that match all your attributes.

The Assessment of Values

Values give meaning and direction in a person's life. Your career choice offers you the opportunity to
enhance and perpetuate your personal values.
What you think is important and proper and what you view as standards of behavior and respectable
living are reflections of your value system. Values are the social principles, goals, or standards that
are held by an individual, group or society. It is evident that value systems vary widely from person
to person and even within groups that tend to teach similar values to their members, such as
cultures and families.

Your own set of values is based on ideas and experiences from a vast array of sources, such as
family, friends, teachers, religious and cultural heritage, community customs, public media and your
own inclinations.

Your values are reflected in the lifestyle you choose and the way you prioritize things. They are
evident in the manner you treat people and how you spend your time. They are shown more by what
you do than by what you say you believe, although your words provide helpful clues about your
values.

By the age of 1 0, most of us have unconsciously adopted values from our parents, teachers and
friends. As teenagers, we began to sort out which of these adopted values we want to freely
choose as our own. Some view this as a rebellious period and some adults take offense when
teenagers question or reject a value that they believe is important. In fact, however, this process of
values clarification is an essential part of growing up.

Mature, independent, successful individuals act on their own values rather than those of others. This
is a freeing experience from unnecessary guilt ("Oh, my mother wouldn't like that.") and indecision ("I
want to go into law enforcement, but my dad insists that I become an accountant."). Acting from
one's own values also fosters self-confidence, personal accountability, and satisfaction ("Regardless
of what happens, it's my decision and I'm responsible for it.")

Values can change as life goes on, although some are highly reinforced and pretty much remain the
same. Research about the life stages and the lifespan suggests that adults can and do make
dramatic changes in their personal and career lives as their values change or shift in terms of
prominence or priority. The process seems less traumatic for everyone involved when we
periodically review and reassess what is important to us.

For instance, one married couple decided to take jobs in a small city where they wanted to raise
their children. The jobs paid less than those in an urban area where there were more career
opportunities but also more congestion, crime and transportation problems. They wanted to play a
more significant role in raising their young children, and jobs with flexible time and daytime working
hours were high priority. They carefully considered how such a choice would affect their careers and
lifestyles. They asked themselves, "What do we really value in life?" These value considerations
helped them to reach their decision.

Duane Brown, a career theorist at the University of North Carolina, formulated a value-based model
of career choice. He pointed out ways that an individual's values influence career choices. For
example, working BO hours a week for 50 weeks out of the year to earn a significant salary makes
sense to the person who values materialism and who wants to buy and own a lot things. But, it is
hard to understand and accept for the person who values spending more free time pursuing
recreational athletics and time with family.

Brown's model is based on seven propositions:

- Values with high priorities are the most important determinants of choices.
- Values are acquired from society and each person develops a small number of values.
- Culture, gender and socioeconomic status influence opportunities and social interactions; thus,
considerable variation in the values of U.S. society can be expected.
- Making choices that coincide with values is essential to job satisfaction.
- The result of an overall role interaction is life satisfaction, which differs from satisfaction found
separately in marriage, job, leisure and other indices.
- High-functioning people have well-developed and prioritized values.
- Success in any role depends on the abilities and the aptitudes required to perform the functions of
that role.

When the model is applied to the career development process, it will involve values assessment
using such instruments as inventories, checklists, card sorts, and guided fantasies. After one has
identified and prioritized values, the focus shifts to searching and discovering possible careers and
then to decision-making. How can you identify your values?

Go to the Values Grid in Figure  3.2(external link 02). It provides an opportunity to sort your values
according to priority as reflected in things you have accomplished in your life to this point. Take
special notice of the definitions that are provided for each value. Do you agree or disagree with
them?

We work to make money, to support ourselves and our families. But that isn't the only reason we
work. We also work because the job gives us something that satisfies our needs and fits into our
value system. Identifying your work values can help you make better and more responsible choices.
There is a greater chance of harmony in your work life and less wasted effort in resolving
work-related conflicts. When your work life is congruent with your values, there is a high probability
that you will experience a satisfying career and continued personal development.

