Battle of Midway (Military History)

Introduction

Following the successful attack on Pearl Harbor and the effective destruction or crippling of the US Navy’s battle line, Japan’s First Air Fleet carriers of Kido Butai proceeded to rage almost unopposed for the next four months. Mindful of the importance of their aircraft carriers, which had escaped being at Pearl Harbor, the Americans were careful to choose their moments of deployment carefully. In the meantime, the commander in chief of the Combined Fleet, Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, grew impatient with the delay in bringing the enemy carriers to pitched battle. As long as the US carriers remained at large, both Japan’s plans and defense perimeter were threatened. Fully aware that Japan had perhaps a year, at most, before the full weight of America’s industrial might came to bear, Yamamoto devised a plan that he hoped would force a decisive carrier and surface battle on Japan’s terms and at a time of Japan’s choosing. There was one crucial catch. Yamamoto’s plan as conceived depended heavily on the element of surprise; that is, the American carriers must be lured into defending Midway. There was almost no allowance for Admiral Chester W. Nimitz having already placed his carriers in position beforehand. Yet, due to epic and brilliant codebreaking, that is exactly what happened. Sufficiently persuaded and forewarned by intelligence work, Nimitz stationed three carriers northeast of Midway. These carriers were in position well before the morning of 4 June 1942, the day Japanese admiral Chuichi Nagumo’s carriers were to raid Midway. The result was the Battle of Midway. By the time it was over, the invasion had been repelled, and four of Japan’s six fleet carriers and one of its heavy cruisers had been sunk. American losses in aircraft and pilots were severe, and an aircraft carrier and destroyer were sunk. But the Japanese navy could not afford such a trade. The heretofore seemingly invincible weapon system, the elite sword that was Kido Butai, had been shattered. Two of the three carrier divisions that formed the core of the First Air Fleet had been destroyed. After Midway, the United States and its allies wrested the strategic initiative from the Japanese and never really lost it again.

Official Histories and Publications

Official histories either covering the Battle of Midway or including it as part of an overview form important primary sources of the battle. Tsunoda 1971, the Midway volume of the official Japanese war history, helped reveal the errors in the Allied understanding of the battle. Craven and Cate 1948–1958 remains a principal reference on the Army Air Force’s role at Midway, and Hough, et al. 1958 covers the land defense preparations. Kirby 1957–1969 and Roskill 1954–1961 complement each other for giving Great Britain’s perspective. Morison 2001 is the starting point for the American side. The US Strategic Bombing Survey (USSBS) produced two important works, with Interrogations of Japanese Officials (US Strategic Bombing Survey 1946) containing numerous immediate postwar interviews, and Campaigns of the Pacific War (US Strategic Bombing Survey 1969) serving as a still-important translation of official Japanese documents. The English translation in US Office of Naval Intelligence 1947 and the Japanese original of the Nagumo Action Report (Takeshita 1971) are the primary-source foundations for the progress of the battle from the Japanese side.

Craven, Wesley F., and James Lea Cate, eds. The Army Air Forces in World War II. 7 vols. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1948–1958.
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This is a general but detailed rich overview of the deployment and operations of the US Army Air Forces in World War II. The chapter on Midway gives a good description of the B-17 strikes against the Japanese fleet, and the role of land-based air during the battle.
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Hough, Frank O., Verle E. Ludwig, and Henry I. Shaw Jr. History of U.S. Marine Corps Operations in World War II. Vol. 1, Pearl Harbor to Guadalcanal. Washington, DC: US Marine Corps, 1958.
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The official history of the US Marine Corps. The section on Midway gives good details of the preparations to repel the Japanese invasion and the events of the battle. The defense of the island and destruction ashore during the Midway are described.
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Kirby, Stanley Woodburn. The War against Japan. 5 vols. London: H. M. Stationery Office, 1957–1969.
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The definitive official British military history of the war. Forming part of the official British histories, the volumes have broad overview but predate the declassification of intelligence data.
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Morison, Samuel Eliot. History of United States Naval Operations in World War II. Vol. 4, Coral Sea, Midway and Submarine Actions, May 1942–August 1942. Edison, NJ: Castle, 2001.
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The fourth olume of S. E. Morison’s celebrated histories, originally published in 1948; it covers Midway in considerable detail. For the Japanese side, it uses mostly information from the US Office of Naval Intelligence and the interrogations of Japanese officials. Though very early in publication, and thus dated with notable inaccuracies of detail, it remains a useful overview and important historiography reference.
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Roskill, Stephen W. The War at Sea, 1939–1945. 3 vols. London: H. M. Stationery Office, 1954–1961.
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The official Royal Navy history of World War II. The Royal Navy equivalent of S. E. Morison’s fifteen-volume History of United States Naval Operations of World War II. Regarding Midway, it closely follows Morison’s text.
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Takeshita Takami. Nantōhōmen kaigun sakusen. Vol. 1, Gato dakkai sakusen kaishimade. Senshi Sōsho 49. Tokyo: Asagumo Shinbunsha, 1971.
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Translates as “Southeast area naval operations to the beginning of operations to recapture Guadalcanal”; excerpts as translated by Rear Admiral Edwin T. Layton, US Navy (Ret.) The seminal official Japanese reference work on the operational history of the Pacific War. Restricted to those with proficient reading knowledge of Japanese. However, for those familiar with Japanese-language characters and references and notes for place names, it is possible to locate sections of interest by use of the convenient chronological section headers.
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Tsunoda Hitoshi, ed. Middouē kaisen. Senshi Sōsho 43. Tokyo: Asagumo Shinbunsha, 1971.
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The Midway volume of the official Japanese history when published in 1971 announced major corrections from the Japanese. Edited by Tsunoda and incorporating new research and interviews, it went well beyond a basic official reference. It is worth noting that information derived from its extensive Midway volume forms the corpus of the related Midway chapter in Paul Dull’s book (Dull 1978, cited under Pacific War Operations).
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US Office of Naval Intelligence. The Japanese Story of the Battle of Midway: A Translation. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1947.
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Better known and more commonly referred to as the “Nagumo Report,” this is in fact the detailed action report of the First Air Fleet (Detailed Action Report 6), as translated by Fred Woodrough Jr.
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US Strategic Bombing Survey. Interrogations of Japanese Officials. 2 vols. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1946.
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The title is the content. These two volumes contain scores of interviews of Japanese officials made immediately postwar. Despite errors of recall or moments of deliberate misdirection, the interviews remain crucial sources both of facts and contemporaneous mindsets.
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US Strategic Bombing Survey. The Campaigns of the Pacific War. New York: Greenwood, 1969.
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This is an important book compiled from the USSBS surveys, and it contains many translated Japanese source documents and reports. Though some errors appear, it remains an influential and important primary source.
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Pacific War Overviews

To put the Battle of Midway in its largest context of the Pacific War or the greater East Asia conflict of World War II, there are a number of good starting points. D’Albas 1957 is an interesting and early full overview from the Japanese navy’s perspective, translated from French to English. Costello 1981 is a good one-volume overview that includes the revelations from declassified codebreaking. Gilbert 1989 also utilizes these sources but is a study of the entire Second World War. For contemporaneous or nearly “real-time” accounts, Karig and Purdon 1944–1952, a multivolume record, is highly recommended. Casey 1942 when read with Pratt 1944 provides a contemporaneous view of the US Navy mindset and outlook as it recovers from the Pearl Harbor attack and goes on the offensive. Ito 1962 is one of few translations of a full war overview of the operations of the Imperial Japanese Navy. Prados 1995 tells the story of the Japanese navy through the translations, intercepts, and summaries of Allied intelligence, well framed by a readable narrative. Van der Vat 1991 delivers an important and balanced summary from a broader Allied perspective. Mason 1986 offers an intriguing anthology of personal experiences of participants.

Casey, Robert J. Torpedo. Junction: With the Pacific Fleet from Pearl Harbor to Midway. Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill, 1942.
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As its publication date would suggest, this book offers an early “real-time” look at how the US Navy remade itself after the debacle of Pearl harbor. It is written with a vivid narrative and gives good insight into the frame of thought at the time before the later Pacific War.
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Costello, John. The Pacific War. New York: Rawson, Wade, 1981.
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An important overview of the Pacific War from start to finish, running some eight hundred pages. In size and narrative it bears some resemblance to the well-known Rise and Fall of the Third Reich, by William Shirer (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1960). It was among the first entries to fully integrate the post-1970 revelations of the role of intelligence and codebreaking work. More of a comprehensive chronological narrative rather than a work focused on details.
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D’Albas, Andrieu. Death of a Navy. Translated by Anthony Rippon. New York: Devin-Adair, 1957.
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French captain D’Albas had access to Japanese sources and interviews and put together a remarkably good and important early book. Translated from the French by Rippon.
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Gilbert, Martin. The Second World War: A Complete History. New York: H. Holt, 1989.
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Though a full-length general history, this work is significant for being among the first overviews to include the revelations of the work of Allied codebreaking and signals intelligence. It incorporates and takes full account of the role of intelligence gathering and analysis at Midway.
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Ito, Masanori. The End of the Imperial Japanese Navy. New York: Norton, 1962.
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An early but still-valuable work by a Japanese reporter, it offers important insights into Japanese thinking and some quotes of participants throughout the war. Must be used cautiously because it relied on many US Strategic Bombing Survey sources and thus repeats any errors.
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Karig, Walter, and Eric Purdon. Battle Report. 5 vols. New York: Farrar & Rinehart, 1944–1952.
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Among the most celebrated of the immediate postwar histories, the five volumes of Karig and Purdon’s history age well. Though errors of fact and detail sometimes intrude, they are balanced by the prolific use of action reports and eyewitness quotes that still make vivid reading. A memorable time capsule of the worldview and conceptions of the time, when the first details from the Japanese side were just starting to appear.
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Mason, John T., Jr., ed. The Pacific War Remembered: An Oral History Collection. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute, 1986.
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An interesting collection of reminiscences throughout the Pacific War. There are a few entries from Midway.
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Prados, John. Combined Fleet Decoded: The Secret History of American Intelligence and the Japanese Navy in World War II. New York: Random House, 1995.
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An excellent and highly readable narrative that provides one of those “pull it all together” histories into continuous story form. The author uses the fruit and products of codebreaking efforts to tell the progression of the Pacific War. This refers not only to broken ciphers, but also to the work of ATIS (Allied Translator and Intelligence Service), whose translations of Japanese diaries and records both during the war and immediately postwar are heavily drawn from to support the narrative.
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Pratt, Fletcher. The Navy’s War. New York and London: Harper, 1944.
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Gives contemporaneous insight into the US Navy’s reaction after Pearl Harbor, and how the tide of feeling had turned after the Battle of Midway.
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Van der Vat, Dan. The Pacific Campaign: World War II, the U.S.-Japanese Naval War, 1941–1945. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1991.
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An important overview of the Pacific War from a Dutch historian. Among other things, he calls Midway “a search for a modern Trafalgar” on the part of Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto. The author considers Midway an overreach that was likely to end in defeat.
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Pacific War Operations

The war in the Pacific continued until 1945, but for the best understanding of the Battle of Midway, works covering the operational period before 1943 are generally the most relevant. Dull 1978 furnishes the most complete operational overview from the Japanese perspective. Imperial Japanese Navy Page delivers regularly updated and valuable Japanese ship operations and histories. Lundstrom 1976, Lundstrom 1984, and Lundstrom 1994 deliver comprehensive and standard-setting study of the 1942 naval air war. H. P. Willmott in two volumes (Willmott 1982a, Willmott 1982b) covers the period of interest from a simultaneous high-altitude and sea-level perspective, both political and operational. Frank 1990 gives good description on the impact of Midway on Japanese carrier operations at Guadalcanal. Dickson 1974 retroactively covers the legacy of Midway on Japanese carrier operations in the Battle of the Philippine Sea.

Dickson, W. David. The Battle of the Philippine Sea, June 1944. Sea Battles in Close-Up 11. Surrey, UK: Ian Allan, 1974.
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The author is a recognized expert on carrier warfare. This volume in the “Sea Battles in Close-Up” series by Ian Allan covers the Battle of Marianas, or Philippine Sea. It is relevant to Midway in its retroactive understanding of Japanese carrier operations.
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Dull, Paul S. A Battle History of the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1941–1945. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute, 1978.
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Incredibly important and ambitious work, seeking to tell the story of the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) by almost sole use of the Japanese microfilm reels and Bōeichō Boeikenshūjō Senshishitsu (BKS) volumes from their war history section. Its importance is difficult to overstate. Though faulted for notable editing errors, in many cases it is simply a result of how faithful Dull is being to his sources. Dull rarely attempts any critical review or check of the reel and BKS records.
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Frank, Richard B. Guadalcanal: The Definitive Account of the Landmark Battle. New York: Penguin, 1990.
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Scholarly and comprehensive work on the Guadalcanal campaign, making full use of official documents and testimonies of both sides. The aftermath of Midway and how it affected Japanese command reorganization and policy at the eve of the Guadalcanal invasion are examined.
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Imperial Japanese Navy Page.
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This website is valuable for its detailed stories and narrative records of Japanese warship movements.
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Lundstrom, John B. The First South Pacific Campaign: Pacific Fleet Strategy, December 1941–June 1942. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute, 1976.
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A rich-in-content book that was essentially the author’s master thesis. It proved to be far more; a sterling and clearly appraising overview of the first six months of war for US carrier forces. It contained important revelations, such as the fact that Admirals Chester Nimitz and William Halsey Jr. coordinated to deliberately have TF 16 spotted after the Battle of Coral Sea, to give leverage to bring them back to Pearl for Midway when Chief of Naval Operations Ernest King wished them to stay in the Southwest Pacific. As he would go on to do in his acclaimed First Team series (Lundstrom 1984, Lundstrom 1994), Lundstrom made full use of Japanese sources and Senshi Sosho official history.
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Lundstrom, John B. The First Team: Pacific Naval Air Combat from Pearl Harbor to Midway. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute, 1984.
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First of two-volume series of naval aviation in the first year of the Pacific War, which set a new standard by which subsequent works would and should be measured. Makes exhaustive use of official sources and documents both of Japanese and Allied forces. Is distinguished by a scholarly but readable style and is well illustrated at intervals to support the text.
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Lundstrom, John B. The First Team and the Guadalcanal Campaign: Naval Fighter Combat from August to November 1942. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute, 1994.
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The second volume covers the carrier actions through the Battle of Santa Cruz. Like the first volume, the research into individual pilot and squadron activities as well as vessels has few peers. It shows well how the Japanese carrier forces applied the lessons of Midway.
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Willmott, H. P. Empires in the Balance: Japanese and Allied Pacific Strategies to April 1942. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute, 1982a.
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The first volume of a celebrated three-volume comprehensive history of the actions of the nations engaged in the Pacific War. This volume spans events from December 1941 up to the Doolittle Raid on Tokyo in April 1942. Like other works by the author, it incisively covers logistics.
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Willmott, H. P. The Barrier and the Javelin: Japanese and Allied Pacific Strategies, February to June 1942. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute, 1982b.
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The second volume of Willmott’s three-volume history of the Pacific War, it covers Coral Sea to Midway. As before, the discussion of how logistics governed decisions, or the seesaw manner by which some strategies were devised, is vividly explored. Both from a “20,000-foot view” and a sea-level view, the descriptions are excellent. For Midway, even such things as how the design of the ships influenced their fates is touched upon.
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Relevant Pearl Harbor Works