The Assessment of Interests

Your career interests include the kinds of work activities that attract you and you like to do. In
general, these interests become stable during early adult hood and, as a result, the same kinds of
activities that you enjoy at the beginning of your career will likely still be enjoyable many years later.
Your interests play a central role in determining your career satisfaction. Of course, new
experiences can lead to new interests in your lifetime.

The more you know about your natural tendencies and preferences, the easier it will be to identify
compatible occupations and career paths that will provide you job satisfaction. Too many times
people dismiss the notion that we can have careers based on who we are and what we like to do.
Sometimes we lose track of early dreams and special interests. In many cases, it is possible to
explore careers more closely aligned with our interests than we thought possible.

For instance, a young man was a good athlete and loved playing sports. His ability limited his chances
of competing at higher levels or becoming a professional athlete, despite the favorable recognition
he received in high school. Saying he would never make it as a professional athlete and following the
lead of others, he decided to pursue a career in accounting. He failed to note that his intense
interest in sports could have led him to such careers as coaching, sports writer, announcer, or
something else in the business of sports.

Interest inventories help individuals identify their preferences for particular activities. Suggestions
are then made regarding the occupations or occupational clusters that most closely match one's
interests.

Some other suggested career interest inventories for career assessment include the Self-Directed
Search (SDS), the Strong Interest Inventory (SII) and the Career Assessment Inventory (CAI).

The Campbell Interest and Skill Survey (CISS) helps you to assess your attraction to specific
occupational areas and your confidence in your ability to perform various occupational activities. It is
a systematic and comprehensive inventory of your self-reported interests and skills, based on
Holland's occupational themes. It compares your scores to the scores to the scores of people who
are happily and successfully employed in various fields. The CISS focuses on careers that require
some post-secondary education.

If you are interested, many college can university career centers provide this inventory for free or
at a nominal charge as part of their career planning services. You can also take the Campbell Interest
and Skill Survey (CISS) on the Internet at http://www.profiler.com/(external link 03). After you
complete the Inventory, you are charged $18.00 to view your results and access the CISS Career
Planner.

The Strong Interest Inventory (SII) was one of the first Internet measures to be developed and is
perhaps the most widely used. Like the CISS, it is based on Holland's occupational themes (codes)
and compares your scores to those of satisfied working professionals. You can take the SSI online at
a number of career assessment sites. For example, at Discover Your Personality
http://www.discoveryourpersonality.com/Strong.html(external link 04), you can see a sample report
as well as a listing of the different versions of the SII. Also, many college can university career
centers provide this inventory for free or at a nominal charge as part of their career planning
services.

For many years, interest inventories have been popular psychometric tools used to assist
individuals, from adolescence through adulthood, in career planning. In recent years there has been
an increase in the use of interest measurements for older adults who are considering career
changes. The potential values of such instruments include:

- Comparing and contrasting personal interests
- Verification of claimed interest or tentative choice
- Identification of previously unrecognized interests
- Identification of careers with related interests
- Contrast of interests with abilities and achievements
- Stimulus and beginning place for career exploration

The Assessment of Skills

Unlike other personal variables such as values, personality and interests, your skills can change
continually as you accumulate competencies during your lifetime. Although strictly speaking, your
skills are what you can do right now, you can increase your skills with training, practice and
experience.

The first goal of skill assessment is to identify those skills that you have already acquired. The
second goal is to learn what additional skills would be advantageous for you to master. With this
knowledge you can direct your college and work experience to build skills for growth, advancement
and success.

You can identify skills from different points of view. First, there are skills that are associated with
your interests. Then, there are skills that are well suited for success in today's workplace. Finally, it
is wise to be able to describe your skills in the language that employers use and understand.

Go to Figure 3.3(external link 05). where you will find a list of work-related skills. These are
considered essential skills by the U.S. Department of Labor. Review these skills and identify the ones
you currently have and rate yourself on each using a scale of 1-5, with 3 being average. Which skills
do you intend to acquire or master in the future?

Another skill assessment instrument can be found at the Arizona State University Counseling Center,
Tempe, Arizona. The ASU Skills Assessment
http://career.asu.edu/S/CareerPlan/SelfDiscovery/SkillsAssessment.htm(external link 06) is part of
their Steps Model and Self-Discovery program. It is free and can be easily accessed via the Internet.