The attack on Pearl Harbor, along with D-Day, is one of the most written and talked about events of World War II. However, its importance regarding the Battle of Midway lies in what it reveals about Japanese naval air operations, doctrines, and performance. In some ways the Battle of Midway was Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto’s intended sequel to Pearl Harbor. Since documentation for the Japanese side at Pearl Harbor is more extensive than at Midway, it can often shed light on the latter. Four of the Japanese carriers at Midway were also at Pearl Harbor. A partial listing includes the following. Goldstein and Dillon 1993 and Goldstein and Dillon 2004, collections of Japanese sources, give important details. Prange 1981 is a classic account of Pearl Harbor and along with Lord 1967 (cited under General Overviews: Standard) forms one of the two most familiar narratives including perspectives of both sides. Stephan 1984 explores the question of not only whether the Japanese ever intended to occupy Hawaii, but whether the logistical means to do so existed. This is a question of some importance in determining the possible value of Midway if it had been seized. Willmott, et al. 2001 sets forth intriguing logistical analysis and consideration of some controversial theories. Zimm 2011 provides balance and a fresh critical analysis from a military operations perspective that has bearing on the Japanese options at Midway.

Goldstein, Donald M., and Katherine V. Dillon, eds. The Pearl Harbor Papers: Inside the Japanese Plans. Dulles, VA: Brassey’s, 1993.
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A fascinating annotated assemblage of Japanese-source documents and writings dealing with Pearl Harbor from the collection of Gordon W. Prange, the Pearl Harbor historian par excellence. They cover the range from the diary of destroyer Akigumo to the post-attack reports to Tokyo.
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Goldstein, Donald M., and Katherine V. Dillon, eds. The Pacific War Papers: Japanese Documents of World War II. Dulles, VA: Potomac, 2004.
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A book much like the earlier Pearl Harbor Papers (Goldstein and Dillon 1993). An important collection of Japanese primary-source documents and writings from the collection of Gordon W. Prange, the renowned Pearl Harbor historian. These papers cover topics ranging from the Java Sea campaign to the bombing of Truk in 1944 and the construction of the Yamato-class battleships. A series of essays by Masataka Chihaya offer valuable summaries of the Pacific War from the Japanese perspective.
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Prange, Gordon W. At Dawn We Slept: The Untold Story of Pearl Harbor. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1981.
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Along with Walter Lord’s Day of Infamy (New York: Holt, 1957), this is one of the best-recognized accounts of Pearl Harbor that has gained general and wide exposure. Its author, the esteemed Pearl Harbor historian and expert Prange, died before it could be completed, but it was ably edited and published by his associates Goldstein and Dillon. Meticulously sourced and cited, the book has the page-turning readability of a novel with colorful portraits of the principal and supporting actors. It has stood the test of time and numerous successors.
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Stephan, John J. Hawaii under the Rising Sun: Japan’s Plans for Conquest after Pearl Harbor. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1984.
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An important book that convincingly tackles the logistical obstacles and evaluates the sources to determine whether the Japanese ever posed a realistic threat of invading Hawaii or ever planned to occupy it.
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Willmott, H. P., with Tohmatsu Haruo and W. Spencer Johnson. Pearl Harbor. London: Cassell, 2001.
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One of the better logistical overviews of Pearl Harbor; its discussion of the Japanese carrier force’s nature and tactics has direct bearing on Midway.
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Zimm, Alan D. The Attack on Pearl Harbor: Strategy, Combat, Myths, Deceptions. Philadelphia: Casemate, 2011.
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Despite the plethora of books on Pearl Harbor, few if any have studied it from the perspective of a military forensic analysis. This important book solves that issue and offers a wealth of analysis regarding Pearl Harbor and Japanese capabilities that sheds light on Midway as well.
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Encyclopedias

Encyclopedias and similar reference works merit mention, despite their general brevity, for two principal reasons. It has been remarked that it is often difficult to find information on individuals. For such men as Admirals Nagumo or Kakuta, the compact essays found in such references can be useful. Similarly, for certain locations or places that may have changed names in modern times, encyclopedias can fill the gap. Chesneau 1984 is a super one-volume photo and table reference for aircraft carriers. Fuller 1992 is the first English-language reference on Japanese officers and was revised and expanded in Fuller 2012. The three volumes in Tucker 2002 are an expansive look at naval history. Whitley 2000 and Whitley 1995 provide references for cruisers and destroyers that are similar to Chesneau 1984. The Pacific War Online Encyclopedia and the World War II Database provide valuable interactive references for events and places in the conflict.

Chesneau, Roger. Aircraft Carriers of the World, 1914 to the Present: An Illustrated Encyclopedia. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute, 1984.
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An excellent pictorial reference with supporting text that lists the aircraft carriers of the world’s navies in alphabetical order by country. The photographs and illustrations are carefully chosen, and, as a yardstick, it should be remembered that the first edition in fall 1984 was among the first to publish a photograph of Shinano.
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Fuller, Richard. Shōkan: Hirohito’s Samurai. London: Arms & Armour, 1992.
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Except for its 2011 and 2012 expanded reissues, this book is virtually the only English-language work to provide an accessible reference to many of the large number of Japanese generals and admirals. The entries for each vary in length and quality, however, and sometimes contain surprising omissions. Still, it is indispensable for this kind of reference. Useful translations of terms are provided.
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Fuller, Richard. Japanese Admirals, 1926–1945. Atglen, PA: Schiffer, 2012.
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This book is a descendent of the author’s companion volume, Shōkan: Hirohito’s Samurai, updated and enlarged since 1992. It is one of the few, if not the only source, of short biographical data of Japanese principals.
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Pacific War Online Encyclopedia.
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Very useful reference site with topics arranged alphabetically, with active links on a long home page.
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Preston, Antony. Jane’s Fighting Ships of World War II. New York: Random House, 1989.
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The title can mislead readers seeking some kind of retroactive study of the World War II navies, since this is basically a reprint of the wartime-era editions of Jane’s Fighting Ships and is valuable for that reason in showing what was in the “general knowledge” at the time. With that limitation in mind, a useful book.
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Tucker, Spencer C., ed. Naval Warfare: An International Encyclopedia. 3 vols. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2002.
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An impressive reference that is “international” in range of time, as well as subject, covering some 2,500 years of naval history. Beyond his own vast expertise, the editor even consulted experts in various fields in compiling individual entries, adding a special value to the work. For Midway, useful essays on subjects such as Admiral Nagumo and individual vessels are found.
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Whitley, M. J. Cruisers of World War Two: An International Encyclopedia. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute, 1995.
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A very good “one-place” reference for cruisers, both heavy and light, in all the involved navies. The treatment is broad and concise. Though the plan drawings are basic, they depict the essential profiles. Similar to the author’s other books. It bears noting that there are no descriptions for aircraft carriers, but Chesneau 1984 nicely provides a similar-quality one-volume overview.
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Whitley, M. J. Destroyers of World War Two: An International Encyclopedia. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute, 2000.
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One of a series of similar books by the same author, this volume for destroyers (first published in 1988) is useful because it includes many neutral-nation vessels and provides a quick reference to the destroyers involved at Midway. Another factor of interest is that it does not exclude torpedo boats, lending a value of a single-volume reference for screen vessels.
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World War II Database.
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A comprehensive and actively growing online resource complete with maps, photographs, and concise but detailed capsule histories. Regularly updated and perhaps the best of its kind.
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Generalist Works

There are books on Midway that are too general or too summary in nature to be considered studies; these are classified as generalist or “first-acquaintance” introductions. They generally lack primary sourcing, and have few if any citations. They warrant mention because of wide dissemination, conveying the conventionally believed version of the battle. Sanford 1976 earns honorable listing as the Midway movie novelization and precisely captures the received conception of the Battle of Midway. Barker 1973 is the installment for Midway in the celebrated Ballantine Illustrated war series. Werstein 1961 offers a readable general account.

Barker, A. J. Midway: The Turning Point. Ballantine’s Illustrated History of World War II: Battle Book 20. New York: Ballantine, 1973.
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An entry in the celebrated Ballantine Illustrated war series, it remains a good conventional account with appropriate illustrations.
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Sanford, Donald S. Midway: A Novel. New York: Bantam, 1976.
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This is the novel tie-in to the June 1976 Universal Pictures movie Midway, which has proven to be the main influence on the general public’s understanding of the battle. This lends it a discernible historical value too, for how it captured the popular and conventional understanding of Midway that held for the Western world till the end of the 20th century.
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Werstein, Irving. The Battle of Midway. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1961.
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A modest, concise work, heavily dependent on research by Mitsuo Fuchida and Samuel Eliot Morison. It serves as a typical example of the conventional view of the Battle of Midway as handed down.
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General Overviews

For convenience, general overviews of Midway are presented here in two main phases divided by major revision scholarship of Japanese origin: General Overviews: Standard includes most of the conventional received history that derived almost exclusively from a select handful of sources. For the Japanese side in particular, a heavy and uncritical reliance by researchers on Fuchida and Okumiya 1955 (cited under General Overviews: Standard), a translation to English, led to the perpetuation of several myths. For the American side, certain limitations were imposed by existing restrictions on access to codebreaking elements or personal correspondence. Japanese historians uncovered major errors in popular works starting in the 1970s, which led to the second phase of Western writings. General Overviews: Modern comprises books dealing with updates and major corrections to the record, resulting from greater access to Japanese-language sources and the current revisionist scholarship in Japan. For a host of reasons, the language barrier not least, these findings were rarely consulted by Western researchers until near the end of the 20th century. Hence, full revisions in Japan were begun about thirty years earlier than in the West. It is crucial to realize that apart from consulting necessary Japanese corrections in the record, so-called conventional or Phase One works remain largely accurate and highly recommended accounts.

Standard

After the war, Stanley Eliot Morison’s Coral Sea, Midway and Submarine Actions, May 1942–August 1942, which is Vol. 4 of his History of United States Naval Operations in World War II (Morison 2001, cited under Official Histories and Publications), was one of the first received accounts of the Battle of Midway, having actually derived much of its documentation from Bates 1948 (see Analytical Studies). When the English edition of Fuchida and Okumiya 1955 appeared, it by and large for good or ill cemented or “froze” Western conceptions of the Japanese side. General book-length accounts of the Battle of Midway have appeared regularly since the 1950s. Most did not venture too far from the foundation created by Morison’s and Mitsuo Fuchida’s works. Tuleja 1960 provides a notable exception, attempting a critical approach to the evidence that remains useful. Smith 1966 gives a readable British perspective. After that, two books in particular have risen to special prominence. Lord 1967 delivers not only a highly readable but a rare critical approach to misconceptions of Midway, with important use of witnesses and evidence. Prange, et al. 1982 was published posthumously from a body of work that was nonetheless largely distilled by 1972, and it is one of the best full overview narratives of Midway from start to finish from all aspects of the event. Makishima 1956 is an early Japanese-language anthology of interviews that Prange was able to draw upon. Barker 1973 (cited under Generalist Works) is a good example of the classic conventional overview and would form the backbone of the famous 1976 Hollywood movie interpretation of the battle, of which Sanford 1976 (see Generalist Works) is the movie novelization and popularizes the conventional and still-common conception of the Battle of Midway. Healy 1993 an entry in the Osprey series, captures the conventional Western understanding of the Battle of Midway as distilled by the end of the 20th century. Bicheno 2001 gives a good narrative of this type.