The Assessment of Locus of Control

Who's in control of your life and how things turn out7 Another way of looking a personality is the
sense of control that one experiences. The Locus of Control Test
http://discoveryhealth.queendom.com/ls_short_access.html(external link 07) is a simple 13 item
questionnaire. It attempts to measure internal versus external control of reinforcements.

People with an internal locus of control believe that their own actions determine the rewards that
they obtain, while those with an external locus of control believe that their own behavior doesn't
matter much and that rewards in life are generally outside their control. In other words, those who
primarily have an internal locus of control believe that they are most likely to determine what
happens to them in their careers rather than trusting to luck or the good will of others.

The Assessment of Behavior: Behaviorism

The experimental analysis of behavior dominated psychology for much of the 20th century. The
result was a belief that human beings are primarily shaped by the conditions in their environment,
particularly in terms of how they have been rewarded or reinforced for the their behavior.
Behaviorists searched for laws of behavior that could be confirmed by scientific approaches. The
emphasis was on what could be observed and measured. Behaviorists viewed unseen internal
variables as unreliable conjectures full of myths and unsubstantiated beliefs. According to
behaviorists, since nobody has ever seen a "self concept" or "anxiety," we can only infer them from
observed behaviors.

Behaviorists propose that you are drawn to jobs and occupations because of the way you were
reinforced as a child and the subsequent reinforcements that you receive for doing certain things
and moving in certain directions. Continued interest and commitment of energy to a job or career is
dependent upon the personal reinforcement received. A critical issue when applying this theory to
career development is identifying the reinforcers in a person's life. People may pursue a job or
career for many different reasons and money may not always be the most important reinforcer.
Indeed, the differences in what individuals believe reinforce them and what their behaviors indicate
can be surprising.

Initially, the main competitor to Behaviorism was the more clinically oriented Psychoanalysis. However,
this approach to understanding personality development was based on patients in mental health or
hospital settings. There was a focus on abnormal behavior and helping people live more healthy lives.

In reaction to both these approaches and the impact of the "cognitive revolution", new theories
emerged. These Cognitive Social Theories consider both emotional and behavioral principles, looking
our actions as well as our thoughts.

The Assessment of Personality Temperaments and Types
Philosophers and psychologists have studied human behavior for centuries. There is a natural
interest in understanding why people behave the ways they do and differently from each other. The
study of individual differences (and similarities) in human behavior is the study of personality.

Personality has been defined as the totality of an individual's behavioral and emotional
characteristics. It is a set of traits that form a pattern, and it helps distinguish one person from
others. In order help us understand our own patterns of behavior and those of others, we have
developed assessments that enable us to look at personality types and styles.

What is the source of one's personality? Heredity plays an important part and some social scientists
suggest that 40.50 percent of our personal characteristics are set at birth. Environment, including
cultural conditions and the influence of others, also plays a significant role. In addition, the different
situations that people experience can contribute to how one's personality is shaped.

More recently, some social theorists have begun to view personality in terms of temperaments and
types. Your temperament, for instance, is your basic inherited style. It is the fabric underlying who
you are. Generally speaking, our basic temperaments are either more extroverted or introverted.

One's temperament is something like an artist's canvas. Your personality is what you create on the
canvas of your basic temperament. Two people with like temperaments may be very different in
actual behavior and the choices they make. Theorists maintain that the factors affecting personality
include socialization, education, birth order and siblings or lack of siblings. Personality also includes
the interpersonal pressures that cause us to adapt and change our behaviors. It is a comprehensive
approach that gives special attention to disposition and personal preferences.

Holland Revisited

Currently, there are two major career assessment approaches that embrace the role of personality
in career and lifespan development. The first is based on the work of John Holland. His theory,
classification system, and fundamental approach were introduced and discussed previously. In
addition, his coding system is the basis for several career interest assessments such as the ones
mentioned earlier in this topic.

Holland described individual differences in terms of six personality types based on worker
characteristics and occupational environments: Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising,
and Conventional (R, I, A, S, E, C). The initials of the Holland Codes are useful for helping people to
make sense of the relationship between occupational types and college majors and career fields.

Go to the Personality Mosaic found in Figure 3.4(external link 08).

In topic 2, The Party Game provided a simplified and informal approach to finding your personality
type in the Holland system. The Personality Mosaic is a relatively fast and easy paper-pencil
inventory that will provide you with your three Holland Codes. Do you end up with the same codes as
you did from The Party Game?

If you choose to revisit the Holland codes as part of your self-assessment, you might find the
following instruments interesting and helpful.

The Self Directed Search (SDS) http://www.self-directed.com/(external link 09) is a
self-administered, self-scored, and self-interpreted career interest inventory that provides scores
on Holland's six occupational themes. It was developed by Holland and can now be taken online. It
consists of a very simple list of preferences and takes 15 minutes to complete. An 8-16 page
personalized report will appear on your monitor. This printable assessment report also provides a
list of the occupations and fields of study that most closely match your interests.

The SDS is one of the assessments that is often available through college and university career
centers for free or for a nominal charge, including online assessment and personal follow-up.

The LiveCareer Test, also known as the Career Directions Inventory (CDl) is free and takes about 25
minutes to complete. The results are cast in the Holland codes, and the test is available at the
LiveCareer http://www.livecareer com/default.htm(external link 10) website.

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

The second major approach is based on the work of Carl Jung, a famous psychoanalyst and founder
of analytic psychology, who presented a detailed analysis of personality temperaments. In
Psychological Types (1921) Jung described the concepts of extroversion and introversion for the
study of personality types and temperaments. His work laid the foundation for the development of
the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
http·//www.myersbriggs.org/my-mbti-personality-type/mbti-basics/(external link 11)

Isabel Myers and her mother, Katharine Cook Briggs, were both astute observers of human behavior.
They were drawn to Carl Jung's work, which sparked their interest into a passionate devotion to put
the theory of psychological type to practical use. With the onset of World War II, Isabel Myers
recognized that a psychological instrument founded on the understanding and appreciation of human
differences would be invaluable. She continued researching and developing the Type Indicator over
the next four decades, until her death in 19BO.

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) has been sorting out personality types since 1943, which is
quite an achievement. Even after all those years, it is still said to be the most popular and widely
used personality assessment tool of its kind in the world. More than 2.5 million MBTIs are given each
year. Eighty-nine of the Fortune 100 companies, including AT&T, Exxon and General Electric, use it to
identify job applicants whose skills match those of their top performers. Beyond the office park,
there are workshops applying Myers-Briggs theory to marriage, teaching, spirituality, financial
planning, sports and parenthood.

Supporters say that the Type Indicator endures because it does a good job of pointing up
differences among people; offers individuals a revealing glimpse of themselves; and is a valuable
asset in team-building, improving communication and resolving personality-based conflicts. Even
critics acknowledge its popularity and that it provides some insights into personality. Research on
the instrument has continued into the present, with dozens of articles published each year. Many
consider it an essential tool for career counseling, planning and development.

According to this theory, everyone is born predisposed to certain personality preferences.
Topologists have devised four pairs of preference alternatives, as stated below:

- Extraverted (E) or Introverted (I)
- Sensing (S) or iNtuitive (N)
- Thinking (T) or Feeling (F)
- Judging (J) or Perceiving (P)

In Myers-Briggs typology, a person's pattern of responses results in a four letter temperament type
based on the four pairs of preferences. With the MBTI and similar instruments, it is important to know
that the whole is greater than the sum of the parts. In other words, you won't get the same picture
from simply stringing together the basic descriptions for your four preferences, such as ESTP. This is
because in the interpretation of your responses, the system uses the combination of the first and
last letters, E- -P, in this example, to determine the roles of the middle two letters, -ST-.

There are several ways to learn about your MBTI temperament type. Many college and university
career centers offer it free or for a nominal charge and include online assessment and personal
follow-up. In addition, several websites offer the MBTI.

For an immediate assessment, you can go to The Personality Test Center
http://www.personsalitytes.net/(external link 12). This is a free website that provides a personality
inventory from which you can obtain your personal MBTI codes. Click on the second listed test. At
the bottom of the introduction page, click on Take the Test. After responding to the 68 items, click
on Results and you will view a page that shows your personality type. Next, click on the links to find
descriptions of the types and how they are related to work environments.