Bicheno, Hugh. Midway. Cassell’s Fields of Battle. London: Cassell, 2001.
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A good overview of the Battle of Midway, one of the last before the extent of the Japanese revisionists began to appear in English. Naturally it does not factor subsequent revisions on the American side either. However, the book stands out in its illustrations, and in its setting of the full context of the Pacific War strategy and intelligence at hand.
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Fuchida Mitsuo, and Okumiya Masatake. Middowē. Tokyo: Nihon Shuppan Kyodo, 1951.
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The first book-length account to emerge from the Japanese side postwar, this book was translated into English (Fuchida and Okumiya 1955) and became the foundational source for the Japanese side for Western historians. Discredited in particular by Senshi Sosho and modern Japanese historians from the 1980s to the early 21st century, it remains a commonly printed overview. The Japanese version differs from the English in one respect: a little more description is found, but it is lacking in the charts and illustrations of the latter.
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Fuchida, Mitsuo, and Masatake Okumiya. Midway, the Battle That Doomed Japan: The Japanese Navy’s Story. Edited by Clarke H. Kawakami and Roger Pineau. Translated by Masataka Chihaya. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute, 1955.
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First completed for publication after February 1951 in Japan under the title Tragic Battle of Midway, when the US Naval Institute had this translated and published in English, it became the bedrock source for the Japanese side in standard Western works on the battle. Its early date, readable narrative, and apparent credentials heavily influenced subsequent researchers, but certain inaccuracies and myths thus became cemented into the record. When compared with the original (Fuchida and Okumiya 1951), the translation does rather closely follow the original, but some abridging is visible.
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Healy, Mark. Midway 1942: Turning-Point in the Pacific. Edited by David G. Chandler. Osprey Military Campaign 30. London: Osprey, 1993.
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An installment in Osprey’s celebrated pictorial series on arms and equipment of war. It is a good rendition of the conventional understanding of Midway at its most mature point. It has since been revised by Mark Stille (Oxford: Osprey, 2010), with 21st-century revelations taken into account.
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Lord, Walter. Incredible Victory. New York: Harper & Row, 1967.
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Written in the engaging episodic style of his prior works on Titanic (A Night to Remember) and Pearl Harbor (Day of Infamy), Lord’s book remains one of the most important among early Western books on Midway, on a par with Fuchida and Okumiya’s and exceeding it in its care and impartial examination of evidence. Since Lord interviewed several Midway participants and took the time to critically examine the evidence, this is a far more important book than most realize.
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Makishima, Teiuchi. Middoue no Higeki. Tokyo: Shosetsu, 1956.
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Translates as “The tragedy of Midway.” The author-cum-editor was aboard Akagi at the Battle of Midway. After the war he edited a group of multipart articles for Shosetsu fan magazine. This was bound with other popular articles into book form.
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Prange, Gordon W., Donald M. Goldstein, and Katherine V. Dillon. Miracle at Midway. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1982.
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Previewed by Reader’s Digest in November 1972 and posthumously published by Goldstein and Dillon, carefully assembled like Prange’s At Dawn We Slept (Prange 1981, cited under Relevant Pearl Harbor Works). Along with Day of Infamy and A Glorious Page in Our History, it is among the best narrative full views of Midway. Despite the Japanese revelations, and new insights into the Hornet’s operations, it remains principally sound and indispensable.
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Smith, William Ward. Midway, Turning Point of the Pacific. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1966.
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Written by a retired vice admiral of the US Navy, it has considerable value especially for the US Navy side—the author exchanged correspondence with many of the high-ranking participants, including Chester Nimitz, Frank Jack Fletcher, John S. Thach, and Elliott Buckmaster.
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Smith, Peter C. The Battle of Midway: The Battle That Turned the Tide of the Pacific War. Rev. ed. Staplehurst, UK: Spellmount, 1996.
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This is a nice general treatment from a British historian. It is a good example of the conventional account of Midway as understood toward the close of the 20th century, before the work of the Japanese revisionists became generally known.
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Tuleja, Thaddeus. Climax at Midway. New York: W. W. Norton, 1960.
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A good overview of the Battle of Midway that is additionally important because it contains the professor’s attempts to reconstruct flight plans of the battle and such minutiae as the positions when struck, to determine which bombing squadron should get the credit for which Japanese carrier.
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Japanese Major Revisions

In the 1970s, while Western works of Midway continued to follow the received account in Fuchida and Okumiya’s book, in Japan historians became increasingly aware that the popular works had severe flaws and myths, some resulting from the postwar context, and some apparently deliberate. A full revision and correcting of the record began on the Japanese side with the research and writing of the official war histories generally known as Senshi Sosho of the Japan defense agency. In Tsunoda 1971 (cited under Official Histories and Publications), it was revealed that popular works of such Japanese officers as Ryunosuke Kusaka and Mitsuo Fuchida were factually incorrect and even misleading. By the 1980s, Japanese writers were diligently uncovering fresh truths about the battle and correcting the record. Sawachi 1986 contains ten years of research exhaustively exposing distortions and myths of Midway. Ikari 1989 investigates the relationship of the Japanese navy arsenal to policy. Hashimoto 1999 presents stories of the neglected subordinate ranks at Midway from various participating ships, and Sakonjo 2011 is a good one-volume example of the updated Japanese account of Midway. Mori 2012, in two volumes, deepens the investigation and posthumously publishes staff officer admissions of deliberate omissions from the Nagumo Report.

Hashimoto Toshio. Shōgen middouē kaisen. Tokyo: Kojinsha, 1999.
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Translates as “Witnesses to the Midway sea battle.” A Japanese-language work that, as the title implies, is an episodic collection of participants’ testimony as they experienced the battle aboard their particular vessel. The accounts span the whole range of witnesses, from the captain of the destroyer Hagikaze, to the damage control officer of the Kaga, to the helmsman on the Hiryu.
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Ikari Yoshiro. Kaigun kūgishō. Tokyo: Kojinsha, 1989.
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Translates as “Navy arsenal.” Japanese-language book about the work of the Dai-Ichi Kaigun Koku Gijitsusho (naval technical arsenal), or Kuji-sho in shorthand. Covers the planning and production of various Japanese military designs, including the famous Ohka or “Baka” rocket-plane bomb.
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Mori Shiro. Middowē kaisen. 2 vols. Tokyo: Shinchosha, 2012.
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Translates as “Naval battle of Midway.” A very important Japanese-language modern work on Midway by a respected Japanese historian. Mori interviewed many participants in the Battle of Midway, some entrusting him with secrets to be revealed posthumously. Confirms and expands on the revision that rejects Kusaka’s and Fuchida and Okumiya’s accounts of Midway.
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Sakonjo Naotoshi. Middowē kaisen. Tokyo: Shin-jinbutsu Ohraisha, 2011.
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Japanese-language work, translating as “Midway action.” Written in a history book style with neatly divided event sections and each description being concise. Important for summarizing current Japanese scholarship and the discrediting of postwar conventional versions of Midway.
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Sawachi Hisae. Kiroku Middouē kaisen. Tokyo: Bungei Shunju, 1986.
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Translates as “The naval battle of Midway: A record.” An important modern Japanese-language scholarly work that unearthed a series of falsehoods and distortions about the Battle of Midway. Chronicles the battle in comprehensive and exhaustive detail, complete with a detailed appendix of all the officers and crew. It discusses apparent fabrications in the official record by First Air Fleet staff, and the distortions of the popular histories of the battle in Japan to date.
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Modern

As related previously, commencing in 1970 the Japanese uncovered serious errors and discrepancies in their received account of Midway and began revising the record in the decades that followed. However, on the Western side, due to a combination of the language barrier, costs, and academic inertia, little attempt was made to examine—let alone present—these findings to Western audiences. This did not begin to change until the late 1990s, as the Japanese scholarship began to filter over bit by bit. Thus, rather conveniently, revisionist works presenting the Japanese findings in the West can generally be said to postdate 1999, and to really take hold in the middle of the first decade of the 21st century. These could be called modern-overview or postmillennial writings. In addition, revisions to the American side of the account appear regularly as restrictions expire and more Allied records and personal memoirs surface. These have tended to relate to the realization that Midway was not so much an American miracle as a triumph of planning, strategy, and design. Other revisions concern the activities of the USS Hornet’s air group and intelligence operations. Cressman, et al. 1990 arguably is the best fully integrated narrative and pictorial account of Midway and makes several corrections to the record. It should be considered the first of the modern works, yet it was slightly too early to include all but a little of the Japanese revisionist work. Parshall and Tully 2005 presents a comprehensive and in-depth look at the Japanese story of Midway. The authors distill some of the work of the Japanese revisionists to English and broaden the picture with extensive new investigations. Isom 2007 further and closely examines the reasons the Japanese failed to launch their grand strike in time. Tully 2008 examines the merits of the findings and suggests enhancements, and Hone 2013 collects much of the modern works to date. Stille and Gerrard 2010 is a full revision of the 1993 volume published by Osprey. Symonds 2011 appears to be the most up-to-date one-volume treatment including the new discoveries. Lundstrom 2006 (cited under Allied Subjects) reveals mishandling of American flight operations of USS Hornet and corrects interpretations by Frank Jack Fletcher. Russell 2006 distills a number of findings and revelations, and Wildenberg 1998 reveals how the success of the naval scout plane and dive bomber SBD Dauntless at Midway was a result of foresighted design and not luck. Smith 2007 gathers and presents fresh source materials and insights on the battle.

Cressman, Robert J., Steve Ewing, Barrett Tillman, Mark Horan, Clark Reynolds, and Stan Cohen. “A Glorious Page in Our History”: The Battle of Midway, 4–6 June 1942. Missoula, MT: Pictorial Histories, 1990.
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An important work whose detail and precision of narrative are matched by its photo selections. It is arguably the best one-volume work covering both US and Japanese sides in detail. For the Allied side, it is especially the go-to volume on squadron operations and the fate of various aviators. For the Japanese side, read with Shattered Sword (Parshall and Tully 2005) and Midway Inquest (Isom 2007).
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Hone, Thomas C., ed. The Battle of Midway: The Naval Institute Guide to the U.S. Navy’s Greatest Victory. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute, 2013.
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An anthology prepared to present the battle’s significance, using strategic excerpts from prior works, memoirs, speeches, newspaper articles, and government documents.
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Isom, Dallas Woodbury. Midway Inquest: Why the Japanese Lost the Battle of Midway. Twentieth-Century Battles. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2007.
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The author’s anticipatory presentation in a Naval War College Review article in August 2000 (see Isom 2000, cited under Controversies), expanded into a book. One of a group of important books such as Shattered Sword (Parshall and Tully 2005) and Black Shoe Carrier Admiral (Lundstrom 2006, cited under Allied Subjects) that correct and displace conventional Midway accounts of the details and complexities of the Japanese rearming procedure and the time constraints imposed. These and message delays left too-little time before the dive-bomber attack to spot and launch attack.
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Parshall, Jonathan B., and Anthony P. Tully. Shattered Sword: The Untold Story of the Battle of Midway. Washington, DC: Potomac, 2005.
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The historians of CombinedFleet.com, during research on the carrier Kaga’s story, discovered in 2000 that the long-established Midway, the Battle That Doomed Japan (Fuchida and Okumiya 1955, cited under General Overviews: Standard) had been discredited by the Japanese. A new English-language work was needed in its place to examine the Japanese story of Midway. The result was this book, which along with Isom 2007 and Lundstrom 2006 (cited under Allied Subjects) forms one of the significant English-language revisionist works.
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Russell, Ronald W. No Right to Win: A Continuing Dialogue with Veterans of the Battle of Midway. New York: iUniverse, 2006.
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This book is a product of the celebrated Battle of Midway Roundtable, written by its former moderator and editor. A very useful ensemble of veterans’ accounts in one place, and an interesting discussion and insightful analysis of early-21st-century controversies. Takes pain to establish what can be known and what remains uncertain.
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Smith, Peter C. Midway: Dauntless Victory; Fresh Perspectives on America’s Seminal Naval Victory of World War II. Barnsley, UK: Pen & Sword Maritime, 2007.
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More an exhaustive comparison of Midway accounts to date, rather than a narrative. This book also includes fresh revelations from a US Select Committee and new eyewitness accounts and information held by the author.
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Stille, Mark, and Howard Gerrard. Midway 1942: Turning Point in the Pacific. Oxford and Long Island, NY: Osprey, 2010.
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This book is in fact an updated revision of the Osprey publication from 1993 of similar name (Healy 1993, cited under General Overviews: Standard). It is a thoughtful reworking to take account of the major revisions of 21st-century scholarship. It is also a very good introduction and overview, well illustrated by Gerrard in the style for which the series is known. Especially recommended for a first-run understanding of the Battle of Midway that will not misled by relying on disproven ccounts.
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Symonds, Craig L. The Battle of Midway. Pivotal Moments in American History. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011.
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A well-written overview that has additional importance in being among one of the first such works to incorporate the new revelations of 21st-century English works from Japan. It tells the entire story of the Battle of Midway from start to end, incorporating the then-most-recent discoveries.
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Tully, Anthony. “Midway Inquest: Why the Japanese Lost the Battle of Midway (Review).” Journal of Military History 72.2 (April 2008): 602–604.
DOI: 10.1353/jmh.2008.0128Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
This provides a balanced look and endorsement to Isom 2007. By one of the authors of Shattered Sword: The Untold Story of the Battle of Midway (Parshall and Tully 2005).
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Wildenberg, Thomas. Destined for Glory: Dive Bombing, Midway, and the Evolution of Carrier Air Power. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute, 1998.
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Effectively explores how the oft-touted “miracle” of the SBD Dauntless dive-bomber success at Midway in actuality owed itself to foresighted design and planning. Demonstrates that the achievement at Midway was no accident of war.
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Japan at War

The War in the Pacific, to a far greater degree than that in Europe, was also a clash of cultures and worldviews. There are some key sources for the Western reader to understand the Japanese perspective and mindset going into the Battle of Midway. Japan at War 1895–1945 on the Axis History Forum regularly presents discussion using contemporaneous or translated accounts on military and cultural subjects. Bergamini 1971 gives a monumental overview of the progression of Japanese decisions. Edgerton 1997 narrows the focus to the culture of the Japanese military, while Mayer 1976 presents the equipment, attitudes, and deployments of this military in one accessible volume. Evans 1986, in anthology form, lays out the myriad experiences of Japanese naval officers in their own words. Schom 2004 explores the topic from more of a cultural-clash approach and integrates its beginnings in the Sino-Japanese war. Cook and Cook 1992 gives an unusual and valuable insight from many Japanese home front or civilian experiences. Finally, Toland 1961 stands out as one of those special literary classics in history and is indispensable for understanding the Japanese culture and experience before and during the Pacific War.

Bergamini, David. Japan’s Imperial Conspiracy. New York: William Morrow, 1971.
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A monumental and controversial book in its day. Presents an exhaustive and often-illuminating look at behind-the-scenes realities of Imperial Japan’s political and military decisions that led to the invasion of China and the Pacific War. One of its main theses is the degree of Emperor Hirohito’s responsibility for the events, and the postwar redirection of such accusations.
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Cook, Haruko Taya, and Theodore F. Cook. Japan at War: An Oral History. New York: New Press, 1992.
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This valuable book conveys the Japanese perspective, and especially many “man of the street” views in several installments that span the length of the war. However, only a few are Japanese navy–related witnesses or stories (e.g., the cruiser Natori survivor odyssey, and another of the destroyer Arashio at Bismarck Sea). However, it is highly recommended for giving insight into the wartime Japanese psychology and point of view from the home front.
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Edgerton, Robert B. Warriors of the Rising Sun: A History of the Japanese Military. Boulder, CO: Westview, 1997.
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A good narrative overview. Gives the perspective of the Japanese army and objections to the arguments by the Japanese navy for Midway and elsewhere.
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Evans, David C., ed. and trans. The Japanese Navy in World War II in the Words of Former Japanese Naval Officers. 2d ed. Introduction and commentary by Raymond O’Connor. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute, 1986.
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A collection of essays originally published by the US Naval Institute, arranged in a book of seventeen chapters. Each essay was written by a Japanese officer, and they vary in style and veracity as much as would be expected of individuals. The Midway chapter is the fifth one, but chapter 9, on Ozawa, presents a more useful view by describing the changes to Japanese carrier operations after Midway.
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Japan at War 1895–1945. Axis History Forum.
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Axis History Forum is an apolitical website for the Axis powers, with comprehensive discussion. The Japan at War section contains many unusual translations and postings on source references.
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Mayer, S. L., ed. The Japanese War Machine. Feltham, UK: Bison, 1976.
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A nice coffee-table comprehensive pictorial. Utilizes a useful combination of photographs, diagrams, and illustrations. Covers all the services of the Japanese military, with some discussion of tactics and equipment in one volume.
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Schom, Alan. The Eagle and the Rising Sun: The Japanese-American War, 1941–1943, Pearl Harbor through Guadalcanal. New York: W. W. Norton, 2004.
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This book gives an overview of the opening stages of the Pacific War. Despite its title, it actually covers in very useful and important detail the invasion of China and how the pre-1941 Japanese military and culture moved toward war. Good use of detail and personal characterizations—ranging from laudatory to acerbic—of actors who were involved make interesting reading. Midway is seen more in its context of the mindset of both sides and is not explored per se.
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Toland, John. The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire, 1936–1945. New York: Random House, 1961.
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A seminal and monumental overview and narrative of the entire arc of the Japanese military venture, from a personal and anecdotal point of view of participants. A rich compendium of insights and facts alike. In scope reminds one of William Shirer’s The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich.
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Strategy

The role of preconceived strategy and doctrinal attitudes at Midway was crucial. At its most elemental level, Sun Tzu’s classic (Sun 1963) gives basic starting points. Bradford 1997 and Hughes 1986 offer complementary summaries of US naval tactics. Barde 1971 takes a closer look at the command structures on both sides. Evans and Peattie 1997 and Peattie 2001 largely exhaust and chronicle the whole of Imperial Japanese Navy strategy and development leading to the Pacific War. For the Allied side, Miller 1991 is apparently the only such study of War Plan Orange but does this soundly. Cohen and Gooch 1990 presents intriguing examinations into military failure.

Barde, Robert Elmer. “The Battle of Midway: A Study in Command.” PhD diss., University of Maryland, 1971.
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A well-researched and informative study of the high commands on both sides involved in the Battle of Midway. Though an unpublished PhD dissertation, it is essential reading.
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Bradford, James C., ed. Quarterdeck and Bridge: Two Centuries of American Naval Leaders. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute, 1997.
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Takes the approach of using a collection of essays and descriptions of various naval leaders to describe how various doctrines and concepts were devised. The essays are written by leading historians on the subject and are arranged chronologically.
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Cohen, Eliot A., and John Gooch. Military Misfortunes: The Anatomy of Failure in War. New York: Random House, 1990.
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This book takes the interesting perspective that most military disasters are less a result of the skill or incompetence of the personalities involved, and more a product of systemic factors of organization and material. The degree of learning, forecasting, and being able to adjust weighs more heavily. Sometimes the conclusions seem overstated, but they are generally plausible.
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Evans, David C., and Mark R. Peattie. Kaigun: Strategy, Tactics, and Technology in the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1887–1941. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute, 1997.
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One of those truly indispensable works for anyone seeking to understand the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN). It is jointly authored by two experts in the field and traces the development and history of the IJN from 1887 to the attack on Pearl Harbor. The authors’ command of Japanese-language sources and doctrinal development produces a phenomenal work.
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Hughes, Wayne P., Jr. Fleet Tactics: Theory and Practice. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute, 1986.
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A very good summary book of the principles of naval tactics and lessons learned from historical encounters up to the 1980s. Very relevant for understanding some of the sea-level decisions of the commanders at Midway.
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Miller, Edward S. War Plan Orange: The U.S. Strategy to Defeat Japan, 1897–1945. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute, 1991.
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Crucial book on War Plan Orange, almost the only one. However, its quality makes up for that. The author persuasively describes the personalities and thinkers who devised the strategy and tried to foresee the near future in their time. Significant for its verdict that Orange was “history’s most successful war plan,” the disaster at Pearl Harbor notwithstanding.
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Peattie, Mark R. Sunburst: The Rise of Japanese Naval Air Power, 1909–1941. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute, 2001.
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Sometimes seen as the sequel to his work in Kaigun with David Evans (Evans and Peattie 1997), this more properly is a companion, and like Kaigun it is a superb and comprehensive history of its subject: the development of Japanese naval aviation. Rich in detail, it nonetheless is not a technical history and remains accessible to the general reader. Often quite critical of the tactics used, it is a balanced and readable account.
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Sun Tzu. The Art of War. Translated by Samuel B. Griffith. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1963.
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A seminal classic not only of military principles, but of the philosophical dimensions of war in general. Principles such as these played a role in the formation of Japanese culture. A good revisiting of facts, some well known and others obscure, pertaining to the battle.
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Aircraft Carrier Operations

The Battle of Midway was first and foremost a carrier battle. The operations and tactical procedures of the carrier fleets on both sides differed substantially in some respects. Belote and Belote 1975 gives a very good overview of the clash of these operations until the destruction of Japanese carrier air power at the Battle of the Philippine Sea. Brown 1974, in two volumes, narrates the whole carrier war in World War II at sea, complemented with well-chosen photographs. Kimata 1977 is a Japanese-language work but merits the translation and work necessary to consult it. It is an exhaustive history of Japanese carrier aviation and operations experiences of all the Japanese carriers. It does for the Japanese what Brown 1974 and Polmar 1969 and Polmar 2006 (the latter two cited under Aircraft Carriers and the US Navy) do for the Allies.

Belote, James H., and William M. Belote. Titans of the Seas: The Development and Operations of Japanese and American Carrier Task Forces during World War II. New York: Harper & Row, 1975.
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A still-useful work and valuable history of carrier operations in the Pacific starting prewar in the 1920s and ending with the Battle of the Philippine Sea. It discusses organizational and tactical matters in equal measure.
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Brown, David. Carrier Operations in World War II. Vol. 2, The Pacific Navies, Dec. 1941–Feb. 1943. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute, 1974.
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Second volume of an excellent two-volume study of carrier operations that stands the test of time. This volume covers the operations of the Japanese and Allied carriers in the first full year of the Pacific War. Readers are also encouraged to read Vol. 1: The Royal Navy.
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Kimata, Jiro. Nihon kūbo senshi. Tokyo: Kokusho, 1977.
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Japanese-language work (translates as “Japanese carrier battle history”), chronicling the entire history of Japanese carrier aviation and operational history of individual ships and battles. Author is ever evenhanded in the treatment of the subject, making use both of Imperial Japanese Navy and Allied sources. A very valuable work if one has access to translation or is familiar with written Japanese.
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Analytical Studies

After World War II, there were a group of incisive analytical studies that were commissioned. These include monographs both from the Allied and Japanese perspective. They tend to be almost entirely textbook or operational form, distinguishing them from modern analytical works found in other sections of this article. Bates 1947 and Bates 1948 are complete and concise analyses and narratives of the Battles of Coral Sea and Midway, in two monographs. US Army, Far East Command 1947 is an English translation of a monograph on Midway ordered to be prepared by the US Army. A related monograph (US Army, Far East Command 1947) is found under Aleutian Campaign.

Bates, Richard W. The Battle of the Coral Sea, May 1 to May 11 Inclusive, 1942: Strategical and Tactical Analysis. Newport, RI: US Naval War College, 1947.
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A comprehensive early postwar analysis of the conditions before, during, and after the Battle of Coral Sea. Extensive use of records from both sides. Best used in conjunction with the Midway analysis (Bates 1948).
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Bates, Richard W. The Battle of Midway including the Aleutian Phase, June 3 to June 14, 1942: Strategical and Tactical Analysis. Newport, RI: US Naval War College, 1948.
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Comprehensive, early postanalysis. Though not as exhaustive as the Leyte-Bates reports for those familiar with them, it remains a very valuable work. Some of the events and citations are rarely covered in other works even in the early 21st century. Particularly useful for its coverage of the Aleutian operation.
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US Army, Far East Command. Midway Operations May–June 1942. Japanese Monograph 93. Tokyo: Department of the Army, 1947.
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Relatively neglected, despite known errors; these are valuable contemporaneous documents. They are actually histories of events and subjects of the Pacific War that were prepared by Japanese officials at the order of General Headquarters, Far East Command, then were translated and distributed by the Department of the Army. The Midway volume is interesting for places where it either adds to or diverges slightly from the “Nagumo Report” (which it clearly incorporates).
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Nautical Archaeology

In the early 21st century, nautical archaeology at the Midway battlefield is in its first stages, but it already offers exciting new perspectives and the promise of new entries in this section. Ballard and Archbold 1999 describes the rediscovery and filming of USS Yorktown’s haunting wreck. Parshall, et al. 2001 confirms Nauticos-NAVO footage of Japanese carrier wreckage belonging to Kaga.

Ballard, Robert D., and Rick Archbold. Return to Midway: The Quest to Find the Yorktown and the Other Lost Ships from the Pivotal Battle of the Pacific War. Toronto: Madison, 1999.
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Principally a coffee-table book whose illustrations and narratives focus on the Ballard expedition to find traces of the Midway battlefield in May 1998. The book achieves added importance with its quoting and inclusion of two Kaga aviators, Yoshino Haruo and Akamatsu Yuji.
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Jourdan, David W. The Search for the Japanese Fleet: USS Nautilus and the Battle of Midway. Washington, DC: Potomac, 2015.
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This book, written by the founder and president of Nauticos and one of the world’s leaders in deep-sea exploration, chronicles the 1999 Nauticos-NAVO expedition to the Midway battlefield and the search for the lost carriers of Admiral Nagumo’s Kido Butai. The fascinating saga of the search, the reconstruction of courses, and the challenges involved in successfully locating and identifying wreckage of the Japanese carrier Kaga are chronicled.
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Parshall, Jonathan, with Anthony Tully and David Dickson. “Identifying Kaga.” U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings 127.6 (June 2001): 48–52.
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In November 1999 the three authors were contacted for their expertise on Japanese carrier features to identify sunken wreckage off Midway for Nauticos/NAVO. On 7 February 2000 they were able to confirm that the wreckage belonged to Kaga. This article describes the process.
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Memoirs and Biographies

Personal writings and biographies of the American and Japanese participants in the Battle of Midway form one of the major forms of writing on the battle. In some cases the information located by a biographer adjusted the received history and corrected wrong interpretations. These sources must be used cautiously, with publication date borne in mind, because in some cases they were written at a time when fewer records were available.

Allied Subjects

Each principal US commander at Midway has at least one biography. Potter 1976 is, perhaps surprisingly, one of the few full overviews of Admiral Chester Nimitz, but Hoyt 1970 gives a good summary in relation to his tenure as commander in chief, Pacific Command (CINCPAC). Halsey and Bryan 1947 sets Admiral William Halsey Jr.’s own story down, while it gives a useful full narrative background. For the two admirals at Midway, each has an excellent work. Buell 1974 seems to be the only one to cover Raymond Spruance but is considered one of the best naval biographies in general; Sweetman 1997 also looks at Spruance in its anthologies. Lundstrom 2006 exhaustively deals with Frank Jack Fletcher. Gay 1979 relates the dramatic story of the lone survivor of Torpedo 8’s attack, while the author of Linzey 1996 writes as a USS Yorktown survivor. Tillman 2002 honors “Dick” Best of Scouting 6.