The Riley Guide http://www.rileyguide.com/assess.html#types(external link 13) is another website
that provides a comprehensive list of self-assessment resources. Some of those cited are free and
others charge a small fee. The site also contains a number of ideas about job searches, including
some thoughts about con artists who target jobless citizens. Probably the biggest caution and tip
about bogus offers and schemes is: You should never pay someone to help you find a job.

CareerPath.com http://www.careerpath.com/(external link 14) is an online career resource center
that will assist you in making career decisions. It provides self-assessment inventories and relates
them to jobs. There is a career planner quiz for those just starting out and a job satisfaction quiz for
those who feel stuck in their jobs and want a change. There is also a test to help you identify
personal attributes and what they might say about you and a job.

The Personality Questionnaire (PQ) http://www.personalitypage.com/home html(external link 15) is
another website that may interest you. You can take the Personality Questionnaire (PQ) at a nominal
cost to find your MBTI type. This site provides excellent links to information about the four basic
preferences and detailed descriptions of the sixteen personality types.

The Jung Typology Test is a free online test available at HumanMetrics
http://www.humanmetrics.com/cgi-win/JTypes2.asp(external link 16). It is based on Jung's work and
provides the basic MBTI typology. The results include your type formula, strength of preferences for
each domain, and your type description.

As you read the temperament and type descriptors, it may seem like you are reading your
astrological prediction out of a periodical or newspaper, which is one criticism of such descriptions.
Nevertheless, they can provide some interesting clues to understanding personality types, and
these types can be matched to occupations which fit similar types.

The Keirsey Temperament Sorter was developed by psychologist Or. David Keirsey, In the book
Please Understand Me II, he describes a system of personality classification known as the Keirsey
Temperament Sorter. It uses four scales to sort respondents into one of four temperaments and
one of sixteen character types. His work is based on the MBTI but he uses different labels and
descriptors.

The Keirsey Temperament Sorter uses four scales to sort individuals into one of four Temperaments
and one of sixteen Character types. The four preference scales measure a respondent's preference
for:

- (E) Expressive vs. (I) Attentive
- (S) Observant vs. (N) Introspective
- (T) Tough-Minded vs. (F) Friendly
- (J) Scheduling vs. (P) Probing

The four Keirsey Temperaments are Artisan, Guardian, Rational and Idealist.

- Artisans prefer jobs where they can troubleshoot, respond to crises and negotiate. They
also enjoy identifying and responding to opportunities.
- Guardians prefer jobs that demand responsibility. They enjoy improving the efficiency of
processes and setting up standardized procedures.
- Rationals enjoy jobs that demand a high level of expertise and high standards of competence.
They enjoy designing and understanding systems.
- Idealists enjoy jobs that allow them to support and encourage others. Their tendency to be
enthusiastic can energize and improve the moral of others.

You may choose to take the Keirsey Temperament Sorter-11 (KTS-11)

http://www.advisorteam.org/(external link 17)

You have free access to the test and a free temperament report. There is also an option to
purchase a full report regarding the four-letter code that your score indicates.

Other Personality Assessments

The Birkman Method http://www.birkman com/(external link 18). With over 50 years of experience
and development, the Birkman is widely used by many large companies throughout the world, as well
as by numerous career consulting services. Roger Birkman, a former WWII pilot, initially developed the
Birkman Method as part of a University of Texas project during the late 1940s. The goal was to
identify useful psychological measures for pilot selection for the U. S. Air Force.

As a result of this work, Dr. Birkman determined that he could create a single assessment tool that
could measure social expectations, self-concepts, interests, and stress behaviors. He developed his
instrument using normal working populations of people in business and industrial settings with
questions derived from research and other widely used personality tests.

The Princeton Review Career Quiz

http://www.princetonreview.com/cte/quiz/career_quiz1.asp( external link 19) is a brief quiz of 24
items based on the Birkman Method. Based on your responses to these preference items, you will
receive a report about your personal Interests and Usual Style as related to career choices. After
you register for free, you will receive a list of careers that match.

The Big Five and the NEO Personality Inventory arose from the 19B5 work of Costa and McCrae, who
studied the results of a range of personality questionnaires using factor analysis and constructed
the Five Factor Model (FFM). They identified five major factors that could explain most of the
personality traits covered by several different measures.