Buell, Thomas B. The Quiet Warrior: A Biography of Admiral Raymond A. Spruance. Boston: Little, Brown, 1974.
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This biography is not only a sturdy and still-valuable chronicle of Admiral Spruance; it is generally recognized as one of the best Pacific War biographies in general. It remains one of the few books to discuss Midway from Spruance’s perspective.
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Gay, George. Sole Survivor: The Battle of Midway and Its Effect on His Life. Naples, FL: Midway, 1979.
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Readable and candid writing by the only survivor of USS Hornet’s doomed Torpedo 8 Squadron. Elements of his story remain in some dispute by historians, and the work has hagiographic character. It must be used with caution, but this does not detract from the compelling story told herein.
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Halsey, William F., and J. Bryan III. Admiral Halsey’s Story. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1947.
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As the title proclaims, this is the colorful US admiral William “Bull” Halsey’s own story. The early date and author’s character give the book a lasting value as a glimpse into the mindset of that warrior. It is also very good on operational details and discussions of how decisions were made. His selection of Spruance to lead during the Battle of Midway is described.
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Hoyt, Edwin P. How They Won the War in the Pacific: Nimitz and His Admirals. New York: Weybright & Talley, 1970.
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Prolific historian and writer of the Pacific War Edwin Hoyt takes a closer look at the personalities of the American Pacific Fleet command, using numerous anecdotes and quotes from primary-source letters.
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Linzey, Stanford E. God Was at Midway: The Sinking of the USS Yorktown (CV-5) and the Battles of the Coral Sea and Midway. San Diego, CA: Black Forest, 1996.
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Written by a retired US Navy captain who at the time of Midway was a young sailor and musician. The book gives a moving personal perspective of the experiences of one enlisted man of deep faith aboard the Yorktown before and during Midway.
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Lundstrom, John B. Black Shoe Carrier Admiral: Frank Jack Fletcher at Coral Sea, Midway, and Guadalcanal. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute, 2006.
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The author of the outstanding First Team volumes examines the career of Admiral Fletcher, who has been surrounded by controversy due to complex intrigues among US brass, and discernible bias in some of the conventional histories. That this had origins in the need to cover others’ mistakes at Midway and Guadalcanal is persuasively documented. The book also updates and presents new findings on some particulars since the writing of First Team.
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Potter, E. B. Nimitz. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute, 1976.
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Considered the best biography of Admiral Nimitz, as well as a classic manual on leadership. The scope of his life, rising above a destitute childhood to his World War II career as CINCPAC to postwar work with the United Nations. Maps are provided that illustrate Nimitz’s strategy. However, for those interested, there is minimal critique of the more controversial decisions, such as proceeding with the Peleliu invasion.
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Sweetman, Jack, ed. The Great Admirals: Command at Sea, 1587–1945. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute, 1997.
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A collection of nineteen essays, each looking at the career and decisions of a subject admiral. For Midway, selects and offers insight into Isoroku Yamamoto and Raymond Spruance. The segments on Hiehachiro Togo and William Halsey are also pertinent.
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Taylor, Theodore. The Magnificent Mitscher. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute, 1954.
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Apparently the only biography written about the man, Marc Andrew Mitscher, who was both USS Hornet’s captain at Midway and, later, commanding the fast carriers of Task Force 58 during the Battle of the Philippine Sea. Largely refrains from discussion of controversies of Midway operations (the chapter on June 4 is eight pages), but it still contains useful insights and anecdotes.
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Tillman, Barrett. “Farewell to Midway’s Best.” Naval History 16.1 (16 February 2002): 39.
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An homage and obituary write-up of the October 2001 passing of Richard Halsey “Dick” Best of Scouting 6 of Midway. He was known for leading the three-plane attack that single-handedly sank Akagi.
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Japanese Subjects

Books or studies on Japanese principals at Midway that have been translated into English remain very few. Even Japanese-language works are not as common as might be supposed. Agawa 1979 is to Yamamoto what Potter 1976 (cited under Allied Subjects) is to Nimitz. It also provides a good insight into Imperial Navy political squabbles with the army and infighting in general. Bix 2000 chronicles the life of Emperor Hirohito, the Showa Emperor. Japanese-language writings by members of the First Air Fleet staff are Kusaka 1952 and Genda 1996, as well as Fuchida and Okumiya 1951 (cited under General Overviews: Standard). Hara, et al. 2011 is a memorable account from a Japanese destroyer captain’s perspective, and Tanabe 1963 documents an I-boat’s experience at Midway. Oide 1985 requires translation but is worth the attempt for the life story of Vice Admiral Yamaguchi. Pfannes and Salamone 1982 offers good introductory interviews of key officers. Ugaki 1991, an English translation, is among the most-important references of the Pacific War.

Agawa, Hiroyuki. The Reluctant Admiral: Yamamoto and the Imperial Navy. Translated by John Bester. Tokyo: Kodansha International, 1979.
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A careful and incisive biography that remains the standard reference work on the life and politics of the commander in chief of the Combined Fleet, Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto.
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Bix, Herbert P. Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan. New York: HarperCollins, 2000.
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A complete biography and look at the full career of the Showa Emperor from birth to death. It gives special attention to the emperor’s dealings with the Japanese government and the degree of his influence on the military and conduct of the war. At times, however, the narrative appears politically motivated.
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Genda Minoru. Kaigun Kōkūtai shimatsuki. Tokyo: Bungeishunju, 1996.
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Japanese-language work (translates as “Naval aviation units from beginning to end”) with important contributions by Minoru Genda.
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Hara, Tameichi, with Fred Saito and Roger Pineau. Japanese Destroyer Captain: Pearl Harbor, Guadalcanal, Midway—the Great Naval Battles as Seen through Japanese Eyes. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute, 2011.
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This is an important book because it is one of the very few book-length translations of a Japanese naval officer’s writing. Captain Hara was involved in much of the Pacific War, including Yamato’s final sortie. For Midway he provides an important glimpse of the action as seen from the point of view of Vice Admiral Kondo’s invasion force.
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Kusaka Ryunosuke. Rengō Kantai. Tokyo: Mainichi Shinbunsha, 1952.
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Translates as “Combined Fleet.” One of the immediate postwar Japanese works, this was written by the chief of staff of Vice Admiral Nagumo at Midway and, later, of the commander in chief of the Combined Fleet, Admiral Toyoda, during Leyte Gulf. Considered dated and inaccurate in Japan, it is to be used cautiously. With Fuchida and Okumiya’s book, this is considered by Japanese historians to be the originator of some of the myths of Midway.
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Oide Hisashi. Yūdan teitoku Yamaguchi Tamon. Tokyo: Tokuma Shoten, 1985.
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A Japanese-language book (translates as “The brash Admiral Yamaguchi Tamon”) by a noted Japanese naval historian. It offers a close look at the character of Vice Admiral Yamaguchi of Hiryu fame. There are unique vantage point anecdotes about events at Midway as seen from Hiryu.
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Pfannes, Charles E., and Victor A. Salamone. The Great Commanders of World War II. Vol. 4, The Japanese. Zebra World at War 32. New York: Zebra, 1982.
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This book outlines the personalities of seven selected Japanese naval officers and follows them throughout their careers. Though mostly using secondary sources, it synthesizes them in a useful way and serves as a good introduction to its subjects. Three of the commanders involved at Midway are covered: Yamamoto, Nagumo, and Kurita. Particularly interesting is the role Chief of Staff Kusaka played to Nagumo in the eyes of the Naval General Staff.
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Tanabe, Yahachi. “I Sank the Yorktown.” U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings 89.5 (May 1963): 59–65.
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As the title suggests, this article was written by the commander of I-168, the Japanese submarine that sank USS Yorktown. Tanabe describes how he was able to intercept the carrier without changing his course, and launched his attack after a painstaking eight-hour approach submerged.
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Ugaki, Matome. Fading Victory: The Diary of Matome Ugaki, 1941–1945. Translated by Masatake Chihaya, Donald M. Goldstein, and Katherine V. Dillon. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1991.
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An important English translation of a supremely important and vital document of the Pacific War. Ugaki kept a diary that made free use of quotations of action reports and signals in addition to his personal commentary. Written in what today would be termed “real time,” it is exhaustive and forensic in its character and is an indispensable glimpse into the mindset of the Japanese during the events described.
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Codebreaking and Intelligence

The role of codebreaking in the Midway saga is ironically well known. Ironic, because the brilliant and intricate success and work involved was, for the longest time, kept top secret and classified by all the parties involved. After the declassifications began toward the end of the 1960s and were popularized by Hollywood in the 1976 movie Midway, this became one of the better-known aspects of the story. Several works provide excellent insight into this sometimes arcane and egocentric intelligence endeavor. Kahn 1967 is significant for being one of the first books to document the role of codebreaking at Midway. Lewin 1982, Smith 2000, and Winton 1993 are excellent overviews, each with something to offer; these are best read together. Krug, et al. 2002 gives an engrossing look a the failures of Axis intelligence sharing. Books by participants in the codebreaking administration include Layton, et al. 1985 and Holmes 1979. A closer look at the personalities appears in Weadon 2000. Carlson 2011 is a must-have look at the saga of Joe Rochefort, and it also has the virtue of being part of the postmillennial revisits to Midway. Ford 2011 takes a look at the overlooked other aspects of intelligence gathering, such as interrogations and translations of captured documents.

Carlson, Elliot. Joe Rochefort’s War: The Odyssey of the Codebreaker Who Outwitted Yamamoto at Midway. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute, 2011.
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The term “indispensable” can be overused, but for this book it is appropriate. It chronicles the colorful career of Joe Rochefort, head of the Station Hypo codebreaking unit at Pearl Harbor at Midway. The book starts with his enlistment in the Naval Reserve, and, through the phases of his career, one also sees the sometimes fitful stops and starts that accompany the birth of the US Navy codebreaking saga. It also covers the sometimes small-minded backbiting of Washington superiors regarding his efforts.
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Ford, Douglas. The Elusive Enemy: U.S. Naval Intelligence and the Imperial Japanese Fleet. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute, 2011.
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A different kind of book than some of the standard works on codebreaking and intelligence. In plain academic style, it examines the other sources of intelligence, such as document evaluation, questioning of prisoners, reading captured newspapers and memos, and inspection of weapons systems. Given the role that Allied Translator and Intelligence Services played, this aspect receives some due attention in this book.
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Holmes, W. J. Double-Edged Secrets: U.S. Naval Intelligence Operations in the Pacific during World War II. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute, 1979.
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An important memoir by an officer in the intelligence unit based at Oahu, part of the Intelligence Center for the Pacific Ocean. This memoir describes the process and some of the organizational headaches in handling deciphered intelligence and how it should be acted upon. However, at the time of writing, much was still classified, and later works on the subject should be consulted for a fuller picture.
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Kahn, David. The Codebreakers: The Story of Secret Writing. New York: Macmillan, 1967.
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One of the earliest works to cover in some detail the role of codebreaking at Midway, it describes how this success directed the deployment of the US carriers to oppose the Midway invasion.
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Krug, Hans-Joachim, Yoichi Hirama, and Berthold J. Sander-Nagashima. Reluctant Allies: German-Japanese Naval Relations in World War II. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute, 2002.
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This important book explores the neglected story of the fitful and uneven exchange of information and assistance between the two major Axis powers at sea. Most notable is its revelation that the raider Thor had captured a British cargo ship and lost an opportunity to forewarn Tokyo before Midway that the JN-25 code had been broken.
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Layton, Edwin T., Roger Pineau, and John Costello. “And I Was There”: Pearl Harbor and Midway—Breaking the Secrets. New York: Morrow, 1985.
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Edwin Layton was one of the key intelligence officers both of Admirals Ernest King and Chester Nimitz. The book gives important, if often polemic, glimpses of the inside workings of Washington and Pacific Fleet officials. Has aged well, written after the general declassification of codebreaking secrets began. Crucial for understanding the decisions of the commander in chief of the Pacific Command before Midway, its warning of interservice jealousies and rivalries interfering with intel sharing resonates today.
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Lewin, Ronald. The American Magic: Codes, Ciphers, and the Defeat of Japan. New York: Farrar Straus Giroux, 1982.
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This book takes a look at the codebreaking story from a different angle, tracing its role in the political decisions and planning from immediately prewar to dropping the atomic bomb. It also explores the distinction between “Magic,” which referred to deciphered Japanese diplomatic traffic, and “Ultra,” which was applied to military traffic, such as the famous JN-25 code and the intercepts radioed to submarines at sea.
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Smith, Michael. The Emperor’s Codes: The Breaking of Japan’s Secret Ciphers. New York: Arcade, 2000.
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This book contrasts the efforts of the British codebreakers at Bletchley Park, who overcame the German “Enigma” cipher, to the codebreaking work of Ultra in the Pacific. Contains in-depth research and interviews with many of the codebreakers or those associated with them, and actually walking through a codebreaking process step by step is remarkable. Has access to declassified and Australian secret histories made available only since the late 20th century.
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Weadon, Patrick D. The Battle of Midway: How Cryptology Enabled the United States to Turn the Tide in the Pacific War. National Security Agency, 2000.
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A short but informative and extremely effective summary of the genesis and role of codebreaking in the Midway victory. It traces the work of OP-20-G and Laurence F. Safford in the 1920s through that of Commander Joseph Rochefort of Station Hypo at Pearl Harbor.
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Winton, John. Ultra in the Pacific: How Breaking Japanese Codes & Cyphers Affected Naval Operations against Japan 1941–45. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute, 1993.
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Noted British historian John Winton took a look at the codebreaking saga from a somewhat different perspective in this book. Telling a chronological narrative, he uses direct quotes and summaries of various Ultra intercepts—so-called “Orange file” cards—to show just how detailed and preemptive Allied intelligence could be about Japanese ship and convoy movements.
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Aleutian Campaign

It is sometimes forgotten that while defeated at Midway, the Japanese Empire succeeded in attacking and invading US territory in the Aleutians during the same time frame. Cohen 1989–1992, a multivolume pictorial narrative, gives excellent full coverage. Garfield 1982 is probably the best full-text narrative in one volume. Cloe 1991 and Rourke 1997 give important late-20th-century analysis and many details and maps. –US Army, Far East Command 1947 is still the principal Japanese reference in English, to be used in conjunction with Bates 1948 (cited under Analytical Studies). Japanese-language examination is found in the Senshi Sosho volume for Midway (Tsunoda 1971, cited under Official Histories and Publications).

Cloe, John Haile. The Aleutian Warriors: A History of the 11th Air Force & Fleet Air Wing 4. Missoula, MT: Pictorial Histories, 1991.
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An excellent illustrated overview of the air campaign in the Aleutians, from the Japanese bombing of Dutch Harbor and the invasion during the Battle of Midway to its conclusion.
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Cohen, Stan. The Forgotten War: A Pictorial History of World War II in Alaska and Northwestern Canada. 4 vols. Missoula, MT: Pictorial Histories, 1989–1992.
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An exceptional four-volume pictorial series with an excellently written text that well supports the photographs. It offers an extensive depiction of the Pacific War front that was located in the Aleutians. Vol. 1 deals with the Midway operation and the attack on Dutch Harbor.
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Garfield, Brian. The Thousand-Mile War: World War II in Alaska and the Aleutians. New York: Bantam, 1982.
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Probably the best introduction and overall narrative account of the Japanese attack and invasion of the Aleutian Islands. Told in a detailed and readable style that well integrates the interactions of the various American and Canadian efforts. It restored some understanding of the Aleutians campaign’s importance, which in fact was the first US offensive to begin.
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Rourke, Nathan E. War Comes to Alaska: The Dutch Harbor Attack, June 3–4, 1942. Shippensburg, PA: White Mane, 1997.
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Examines the neglected events of the Battle of Midway, specifically the bombing of Dutch Harbor, Alaska. Makes use of memoirs, eyewitness accounts, maps, and photographs both of the Japanese and American sides.
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US Army, Far East Command. Aleutian Naval Operations, March 1942–February 1943. Japanese Monograph 88. Tokyo: US Department of the Army, 1947.
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The title monograph can be humbly misleading—these are very valuable contemporaneous documents despite known errors. They are actually histories of events and subjects of the Pacific War that were prepared by Japanese officials at the order of General Headquarters, Far East Command. They were then translated and distributed by the Department of the Army. The volume on the Aleutians is one of the few primary sources on the subject, since the so-called Nagumo Report does not discuss Operation AO much.
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Aircraft Carriers and the US Navy

At the Battle of Midway, the surface component of the US Navy was much smaller in number than Japan’s. As the battle eventuated, the burden of action fell upon the aircraft carriers. Silverstone 1974 serves as the best reference for all US class types and hull numbers. Campbell 1985 provides a slightly dated but important reference for World War II weapons systems at sea. For aircraft carriers, there are a number of overviews and technical references, which also include Japanese and British designs: Macintyre 1972 is a very good introduction, Brown 1977 and Chesneau 1984 (the latter cited under Encyclopedias) are good one-volume picture references, and Polmar 1969 and Polmar 2006 are superb full studies. Hone, et al. 1999 gives useful comparisons regarding American and British carrier development. Parkin 1996, on destroyers, has a chapter on the loss of USS Hammann (DD-412). Wildenberg 1996 almost alone covers the logistics of fueling, which makes all carrier warfare possible.

Brown, David. Aircraft Carriers. New York: Arco, 1977.
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Excellent monograph-booklet on the aircraft carriers and the navies of World War II. It contains line drawings and short narratives of design and history and also discusses some of the hangar differences and damage control techniques of the navies.
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Campbell, John. Naval Weapons of World War Two. London: Conway Maritime, 1985.
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A very detailed reference book on the weapons and controls systems of warships of the various World War II navies. Although it is encyclopedic in character and indispensable as a reference, some of the particulars and facts are dated. Particularly useful is its use both of metric and English measures.
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Hone, Thomas C., Norman Friedman, and Mark D. Mandeles. American and British Aircraft Carrier Development, 1919–1941. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute, 1999.
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Excellent reference and narrative work on aircraft carrier design and planning development of the Allies on both sides of the Atlantic. Jointly written by sterling authorities in the field.
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Macintyre, Donald. Aircraft Carrier: The Majestic Weapon. Ballantine’s Illustrated History of World War II: Weapon Book 3. New York: Ballantine, 1972.
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Forming part of the celebrated Ballantine Illustrated war series, this installment makes an excellent introduction to aircraft carrier development, design, tactics, and operational history. Midway receives a full chapter.
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Parkin, Robert Sinclair. Blood on the Sea: American Destroyers Lost in World War II. New York: Sarpedon, 1996.
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Valuable narrative compendium on each of the US Navy destroyers lost in World War II. Pages 61–66 describe the fate of USS Hammann (DD-412), sunk by I-168 with carrier Yorktown.
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Polmar, Norman. Aircraft Carriers: A Graphic History of Carrier Aviation and Its Influence on World Events. New York: Doubleday, 1969.
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A real classic in naval history and truly exhaustive in its scope. A large book that covers the development of naval aviation at sea from its earliest beginnings to the super-carrier age. Contains detailed appendixes and technical data generally found in a reference work, but it also has the narration, photographs, and chronological readability of the best of overviews. The doctrine, tactics, and formation of the Japanese First Air Fleet and the destruction at Midway are well covered.
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Polmar, Norman. Aircraft Carriers: A History of Carrier Aviation and Its Influence on World Events. 2 vols. Washington, DC: Potomac, 2006.
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These two volumes represent a greatly expanded and revised two-volume edition of the classic Polmar 1969.
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Silverstone, Paul H. U.S. Warships of World War II. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1974.
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It is one of the peculiarities of coverage that—while books on class types abound—single-volume references of the US Navy remain comparatively few. Fortunately, Silverstone’s work fills this gap effectively.
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Wildenberg, Thomas. Gray Steel and Black Oil: Fast Tankers and Replenishment at Sea in the U.S. Navy, 1912–1995. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute, 1996.
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An important book that stands almost alone in its extensive study of the problems of fuel logistics for fleets and their solutions. An indispensable reference for any naval analyst.
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Imperial Japanese Navy

Two main forms of works on the Imperial Japanese Navy are pertinent for the study of the Battle of Midway. These include reference or overview studies on the overall navy and order of battle, and warship-class studies that “zoom” in or focus on a particular type of ship, such as an aircraft carrier or seaplane tender.

Reference Works

Reference format works on the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) are plentiful in the Japanese language, particularly pictorial-style periodicals. English-language technical references are also available, but there is a lack of full overviews corresponding to the earlier ones of the 1970s. Watts and Gordon 1971 and Watts 1973 are still-useful but dated pictorial single volumes. Jentschura, et al. 1977 probably is the best updated single-volume compendium of all class types. Lacroix and Wells 1997, an exhaustive and monumental book on Japanese cruisers, covers operations and design context to an extent that makes it truly indispensable.

Itani, Jiro, Hans Lengerer, and Tomoko Rehm-Takara. “Anti-aircraft Gunnery in the Imperial Japanese Navy.” In Warship 1991. Edited by Robert Gardiner, 81–101. London: Conway Maritime, 1991.
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One of the few English-language works on the subject of Japanese anti-aircraft capabilities and doctrines. Describes the development of the philosophy of which type of battery was best utilized to defend a ship.
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Jentschura, Hansgeorg, Dieter Jung, and Peter Mickel. Warships of the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1869–1945. Translated by Antony Preston and J. D. Brown. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute, 1977.
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Despite its publication date, it is still the principal single-volume reference for plan and capsule histories of nearly every vessel of the IJN. Correcting many of the errors that had crept into earlier works, it remains the most accessible and accurate work of this nature. The extensive Fukui volumes of the IJN are in Japanese.
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Lacroix, Eric, and Linton Wells II. Japanese Cruisers of the Pacific War. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute, 1997.
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Lacroix and Wells’s Japanese Cruisers of the Pacific War is one of those truly memorable references that appear from time to time and become a lasting part of naval literature. Comparable reference works include Jentschura, et al. 1977, or Norman Friedmann’s outstanding works on the US Navy. Its combination of design history and operational summaries makes it a must-have. Also included is a truly encyclopedic and detailed set of appendixes.
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Nihon Zosen Gakkai, ed. Shōwa zōsenshi. 2 vols. Tokyo: Hara Shobo, 1977.
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Japanese-language work (translates as “A history of ship construction in the Shōwa era”) containing descriptions and plans of warships involved at Midway.
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Nihon Zosen Gakkai, ed. Nihon Kaigun kantei zumenshū. Tokyo: Hara Shobo, 2000.
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A Japanese-language work, translating as “Plans of ships of the Imperial Japanese Navy.” Contains annotated plans of aircraft carriers and other warships.
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Watts, Anthony J. Japanese Warships of World War II. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1973.
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A nice, small-sized pictorial reference work on all the ships of the IJN. Though dated, with some details needing correction, in general it remains a good guide. It is particularly useful in conjunction with its companion volume, Silverstone 1974 (cited under Aircraft Carriers and the US Navy).
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Watts, Anthony J., and Brian G. Gordon. The Imperial Japanese Navy. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1971.
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An early pictorial and technical reference to the IJN. Of very similar form to the minivolume by Watts (Watts 1973), it offers more-extensive discussion of design philosophy and alterations. Dated, but still a valuable reference. Actually contains more narrative description than the more recent work of this kind in Jentschura, et al. 1977.
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Studies of Warship Class Types

In lieu of overviews, somewhat easier to find and make use of are Japanese-language technical references for particular classes of ship, such as aircraft carriers. Drawings of Imperial Japanese Naval Vessels, for modelers, provides useful illustrations. Maru Special Magazine and Ships of the World periodicals form the principal references for individual Japanese ships (Aircraft Carriers I, Aircraft Carriers II, Maru 1996). Gakken pictorials recently expanded the approach (IJN CV Shōkaku Class). Fukui 1982, a pictorial book, is an important complement. Mechanism of Japanese Warships No. 2, for Japanese aircraft carriers, is particularly useful and, for those inclined, worth translating in places.

Aircraft Carriers I: Hōshō, Ryūjō, Akagi, Kaga, Shōkaku, Zuikaku, Sōryū, Hiryu, Unryū-Class, Taihō. Japanese Warships 3. Tokyo: Kojinsha, 1989.
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Hardcover versions of the Japanese-language issues of Maru Special Magazine, dealing with the subject of aircraft carriers. Many photographs and limited text are provided for each vessel. The four carriers of Nagumo’s task force at Midway are in this volume, as is one of the carriers of the Aleutians strike force.
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Aircraft Carriers II: Junyō-Class, Zuihō-Class, Chitose-Class, Taiyō-Class, Shinano, Seaplane Carriers, Etc. Japanese Warships 4. Tokyo: Kojinsha, 1989.
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Hardcover versions of the Japanese-language issues of Maru Special Magazine, dealing with the subject of aircraft carriers. Many photographs and limited text are provided for each vessel. One of the carriers of Rear Admiral Kakuda’s Aleutians strike force at Midway is in this volume.
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Drawings of Imperial Japanese Naval Vessels. Vol. 3, Aircraft Carriers, Seaplane Carriers, Submarines. Tokyo: Model Art, 1999.
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A Japanese-language work dedicated to model-building enthusiasts, this monograph is still useful for non-Japanese readers. The line drawings and detailed diagrams depict a range of the aviation-oriented vessels in service of the IJN.
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Fukui, Shizuo. Japanese Naval Vessels Illustrated, 1869–1945. Vol. 3. Tokyo: KK Bestsellers, 1982.
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The Aircraft Carrier volume of famous Japanese photograph collector and naval architect Fukui Shizuo. Japanese-language work with extensive pictorial and profile views that is still useful for those unconversant in Japanese.
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IJN CV Shōkaku Class. Pacific War 13. Tokyo: Gakken, 1999.
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In the usual format of Gakken, uses detailed and fine models to better depict features of the Shokaku-class, while the Japanese text discusses fittings and history. The Shokaku-class participated in the Battle of the Coral Sea, and their absence at the Battle of Midway proved crucial.
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Maru Henshubu. Nihon kaigun kantei shashinshū. Vol. 6, Shōkaku, Zuikaku, Sōryū, Hiryū, Unryūgata, Taihō. Tokyo: Kojinsha, 1996.
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Main title translates as “Warships of the Imperial Japanese Navy.” Technical references of individual Japanese aircraft carriers covered by Maru Special Magazine issues, bound into a hardcover volume. An important abridged translation of its contents is available in English online.
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Mechanism of Japanese Warships No. 2: Aircraft Carriers. Tokyo: Kojinsha, 1999.
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Hardcover volumes profusely illustrated with photographs and diagrams of the internal arrangements and fittings of Japanese aircraft carriers. Immensely useful even to those unable to read Japanese, because the vessel identities are readily discerned.
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Mook Ikarosu. Kūbo shōkaku zuikaku kanzen gaido: Yomigaeri eikō no kakuyoku. Tokyo: Ikarosushuppan, 2009.
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A Japanese-language reference, translating as “Aircraft carrier ‘Shokaku’ ‘Zuikaku’ Complete Guide,” that is useful and accessible to the English reader because of the clarity of its illustrations and model depictions.
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Warships at Midway (Individual Vessel Treatments)

At Midway, no less than the human personalities involved, certain warships became actors on a stage, with individual dramas and stories of their crews to tell. Especially on the American side, but also a bit on the Japanese side, the great aircraft carriers have spawned a number of writings and books dedicated to a particular carrier or ship that shed light on the operations and tactics in general.

American

The four American aircraft carriers involved in the Battles of Coral Sea and Midway each have one or more books dedicated to their operations. USS Yorktown (CV-5) was sunk at Midway and has spawned a number of accounts. Cressman 1985 is the best pictorial and narrative combination, while Frank and Harrington 1967 and Nesmith 1999 provide good biography-style works on ships. In a similar vein, USS Enterprise (CV-6) is covered pictorially in Ewing 1982, with Tillman 2012 and Stafford 1962 narrating the life of the aircraft carrier. Curiously, USS Hornet (CV-8) receives little attention, despite being the “Doolittle Raid” carrier. Rose 1995 attempts to fill this gap. USS Lexington (CV-2) was sunk at Coral Sea and thus missed Midway, but Hoehling 1971 and Johnston 1942 relate US carrier operations as they were in spring 1942, and the experiences at Coral Sea shed light on decisions at Midway.