On the basis of this research, they designed the NEO-Personality Inventory which measures
differences between individuals on these five dimensions:

- Extraversion/Introversion
- Agreeableness
- Conscientiousness
- Emotional stability
- Openness to experience

Because of the empirical origins of the FFM, which is its primary appeal, no single theory is best
supported by its structure. On the other hand, because the FFM is essentially an attempt to find the
"lowest common denominators" among personality words across all languages, it is able to serve as a
source for measuring the constructs defined by most other personality tests. It is still a work in
progress and perhaps there will be a practical use for it, in the future.

The Personality Test Center http://www.personalitytest.net/(external link 20) provides a short
online version of the NEO-Personality Inventory at no cost. The primary purpose of this inventory is
to educate the public about the five factor model of personality and to explain the likely
consequences of one's standing in five broad personality dimensions.

The Riley Guide http://www.rileyguide.com/assess.html#ltypes(external link 21) is another website
that provides a comprehensive list of self-assessment resources. Some of those cited are free and
others charge a small fee. The site also contains a number of ideas about job searches, including
some thoughts about con artists who target jobless citizens. Probably the biggest caution and tip
about bogus offers and schemes is: You should never pay someone to help you find a job.

CareerPath.com http://www.careerpath.com/(external link 22) is an online career resource center
that will assist you in making career decisions. It provides self-assessment inventories and relates
them to jobs. There is a career planner quiz for those just starting out and a job satisfaction quiz for
those who feel stuck in their jobs and want a change. There is also a test to help you identify
personal attributes and what they might say about you and a job.

A Word of Caution

Career assessments are not the final answer. Some instruments on the Internet lack validity and
reliability and could give you a misleading or confusing picture of yourself.

Even worse, they could match you with jobs, training programs or college majors that don't fit you.
Additionally, all self-report instruments depend on the respondent's accuracy and honesty regarding
their personal traits and preferences in order to provide a true profile.

Richard Bolles (2011), author of the renowned book What Color Is My Parachute, also has a useful list
of cautions (rules)
http://www.jobhqntersbible.com/counseling/sec_page php?sub_item 048(external link 23). Perhaps
the most important is that you are unique and career tests are not really tests. They are inventories
and comparisons are based on what a group of respondents have indicated. Generalizations can be
tricky, although they can lead to some insightful paths. Any career inventory or assessment is only
one sample of who you are at the time of taking the "test."

Calling these instruments "tests" will spark an argument with some people because no one can really
fail them. There are no right or wrong answers. Even well established instruments fail to account for
all relevant variables and are not truly appropriate measures for all the situations in which they are
used. For example, the Myers Briggs Type Indicator has not been proven to be a strong measure for
selecting potential employees although it is often used that way.

If you are not sure about a particular test or inventory, you can talk with a professional career
counselor, perhaps at your university or college's career resource center. Keep in mind that no test
can tell you what to do. They can help you to think more about yourself; to identify promising
careers, training programs or college majors; and to study your options and alternatives.

The virtues of instruments that try to assess personality types are often illusory. Research shows
that a single person's scores are unstable, often changing over the course of years, weeks, even
hours (a individual may be a good intuitive thinker in the afternoon but not in the morning). And,
worse, there is little evidence of the correlation of test scores with school performance, managerial
effectiveness, team building or career counseling. However, research continues and the instruments
cited in this topic are examples of the best of what is currently available. They can still be useful for
self-assessment and career exploration, when used with descretion.

American psychologists have long tried to capture our personalities, interests, needs and values.
Their efforts thrive today in a testing business worth $400 million a year in which some 2,500 tests
are on the market. This does not count the little inventories and checklists that appear in popular
publications or are developed by counselors and teachers as informal assessments. Enthusiasm for
testing may be a particularly American phenomenon, as testing for career placement is not used as
much in other countries.

After all, a society that extols freedom and self-determination is one whose citizens have choices.
And with choices come anxieties -- about educational options, career directions and even mate
selection. Self-understanding and advice are thus welcome, if not eagerly sought, by most Americans
who are in the career chase. Besides, what could be more attractive to a society as individualistic as
ours than devices that explore and exalt our perceived uniqueness?