Cressman, Robert. That Gallant Ship: U.S.S. Yorktown CV-5. Missoula, MT: Pictorial Histories, 1985.
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The author is one of the major contributors to “A Glorious Page in Our History” (see Cressman, et al. 1990, cited under General Overviews: Modern) and is a celebrated naval historian. In this pictorial the photographs are well supplemented by a clear and well-researched text.
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Dickson, David. “Fighting Flat-Tops: The Shōkakus.” Warship International 1 (1977): 15–44.
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An important design and operational history of Japanese Carrier Division 5, the one that fought at Coral Sea and whose absence at Midway is generally recognized as being decisive. Excellent insight into Japanese carrier design and operational aspects from an authority in the field.
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Ewing, Steve. USS Enterprise (CV-6), the Most Decorated Ship of World War II: A Pictorial History. Missoula, MT: Pictorial Histories, 1982.
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An excellent pictorial history of USS Enterprise (CV-6). The photographs for Midway are well chosen. The book makes a nice companion to the very similar one for USS Yorktown, Cressman 1985.
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Frank, Pat, and Joseph D. Harrington. Rendezvous At Midway: USS Yorktown and the Japanese Carrier Fleet. New York: John Day, 1967.
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An important book celebrating the career of USS Yorktown (CV-5). It derives significance from its argument that Yorktown bombers struck the first blow, following the work of Professor Tuleja. It also published important photographs of Yorktown’s sinking. The authenticity of these became disputed on the Internet by writers unaware of the pre-Internet, pre-Photoshop publication. It is useful to read it in conjunction with Climax at Midway (Tuleja 1960, cited under General Overviews: Standard).
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Hoehling, A. A. The Lexington Goes Down. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1971.
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A vivid narrative of the final action and fate of the US aircraft carrier USS Lexington (CV-2) in the Battle of the Coral Sea. Though the book ends with the ship’s sinking and thus does not cover Midway directly, it offers a valuable onboard perspective of US carrier operations at the time of Midway.
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Johnston, Stanley. Queen of the Flat-Tops: The U.S.S. Lexington and the Coral Sea Battle. New York: E. P. Dutton, 1942.
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Like Hoehling 1971, this deals with the Lexington. However, it is “real time” and was written in the same year as Midway and thus is a time capsule of life aboard a US carrier at the time.
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Nesmith, Jeff. No Higher Honor: The U.S.S. Yorktown at the Battle of Midway. Atlanta: Longstreet, 1999.
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This book is more accurately described as a biography of USS Yorktown, chronicling the whole term of the carrier’s life. Only about a hundred pages are spent on Midway. It is enriched by numerous eyewitness accounts of participants who served aboard. Best read in conjunction with Cressman 1985.
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Rose, Lisle A. The Ship That Held the Line: The U.S.S. Hornet and the First Year of the Pacific War. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute, 1995.
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This tells the story of one of the three US carriers at Midway through the memories and memoirs of those who served aboard it. The chapter on Midway gives an insightful look at the Hornet’s air wing in the battle and attempts to discuss the continuing controversy. However, for those seeking an answer about the enigmatic flight of Hornet’s bombing group, it does not provide a solution. A very good aboard-ship kind of narrative and very readable.
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Stafford, Edward Peary. The Big E: The Story of the USS Enterprise. New York: Random House, 1962.
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One of the best published naval histories of a particular ship. Furthermore, it is very durable, and even in the early 21st century not too dated. This was because the author largely followed the official reports and squadron activities to support the narrative, while giving a good look at the lives and challenges of the crew of “Big E.”
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Tillman, Barrett. Enterprise: America’s Fightingest Ship and the Men Who Helped Win World War II. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2012.
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A highly readable account spanning the life of the “Big E,” USS Enterprise (CV-6), from its design before being built to its final ignominious scrapping. The crew’s affection for the vessel and the morale of the carrier’s men as they face each test are well described. The book incorporates some of the new revelations of the Pacific War since the turn of the 21st century.
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Japanese

Warship studies on the Japanese side have almost exclusively been focused on the four aircraft carriers of the original six of the fabled “Kido Butai” that were lost—the Pearl Harbor Striking Force. Though fewer in number than comparable English works, these studies are growing and shed light on the operations and tactics in general. For the Japanese, one is largely limited to works that are technical reference style, and even these are not common. Skwiot and Jarski 1994 gives a profile of Nagumo’s flagship Akagi. Lengerer 1982 and Lengerer and Rehm-Takahara 1985 provide excellent articles on Akagi-Kaga and Junyo-Hiyo, respectively. Dickson 1977 (cited under Warships at Midway (Individual Vessel Treatments): American profiles the Shokaku-class, which missed the battle. Katsura 1999, on Zuiho, requires knowledge of the Japanese language but is worth the investment. Skulski 1988 and Skulski 1998, respectively on Yamato and Fuso, supplies an exacting look at Japanese warship fittings and form.

Katsura Rihei. Kūbo Zuihō no shōgai. Tokyo: Kasumi, 1999.
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Japanese-language book, translating as “Carrier Zuiho,” on the life and career of aircraft carrier Zuiho. Gives good insight into Japanese carrier operations in 1942, particularly at Guadalcanal. At Midway, Zuiho was present but had opportunities only to operate combat air patrol.
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Lengerer, Hans. “Akagi and Kaga.” Warship VI.22 (1982): 127–139.
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Parts 2 and 3 of this article are in Warship VI.23 (1982): 170–177 and VI.24 (1982): 305–310. Recognized naval technical expert Lengerer describes the design and careers of the two big Japanese carriers of Carrier Division One. Contains details of prewar design and deployment of Akagi and Kaga rarely found in English.
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Lengerer, Hans, and Tomoko Rehm-Takahara. “The Japanese Aircraft Carriers Junyo and Hiyo.” Warship IX.33 (1985): 9–19.
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Parts 2 and 3 of this article are in Warship IX.34 (1985): 105–114 and IX.35 (1985): 188–193. Lengerer coauthors this study, which offers a detailed and important look at the first converted carrier class. Makes use of Japanese and postwar Allied technical inspections of Junyo to deliver a full study of the Japanese aircraft carrier that raided Dutch Harbor, Alaska, during the Battle of Midway and set a precedent for many conversions to follow.
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Skulski, Janusz. Anatomy of the Ship: The Battleship Yamato. London: Conway Maritime, 1988.
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An exhaustively detailed physical and structural reference of its subject. At Midway the famous super-battleship Yamato was flagship of Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, commander in chief of the Combined Fleet. A must-have for battleship enthusiasts in general.
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Skulski, Janusz. Anatomy of the Ship: The Battleship Fusō. London: Conway Maritime, 1998.
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Technical and exhaustive plans and structural references of subject warships. Important for understanding various compartments, decks, equipment, and fittings mentioned in battle accounts. Better known for its action and destruction at the Battle of Surigao Strait, at Midway Fuso was a member of the Aleutians Guard Force.
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Skwiot, Miroslaw, and Adam Jarski. Akagi. Monografie Morski 2. Gdansk, Poland: A. J. Press, 1994.
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Technical study of Admiral Nagumo’s flagship Akagi. Though in the Polish language, the photographs and rarely seen interior plans make this useful even for those unable to read Polish. An intriguing interior look at an early Japanese aircraft carrier.
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Skwiot, Miroslaw, and Adam Jarski. Kaga 1920–1942: The Japanese Aircraft Carrier. Lublin, Poland: Kagero, 2015.
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English-language technical references of Japanese warships are scarce. This is an excellent 21st-century study of one of the four Japanese carriers at Midway. Indispensable for its details of weapons, aircraft, and features of the aircraft carrier. Larger, fuller treatment than the Akagi monograph by the same authors (Skwiot and Jarski 1994).
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Submarine Operations

Though submarines would go on to play a decisive and memorable role in the Pacific War, at Midway they are conspicuous for notably falling short of their potential. This held both for Japanese and American submarines. The two exceptions, the activities of USS Nautilus in stalking Nagumo and I-168 of the Imperial Japanese Army (IJN) in first shelling Midway and then sinking USS Yorktown and Hammann, tend to obscure this failure. Consequently, the writings on this matter are comparatively few, but important. Boyd and Yoshida 1995 gives an overview that is best read in company with a copy of Carpenter and Polmar 1986 on hand for reference and cross-checking. Grogan 2011 offers interesting insight into how flawed doctrine led to misuse of IJN submarines. Orita and Harrington 1976 gives a good overview on Japanese submarines at Midway in context. The comparable American submarine failure at Midway is scrutinized in Hunnicutt 1996. Roscoe 1949 still serves as the go-to narrative for US submarine operations at Midway when used in company with Blair 1976.

Blair, Clay, Jr. Silent Victory: The U.S. Submarine War against Japan. New York: Bantam, 1976.
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An excellent one-volume overview of US submarine operations, it was among the first to freely include Ultra intercept information in its narrative.
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Boyd, Carl, and Akihiko Yoshida. The Japanese Submarine Force and World War II. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute, 1995.
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An important overview of a generally neglected subject, by an American historian and Japanese naval officer. Discusses the development and strategy of the Japanese submarine corps from the time of Russo-Japanese War to the end of World War II.
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Carpenter, Dorr, and Norman Polmar. Submarines of the Imperial Japanese Navy. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute, 1986.
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An excellent pictorial reference work with a chronological narrative of considerable detail for such a work. Probably the best single volume on Imperial Japanese submarine warfare and its boats.
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Grogan, David W. Operating below Crush Depth: The Formation, Evolution, and Collapse of the Imperial Japanese Navy Submarine Force in World War II. MA thesis, Army Command and General Staff College, 2011.
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Explores the generally unsatisfactory results of the Japanese submarine force (at Midway and throughout the war) in terms of its employment. Submarines were intended to supplement the surface fleet in the much-sought-for “decisive battle.” Much of the failure centered on indifferent planning of the staffs, whose senior officers did not work to integrate the boats into the larger MI (Midway) plan.
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Hunnicutt, Thomas G. The Operational Failure of U.S. Submarines at the Battle of Midway—and Implications for Today. AD-A264 391. Newport, RI: Naval War College, Joint Military Operations Department, May 1996.
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Failure of the US torpedo squadrons at Midway often distracts from another major failure—that of the submarines. This intriguing article addresses that, concluding that the failure resulted from lack of anticipation, poor coordination of staffs, and an overall neglect of what is termed “operational art.” This failure resulted from the submarines being given a different mission from the direct support of surface fleets they had spent years training to carry out.
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Orita, Zenji, with Joseph D. Harrington. I-Boat Captain. Canoga Park, CA: Major Books, 1976.
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One of few works to address the role of the Japanese submarine corps in the battle, it remains an important reference. Where it can be checked, it holds up well; for example, the account of the mysterious sinking of battleship Mutsu and the role of type 3 shells in the incident prefigured the fresh details from Japan by more than a decade yet reflected the broad outline accurately.
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Roscoe, Theodore. United States Submarine Operations in World War II. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute, 1949.
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Classic reference work of the US submarine operations during the war. It describes the patrols of all the US submarines at Midway, including USS Nautilus and USS Tambor in some detail. Although in some ways dated, this is not crucial because the book closely follows official reports that are easily checked.
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Aviation Overviews

The Battle of Midway was first and foremost a clash of aircraft. Even the traumas and damages inflicted on Japanese and American aircraft carriers were, in nearly all cases, delivered by air attack. Bergerud 2000 is a readable and expansive overview both of tactics and experiences of the South Pacific air war. Francillon 1987 is considered among the best one-volume treatments of Japanese aircraft types, while Hata and Izawa 1989 is the only Japanese full overview translated into English. Snow 1995 gives a brief but informative look at Japanese carrier landing operations. Okumiya, et al. 1973 and Sakai, et al. 1957 serve as two classic, early, and enduring Japanese aviation accounts in English. Werneth 2008 offers a superb modern look at Japanese naval aviation, replete with interviews.

Bergerud, Eric M. Fire in the Sky: The Air War in the South Pacific. Boulder, CO: Westview, 2000.
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A thorough and highly readable exploration of the air war in the South Pacific. The author covers technology and tactics and even living conditions of the participants. The book explores how the environment itself dictated strategies and logistics, which is supported by use of numerous interviews of participants and primary sources.
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Francillon, René J. Japanese Aircraft of the Pacific War. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute, 1987.
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Still one of the best single-volume references on Japanese aircraft in World War II. Each aircraft has a description and three-dimensional profiles. A short capsule history for each plane is also provided.
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Hata, Ikuhiko, and Yasuho Izawa. Japanese Naval Aces and Fighter Units in World War II. Translated by Don Cyril Gorham. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute, 1989.
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Important study of the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Force (IJNAF), by one of the recognized Japanese expert historians on Midway. Among other things, it points out the role of the twenty-one Zeros aboard the Japanese carrier force that were intended for use on Midway and should not be counted. It is the only full overview to be translated into English.
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Okumiya, Masatake, Jiro Horikoshi, and Martin Caidin. Zero! The Story of Japan’s Air War in the Pacific: 1941–1945. New York: Ballantine, 1973.
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The respected aviation historian (Okumiya) who assisted the engineer who created the Zero and a Japanese air officer who served on carrier Junyo at Midway (Horikoshi) collaborated to produce this early but fine chronicle of the rise of Japanese aviation. The Battle of Midway is seen from the view of the bridge of Junyo during the Aleutians attack.
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Sakai, Saburo, with Martin Caidin and Fred Saito. Samurai! New York: Sutton, 1957.
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Reprinted as recently as 2010 (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press). Saburo Sakai was one of the greatest surviving air aces of the Japanese and a national hero. This books chronicles his experiences from his point of view and is very balanced and critical of politics on both sides. Particularly interesting is the relation between grinding poverty and the preference to enlist in the military in prewar Japan. Long in print, it is remarkable for its inside glimpse into a Japanese aviator’s mindset and world. This was the kind of pilot who was defending the Japanese carriers at Midway.
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Snow, Carl. “Japanese Carrier Operations: How Did They Do It?” The Hook (Spring 1995).
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A one-page study on the role of landing light arrays in guiding Japanese carrier operations. Technical aspects such as the considerations of arresting hook and wire types also explored.
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Werneth, Ron. Beyond Pearl Harbor: The Untold Stories of Japan’s Naval Airmen. Atglen, PA: Schiffer Military History, 2008.
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Both a superb reference and coffee-table-style book. The author chronicles, in a highly personal and gripping look, the lives and careers of individual Japanese aviators. With a series of interviews and use of memoirs, each of the airmen tells his story of the war as he experienced it. The photographs are rare and striking examples, many from private collections never seen before. Pilots involved at Midway receive extensive coverage.
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Squadron Studies

For the Battle of Midway the exploits and fates of individual squadrons have generated a number of histories. The private papers of various veterans organizations and unit historians have often formed the nucleus of a book about a squadron. Though usually narrow in focus, such works are of great value when set beside others into the general context of the battle. Often, they contain crucial details or insights not found elsewhere. Kernan 2005 and Mrazek 2008 take a close look at the disastrous fate of Torpedo 8 Squadron and US Navy torpedo-bomber efforts at Midway. Moore 2014 describes dive-bomber operations from Enterprise aviators. The brilliantly successful design and deployment of the American SBD Dauntless is related in Tillman 1976 and Wildenberg 1998.

Kernan, Alvin B. The Unknown Battle of Midway: The Destruction of the American Torpedo Squadrons. Yale Library of Military History. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2005.
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Attempts to explain the disastrous divergence between tactical planning and the operational use of the US torpedo squadrons at Midway. The book presents the controversy of the destruction of Torpedo 8 in particular in terms of a post-battle cover-up. Since the author served as an ordnance man aboard carriers in World War II, his description of onboard details and the history of the aerial torpedo development hold interest.
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Moore, Stephen L. Pacific Payback: The Carrier Aviators Who Avenged Pearl Harbor at the Battle of Midway. New York: NAL Caliber, 2014.
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Midway squadron studies in the early 21st century have focused on USS Hornet and its air group misfortunes. This book instead gives a detailed account of the dive bombers of USS Enterprise and in so doing fills a discernible gap. It covers the various individual airmen from Pearl Harbor to Midway.
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Mrazek, Robert J. A Dawn Like Thunder: The True Story of Torpedo Squadron Eight. New York: Little, Brown, 2008.
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Relates a dramatic and compelling portrait of the personalities of USS Hornet’s doomed Torpedo 8 Squadron. Draws on numerous private materials, such as a six-page letter by John C. Waldron’s daughter, Annapolis yearbook entries, and scores of interviews of surviving friends and veterans. It is notable for its frank portrayal of unflattering moments and behavior. Chronicles the unit through Guadalcanal.
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Tillman, Barrett. The Dauntless Dive Bomber of World War Two. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute, 1976.
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Noted aviation and aircraft historian describes the development and use of the SBD Dauntless dive bomber, the victorious aircraft of Midway. Not a technical study, it is a history of the accomplishments and deeds of the aircraft and the men who flew them. A story told in many cases by interviews and rare documents.
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Tillman, Barrett. Wildcat: The F4F in World War II. 2d ed. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute, 1990.
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This book traces the deployment and exploits of the F4F “Wildcat” fighter. This aircraft was the workhorse carrier fighter for the US Navy in 1942. At Midway it would see one of its most memorable moments with the formulation of the “Thatch weave.”
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Wildenberg, Thomas. Destined for Glory: Dive Bombing, Midway, and the Evolution of Carrier Air Power. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute, 1998.
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Effectively explores how the oft-touted “miracle” of the SBD Dauntless dive-bomber success at Midway in actuality owed itself to foresighted design and planning. Demonstrates that the achievement at Midway was no accident of war.
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Aircraft Studies

In the Battle of Midway, individual aircraft design, logistics, and performance played a crucial role, in some cases by the conspicuousness of their failure as opposed to success. For understanding the aviation capabilities at Midway, there are a number of aircraft-specific works and studies. Each provides its own unique perspective to the battle. Mikesh 1993 furnishes an indispensable reference on Japanese aircraft by their contemporaneous code names. Smith 1982 provides a good overview of dive-bomber development, and Tagaya 2011 examines the Japanese type 99 (Val). Finally, Rearden 1990 tells the story of the valuable capture of a Japanese Zero during the Aleutians phase.

Mikesh, Robert C. Japanese Aircraft: Code Names & Designations. Atglen, PA: Schiffer, 1993.
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A valuable modest-sized book that allows easy reference of Japanese aircraft both with their commonly known Allied code names and their official Japanese military designation. Each aircraft has a short text description and one illustrating photograph.
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Rearden, Jim. Cracking the Zero Mystery: How the U.S. Learned to Beat Japan’s Vaunted WWII Fighter Plane. Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole, 1990.
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Tells the remarkable story of the famous captured Zero from the Dutch Harbor attack in the Aleutians, from the initial battles that involved the Zero fighter in general to the last flight of Koga Tadayoshi from carrier Ryujo. It concludes with the transfer of the recovered aircraft to the United States and subsequent study and analysis by intelligence in the United States.
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Smith, Peter C. Dive Bomber! An Illustrated History. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute, 1982.
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This book traces the development of the dive bomber and its use among the various warring nations from its inception in World War I to the end of World War II. For the Battle of Midway, it should be read in conjunction with Thomas Wildenberg’s work on the Dauntless (Wildenberg 1998, cited under Squadron Studies).
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Special Issue: Suisei / Type 99 Kanbaku. Mechanic of World Aircraft 11 (1994).
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From a Japanese-language magazine that focuses on individual aircraft, this issue is on Suisei / type 99 Kanbaku. Photographs, diagrams, and text illustrate this machine. However, readers are alerted to refer to Osamu Tagaya’s book on the Val type 99 (Tagaya 2011) for a thorough English-language treatment of this aircraft.
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Special Issue: Type 97 Kankō/Tenzan. Mechanic of World Aircraft 14 (1995).
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From a Japanese-language magazine that focuses on individual aircraft, this issue is on type 97 Kanko/Tenzan. Photographs, diagrams, and text illustrate this machine. The type 97 Kankōor, called “Kate,” was capable of carrying either torpedoes or large type 80 land bombs.
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Special Issue: Zero Fighter. Mechanic of World Aircraft 5 (1993).
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From a Japanese-language magazine that focuses on individual aircraft, this issue is on the Zero fighter. Photographs, diagrams, and text illustrate this machine. The three principal aircraft of the Japanese carriers at Midway are covered. For the Zero fighter—code-named “Zeke,” there fortunately are a number of English-language works to consult as well.
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Tagaya, Osamu. Aichi 99 Kanbaku “Val” Units, 1937–42. Osprey Combat Aircraft 63. Oxford: Osprey, 2011.
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Excellent reference in the Osprey series of the principal Japanese dive bomber at Midway. Written by a noted expert in Japanese aviation, it should be noted that this is one of the most accurate sources of air operations by the Japanese carrier task force (Kido Butai) in general.
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Tillman, Barrett. TBF/TBM Avenger Units of World War 2. Osprey Combat Aircraft 16. Oxford: Osprey, 1999.
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The TBF/TBM Avenger was the successor and ultimate replacement of the TBD Devastator, though in fact, both aircraft saw action concurrently at Midway. The author brings his aviation expertise to the subject in a book best read in concert with TBD Devastator in the same series (Tillman 2000).
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Tillman, Barrett. TBD Devastator Units of the US Navy. Osprey Combat Aircraft 20. Oxford: Osprey, 2000.
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This entry in the Osprey series by an expert in US aviation is indispensable for understanding the early 1942 offensive operations of the US carrier force. It remains the only detailed treatment of the predecessor of the more familiar TBF Avenger.
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Assessments

Studies on the Battle of Midway produced a number of important retrospectives of broader context, seeking to draw lessons or insights from the events. Logan 2001 reflects on lessons to be learned from Midway and decentralization. Parshall 2007 describes a relative lack of change in the Imperial Japanese Navy thinking after Midway. Schlesinger 2003 points out that Midway allowed President Roosevelt to continue Europe-first policy. Tully and Lu 2015 examine new revelations from Japan on Nagumo staff’s pre-suppositions.

Logan, Charles J. Complexity at the Battle of Midway: Complications for Network-Centric Warfare. Newport, RI: Naval War College, 2001.
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Interesting article written by a commander of the US Navy for the Department of Joint Military Operations. Expands on the lessons from Midway to “implement network-centric warfare.” Describes how despite having similar technology and forces at their disposal, the US Navy had far-superior intelligence at hand and command and control advantage. More information should result in less centralization, not more.
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Parshall, Jonathan. “Ignoring the Lessons of Defeat.” Naval History 21.3 (June 2007): 32–37.
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Parshall, one of the two authors of Shattered Sword (see Parshall and Tully 2005, cited under General Overviews: Modern), offers some thoughts about how the Japanese appeared to make no obvious changes in their strategic thinking after Midway. Tactical and procedural changes that were made are contrasted with the perceived lack of change in the broad picture.
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Schlesinger, James. “Underappreciated Victory.” Naval History 17.5 (October 2003): 20–23.
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An abridged version of a presentation by former secretary of defense Schlesinger on the sixty-fifth anniversary of the Battle of Midway. Makes the case that the Battle of Midway made it politically possible for President Roosevelt to continue to pursue the Grand Strategy of Europe-first. Calls Midway the most decisive naval victory since Trafalgar, and perhaps the most strategically decisive since Salamis.
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Tully, Anthony, and Lu Yu. “A Question of Estimates: How Faulty Intelligence Drove Scouting at the Battle of Midway.” Naval War College Review 68.2 (Spring 2015): 85–99.
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Article looks at new evidence from Japan of 1st Air Fleet preconceptions and a posthumous claim of deleted message log entry. Examines search and intelligence procedures in prior battles to show claim corresponds with the truth.
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Controversies

Nearly all battles and even historical events have their areas of ambiguity, uncertainty, and controversy. Midway is replete with them, open for debate from a unit level to broad questions of operational tactics and procedures. Writings on the subject tend to center on failures of scouting, tactical choices, application of force, and considerations of priority. In many cases, doctrinal differences—and even staff habits—determined the outcome. Barde 1983 documents the war crimes of execution of prisoners of war at Midway. The complexity of Japanese carrier and rearmament operations and why Chuichi Nagumo failed to launch his strike in time are debated between Isom 2000 and Parshall, et al. 2001. Hata 1969 clarifies the actions of the Japanese scout planes. Two opposing views of the errors of Mitsuo Fuchida’s account are presented in Bennett 2013 and Parshall 2010. Wildenberg 2005 and Wildenberg 2006 explore the differences in American carrier doctrine from that of Japanese and British carrier doctrine and reviews two principal revision works of the Battle of Midway.

Barde, Robert E. “Midway: Tarnished Victory.” Military Affairs 47.4 (December 1983): 188–192.
DOI: 10.2307/1987858Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
An important study of the neglected story of three captured American fliers who gave critical information to the Japanese under harsh interrogation. Also explored is the perpetration of war crimes by their execution at sea by the Japanese following the battle.
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Bennett, Martin. “Parshall’s ‘Whoppers’ Examined: Fact-Checking the Various Claims and Conclusions of Jonathan Parshall.” Naval War College Review 66.1 (Winter 2013): 110–125.
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Written by a scriptwriter and biographer concerned about the discrediting of the Fuchida books, attempts to refute Jon Parshall’s article “Reflecting on Fuchida, or ‘A Tale of Three Whoppers’” (Parshall 2010). However, the article does not address the current Japanese scholarship that has rejected Fuchida’s veracity.
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Hata, Ikuhiko. “The Scout Plane of the Battle of Midway.” Naval War College Review JMSDF (January 1969).
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An important Japanese-language article by a historian who researched the inconsistencies and mysteries of the Japanese search plane operations from Tone and Chikuma at Midway.
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Isom, Dallas Woodbury. “The Battle of Midway: Why the Japanese Lost.” Naval War College Review 53.3 (Summer 2000): 60–100.
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In this article the author explores the complexity of the rearmament process aboard the Japanese carriers. Concludes that the main reason for the defeat was the failure to rearm the torpedo planes in time, and that this in turn was due to receiving scouting information later than usually believed.
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Isom, Dallas W. “They Would Have Found a Way.” Naval War College Review 54.3 (Summer 2001): 158–163.
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In this article the author attempts to answer the criticisms and challenges raised in Parshall, et al. 2001.
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Parshall, Jonathan, David Dickson, and Anthony Tully. “Doctrine Matters: Why the Japanese Lost at Midway.” Naval War College Review 54.3 (Summer 2001): 139–151.
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Explores what was happening on the Japanese flight decks and describes in detail the fundamentals of how the Japanese spotted and launched a strike wave.
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Parshall, Jonathan. “Reflecting on Fuchida, or ‘A Tale of Three Whoppers.’” Naval War College Review 63.1 (Spring 2010): 127–138.
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Parshall, one of the two authors of Shattered Sword, expands on his theme of how uncritical acceptance of Fuchida’s works has distorted the received historical record. He cites three examples to make the case: (1) misstatements about Pearl Harbor, (2) the popularization of the “fateful five minutes” myth of Midway, discovered and discredited in Japan since the 1980s, and (3) a claim to have been aboard USS Missouri and witnessed the surrender proceedings in Tokyo Bay.
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Walsh, George J. The Battle of Midway: Searching for the Truth; How Elements of the United States Navy Withheld the Truth Long After It Mattered. CreateSpace, April 2015.
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Written by an SB2C Helldiver dive-bomber pilot who flew missions with Task Force 38 and Task Force 58, the book tries to build a case that the US Navy downplayed the role of the Dauntless dive bombers in the victory long after secrecy was required. The author argues for a posthumous award of the Medal of Honor for Lieutenant Commander Wade McClusky (who was awarded the Navy Cross), leader of the Enterprise dive bombers.
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Wildenberg, Thomas. “Midway: Sheer Luck or Better Doctrine?” Naval War College Review 58.1 (Winter 2005): 121–135.
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Makes an important examination of the role of doctrinal thinking on the two sides at Midway and notes significant differences in the approaches to carrier warfare. The historian, an expert on the life of Captain Joseph Reeves, points out how the US landing procedures differed both from the British and Japanese in ways that improved performance and discerned the importance of scouting. This led to the emphases that ended up carrying the day.
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Wildenberg, Thomas. “How the Japanese Lost the Battle of Midway: Review.” Naval War College Review 59.3 (Summer 2006): 145–148.
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Offers thoughtful and careful review of two of the principal books on Midway of 2005, Shattered Sword (Parshall and Tully 2005, cited under General Overviews: Modern) and The Unknown Battle of Midway (Kernan 2005, cited under Squadron Studies). Particularly applauds the “carrier-centric” approach of the former and its rendering of Japanese source materials into English. For the latter, while praising the subject of the destruction of the US carrier torpedo squadrons, Wildenberg notes technical errors that damage the analysis.